CHAPTER 9

FEEDER PROTECTION

Chapter 9 Page 1 Feeder Protection

FEEDER PROTECTION
COORDINATING DEVICES FOR FEEDER CONDUCTOR PROTECTION

• Types Of Feeder Conductor Circuits

• Types Of Protection

• Factors Affecting Protection

• Cable Damage Criteria

• Problem 5

• Problem 6
ABB REF 601 FEEDER PROTECTION RELAY

ABB REF 541 FEEDER TERMINAL

PILOT WIRE PROTECTION

• Internal Faults

• External Faults

DISTANCE RELAYING

• Principles of Distance Relays

• Relay Performance

• Electromechanical/Static Distance Relays

• Digital/Numerical Distance Relays

• Zones of Protection

• Distance Relay Characteristics

• Distance Relay Implementation

• Distance Protection Setting Example

ABB REL521 DISTANE PROTECTION TERMINAL

Chapter 9 Page 2 Feeder Protection

COORDINATING DEVICES FOR CONDUCTOR ROTECTION
Types of Conductor Circuits

Power cables (conductors) are divided into two voltage classes: low voltage (600 volts
and below) and medium voltage (above 600 volts).

Low Voltage: In general, NEC Article 240-3 requires that conductors that are rated 600
volts or less be protected in accordance with their ampacities; however, there are
exceptions to the basic rule, such as motor and motor control circuits and tapped
conductors. The NEC should be reviewed for these special cases (exceptions). MCCBs
and LVPCBs are used to provide both overload and short circuit protection for low voltage
conductors.

Medium Voltage: Protection of medium voltage conductors is further separated into two
sub-categories: aerial lines and cables in conduit.

Aerial Lines: Although aerial lines usually sustain more faults over their life than do
cables in conduit, aerial line faults are also usually self-clearing, which means that the
faults were caused by high winds, lightning strikes, or animals (e.g., birds and squirrels).
Distribution fuses (e.g., K or T links), NEMA Type E power fuses, and relays (medium
voltage power circuit breakers) are used to protect aerial lines.

Cables in Conduit: NEC Article 240-100 only requires that feeders have short circuit
protection in each ungrounded conductor. The same article sets limits on the protective
device’s maximum ratings that are in excess of the conductor’s full load (continuous)
current ratings. In general, the NEC is specifying relay (breaker) and fuse ratings to
protect the medium voltage cables from phase and ground faults and they (the NEC) leave
overload protection of the cables to the designer’s preference (choice).

Chapter 9 Page 3 Feeder Protection

Types of Protection
Conductors must be protected against overloads, phase, and ground fault conditions that
may range from 100-250% of the conductor’s continuous current ratings for overloads, and
anywhere from 500-2000% of the conductor’s continuous current ratings for faults.

Overloads: The bimetalic thermal elements of an MCCB, the long time functions (LTPU
and LTDB) of an LVPCB, the overcurrent time-delay relay (ANSI Device No. 51), and up to
approximately 250% of a fuse’s continuous current rating (Icontinuous) provide overload
protection for conductors.

Phase Faults: The magnetic (instantaneous) element of an MCCB, the short time (STPU
and STDB) and instantaneous (IT) functions of an LVPCB, an instantaneous relay (ANSI
Device No. 50), and the fuse (>250% of Icontinuous) provide phase fault (short circuit)
protection for conductors.

Ground Faults: Ground fault protection of conductors requires separate devices. To trip
a MCCB on ground faults requires a special shunt-trip attachment or a separate ground
sensing (e.g., ANSI Device No. 50GS) relay. LVPCBs have separate built-in ground fault
functions (GFPU and GFT). Ground fault relays are available in both time-delay (ANSI
Device No. 51G) and instantaneous (ANSI No. Device 50G) models, which are basically
the same models as their phase fault counterparts except that the tap settings are much
more sensitive (e.g., 0.5 A versus 5 A). Fuses provide very poor to no protection for
ground faults.

Chapter 9 Page 4 Feeder Protection

FACTORS AFFECTING PROTECTION
The NEC requirements, the Insulated Cable Engineering Association (ICEA), and the
protective devices’ clearing times are all factors that affect the protection of conductors.

NEC Requirement: NEC Articles 110, 240, and 310 have specific requirements that
relate to the protection of conductors.

Under 600 Volt Conductors: Per NEC Article 240-3, low voltage conductors should be
protected against overcurrent (overloads and short circuit) in accordance with their
ampacities as specified in NEC Article 310-15 and Tables 310-16 through 310-19.

NEC Article 240-3(b) permits the use of the next higher-rated standard overcurrent device
that is rated above the ampacity of the conductors being protected, as long as the next
higher-rated standard device rating does not exceed 800 amperes. NEC Article 240-3(b)
is sometimes called the “round-up” rule for conductor protection. NEC Article 240-6
specifies the standard ampere ratings of fuses and inverse time circuit breakers, as listed
in Table 9-1.

1* 25 60 125 300 601* 2000

3* 30 70 150 350 700 2500
6* 35 80 175 400 800 3000
10* 40 90 200 450 1000 4000
15 45 100 225 500 1200 5000
20 50 110 250 600 1600 6000
*Fuses only

Table 9-1. NEC Article 240-6 Fuse and Breaker Standard Ampere Ratings

NEC Article 240-3(c) specifies that the conductor’s ampacity must be greater than the
protective device’s rating if the next standard higher-rated device rating exceeds 800
amperes. NEC Article 240-3(c) is sometimes called the “round-down” rule for conductor
protection.

Over 600 Volt Conductors: NEC Article 240-100 only specifies short circuit protection for
conductors that are rated over 600 volts. If a standard fuse is being used to protect the
conductor, its rating cannot exceed 300% of the conductor’s continuous current ampacity
rating. If a breaker with relays or an electronically-actuated fuse is used for protection,
their trip settings cannot exceed 600% of the conductor’s continuous current ampacity
rating.

Chapter 9 Page 5 Feeder Protection

Cable Damage Criteria

Figure 9-1. Medium Voltage Fuse Protection of a Cable

Chapter 9 Page 6 Feeder Protection

Cable Damage Criteria

Figure 9-2. Medium Voltage Breaker and Relay Protection of a Cable

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Problems

PROBLEM 5: MEDIUM VOLTAGE CONDUCTOR PROTECTION

Figure 9-3 is a one-line diagram of a medium voltage primary selective power system.
Each medium voltage feeder conductor (C2) supplies power to a 1000 kVA and a 1500
kVA transformer. The transformers are protected by current limiting power fuses (CLE)
and the feeders are protected by power circuit breakers and overcurrent time
delay/instantaneous relays (ANSI Device Nos. 51/50). Coordinate the CLE fuses that are
protecting the transformers with the IAC77/IOC overcurrent relays that are protecting the
feeders. Use a scaling factor of 10 at 13.8 kV for plotting the TCC curves. Size the CLE
fuses at approximately 150% of the transformers’ full load amperes and size the CTs at
approximately 150% of the total load (5 MVA). Ignore the transformers’ damage curves.

Figure 9-3. One-Line Diagram (Problem 5)

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SOLUTION to PROBLEM 5:

One-line diagram: See Figure 9-4.

Figure 9-4. One Line Diagram (Problem 5)

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 Reference Voltage 13.8 kV Current Scale X 10

Figure 9-5 Solution to Problem 5

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PROBLEM 6: TIE LINE PROTECTION

Given the fault data that is listed in Table 9-2 and the one-line diagram that is shown in
Figure 9-6, coordinate the directional phase time delay overcurrent relays that are
protecting the tie line with the time delay/instantaneous relays that are protecting the
feeders.

Fault Point* I1 I3 I4 I6
F1 10020 A - 3900 A -
F2 - 6120 A 3900 A -
F3 - 5600 A 4184 A -
F4 - 5600 A - 9784 A

Table 9-2. Fault Magnitudes

*Note: Breaker #4 acts as a main breaker to opposite feeder breaker #1 and breaker #3
acts as a main breaker to opposite feeder breaker #6. Coordinate breaker #4 with breaker
#1 (scaling factor of [email protected] kV) assuming that no current flows through breaker #2 for a
fault at F1. Coordinate breaker #3 with breaker #6 (scaling factor of 100 @13.8 kV) for a
fault at F4 assuming that no current flows through breaker #5.

Figure 9-6. Protection of Radial Feeders and a Tie Line

Chapter 9 Page 11 Feeder Protection

SOLUTION TO PROBLEM 6: TIE LINE PROTECTION

Reference Voltage: 13.8 kV Current Scale X 1

Figure 9-7 (a) Solution to Problem 6

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 Reference Voltage: 13.8 kV Current Scale X 1

Figure 9-7 (b) Solution to Problem 6

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Chapter 9 Page 14 Feeder Protection
Description
REF601 is a dedicated feeder protection relay, intended for the protection, measurement
and supervision of utility substations and industrial power systems.

Engineered from the ground up, the relay is inspired by and is compatible with the
Rogowski coil sensor for current measurement. The new feeder protection relay is
designed to unleash the advantages of current sensors for protection and control in
medium voltage applications.

Protection Functions
REF601 offers three-stage overcurrent and two-stage earth-fault protection functions. The
transformer inrush detector function is incorporated to prevent unwarranted trippings.

The low-set stages for overcurrent and earth-fault protection are equipped with selectable
Definite-time (DT) and Inverse-Definite Minimum Time (IDMT) characteristics. The relay
features standard IDMT characteristics – Normal Inverse (NI), Very Inverse (VI), Extremely
Inverse (EI), Long-time Inverse (LI) and a special characteristic RI inverse (RI) for better
co-ordination with rest of the network.

The table below indicates the protection functions available in the relay.

Protection IEC Code ANSI Code

Three-phase non-directional overcurrent, low-set 3I> 51

stage

Three-phase non-directional overcurrent, high-set 3I>> 50/51

stage

Three-phase non-directional overcurrent, very high- 3I>> 50

set stage

Non-directional earth-fault, low-set-stage I 0> 51N

Non-directional earth-fault, high-set-stage I0>> 50N/51N

Three phase transformer inrush detector 3I2f> 68

Chapter 9 Page 15 Feeder Protection

 Fig. 1 Fig. 2

Protection function overview of feeder Protection function overview of feeder

protection REF601 with earth current protection REF601 with earth current
measurement by internal calculation measurement by external CBCT

Chapter 9 Page 16 Feeder Protection

Application
The REF601 is a protection relay aimed at protection and control of incoming and outgoing
feeders in MV distribution substations. The relay can be applied for the short-circuit, over
current and earth-fault protection of incoming and outgoing feeders in isolated neutral,
resonant earthed, solidly earthed and resistively earthed power systems.

The relay is well-matched for mounting on the circuit breakers VD4 & HD4. Along with
sensors, it will be a part of ABB’s offering of integrated apparatus. The relay has small
mounting depth and does not have any loose mounting accessories while the press-fit
mounting arrangement makes it suitable for quick and easy installation on switchgear
panels too.

Sensor technology
Sensors based on alternative principles have been introduced as successors to instrument
transformers in order to obtain equipment size reduction, performance improvement and
better standardization. ABB’s offering of two sensors, KECA and KEVCR; employ the
Rogowski coil principle for measurement of current. Albeit this principle is far from new,
now it is possible to exploit the advantages of sensor with the advent of numerical relays
like REF601.

Rogowski coil is a toroidal coil without an iron core, placed around the primary conductor in
the same way as the secondary winding in a current transformer. However, the output
signal from the Rogowski coil is not current, but a voltage. Due to absence of
ferromagnetic core, the sensor is linear up to the highest currents.

The wide measurement range of sensors with high accuracy eliminates the need for high
variants of conventional instrument transformers, resulting in simplified engineering,
logistics and reduced inventory. The low level voltage signals and integrated secondary
cables contribute to easy and fast installation with enhanced safety.

Control
The relay offers control of one circuit breaker with dedicated push-buttons for opening and
closing. It includes two binary inputs and two outputs for remote breaker control.

Measurement
The relay continuously measures phase currents and earth current. Earth current can be
measured either by internal calculation or by external core balance current transformer
input. Although the sensor eliminates the need for providing CT’s with various ratio’s, the
relay has provision for selecting either of the four nominal primary currents. Thus allowing
setting to be done in terms of selected nominal primary current and gives a sense of
continuity with legacy products. During service, the default view of display shows the most
loaded phase current in primary terms (Amps) and the earth current in terms of nominal

Chapter 9 Page 17 Feeder Protection

value. The values measured can be accessed locally via the user interface on the relay or
remotely via the communication interface of the relay.

To maintain the measurement accuracy of the overall protection system, the sensor
calibration constants available on the rating plate of sensors can be programmed to the
relay.

Event log
To collect sequence-of-events (SoE) information, the relay incorporates a non-volatile
memory to store five event logs. Each event log includes a snapshot of Analog values,
Protection operation status, Binary I/O status and Relay fault code. The event logs are
stored sequentially, the most recent being first and so on. The non-volatile memory retains
its data also in case the relay temporarily loses its auxiliary supply.

The event log facilitates detailed pre- and post-fault analysis of feeder faults and
disturbances.

The SoE information can be accessed locally via the user interface on the relay front panel
or remotely via the communication interface of the relay.

Recorded data
The relay stores records of analog values for two trip events in non-volatile memory. The
fault recording is triggered by the trip signal of protection function. A sample of analog
value is recorded for every power frequency cycle. Fifteen such samples are recorded, five
before the trip and ten after the trip event. These records enable the user to analyze the
two most recent power system events. Each record includes the current values for three
phases and earth current.

The relay records the number of phase and earth fault trip events into dedicated trip
counters. These trip counters can not be reset by the user and are stored in non-volatile
memory.

The recorded information can be accessed locally via the user interface on the relay front
panel and can be uploaded for subsequent fault analysis.

Self-supervision and Test function

The relay’s built-in self-supervision system continuously monitors the state of the relay
hardware and the operation of the relay software. Any fault or malfunction detected will be
used for alerting the operator. A permanent relay fault will block the protection functions of
the relay to prevent incorrect relay operation.

The relay supports a built-in test mode which enables user to test the relay HMI and trip
outputs.

Chapter 9 Page 18 Feeder Protection

Access control
To protect the relay from unauthorized accessand to maintain the integrity of information,
the relay is armed with a three level, role-based user authentication system with individual
password for the operator, engineer and administrator level. The password is a
combination of different navigation keys.

Inputs and outputs

The relay is equipped with three Rogowski sensor inputs. The relay has an additional
earth-current input suitable for a 1A core-balanced current transformer which is normally
used in applications requiring sensitive earth-fault protection.

Relay binary input/output overview:

• Four binary inputs for Remote-trip, Remote- reset, Remote-close, Remote-open

• Two trip outputs with pulsed operation, one normally-closed & one normally-open

• Two signalling outputs, one for phase over- current trip and one for earth fault trip

• One breaker close output

• Unit ready / IRF output

• LED indication for Ready/IRF, Protection start, Protection trip, Phase fault and Earth fault
trip

Communication
The relay is available with optional communication feature. Modbus RTU protocol is
supported on RS-485 bus with four wire connection. This allows relay to connect to control
and monitoring system through serial communication for remote monitoring.

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PILOT WIRE PROTECTION
For longer tie lines, the most common protection scheme is the pilot wire differential
scheme, as shown in Figure 9-8. A fault (Fext) external to the circuit breakers (CB) will
cause current to flow through the restraint coils (R) of ANSI Device No. 87L and little or no
current to flow in the operating coils (OP). An internal fault (Fint) will cause current to flow
through the operating coils, which will result in the opening (tripping) of both circuit
breakers.

Figure 9-8. Tie Line Pilot Wire Differential Scheme

Chapter 9 Page 49 Feeder Protection

PILOT WIRE DIFFERENTIAL RELAYING
Pilot wire relaying is a form of directional relaying where the phase currents are compared
over a pair of metallic wires or fiber optics.

Internal Faults: One of the network output voltages (VA) will reverse polarity. The current
entering Bus A will be 180o out of phase with the current entering Bus B and probably not
equal. VA and VB will also be out of phase and probably not equal. With the voltages
opposite most of the current will flow through the operating coils resulting in a trip of both
breakers

External Faults: The network output voltages have the polarity. The currents entering Bus
A and leaving Bus B are equal and in phase; the voltages likewise. The polarity of VA and
VB allows them to support a circulating current through the restraint coils and pilot wire
and very little current through the operating coils -- the relays will not operate.

Pilot Wire Supervision: To detect pilot wire faults (e.g., shorts, opens, grounds, etc.) a
continuous dc supervision current is applied to the pilot wire. If the pilot wires are shorted,
false tripping can occur. Although it reduces the sensitivity of the protection, a fault
detector is often used to prevent false tripping. The increase of the circulating current
initiates an alarm. Depending on the location of the short, one of the relays may not trip for
an external fault. If the pilot wires are open no tripping can occur. The interruption or
absence of the supervisory current also initiates an alarm. The relay acts as an overcurrent
relay if the pilot wire is open.

Chapter 9 Page 50 Feeder Protection

 Figure 9-9. Internal Fault

Figure 9-10. External Fault

Chapter 9 Page 51 Feeder Protection

 Figure 9-11. Short Circuited Pilot Wire

Figure 9-12. Open Circuited Pilot Wire

Chapter 9 Page 52 Feeder Protection

DISTANCE RELAYING
The problem of combining fast fault clearance with selective tripping of plant is a key aim
for the protection of power systems. To meet these requirements, highspeed protection
systems for transmission and primary distribution circuits that are suitable for use with the
automatic reclosure of circuit breakers are under continuous development and are very
widely applied.

Distance protection, in its basic form, is a non-unit system of protection offering

considerable economic and technical advantages. Unlike phase and neutral overcurrent
protection, the key advantage of distance protection is that its fault coverage of the
protected circuit is virtually independent of source impedance variations.

Figure 9-13

Therefore, for relay operation for line faults, Relay current setting <6640A and >7380A

This is impractical, overcurrent relay not suitable Must use Distance or Unit Protection

Distance protection is comparatively simple to apply and it can be fast in operation for
faults located along most of a protected circuit. It can also provide both primary and

Chapter 9 Page 53 Feeder Protection

remote back-up functions in a single scheme. It can easily be adapted to create a unit
protection scheme when applied with a signalling channel. In this form it is eminently
suitable for application with high-speed autoreclosing, for the protection of critical
transmission lines.

PRINCIPLES OF DISTANCE RELAYS

Since the impedance of a transmission line is proportional to its length, for distance
measurement it is appropriate to use a relay capable of measuring the impedance of a line
up to a predetermined point (the reach point). Such a relay is described as a distance relay
and is designed to operate only for faults occurring between the relay location and the
selected reach point, thus giving discrimination for faults that may occur in different line
sections.

The basic principle of distance protection involves the division of the voltage at the relaying
point by the measured current. The apparent impedance so calculated is compared with
the reach point impedance.

If the measured impedance is less than the reach point impedance, it is assumed that a
fault exists on the line between the relay and the reach point.

The reach point of a relay is the point along the line impedance locus that is intersected by
the boundary characteristic of the relay. Since this is dependent on the ratio of voltage and
current and the phase angle between them, it may be plotted on an R/X diagram. The loci
of power system impedances as seen by the relay during faults, power swings and load
variations may be plotted on the same diagram and in this manner the performance of the
relay in the presence of system faults and disturbances may be studied.

RELAY PERFORMANCE

Distance relay performance is defined in terms of reach accuracy and operating time.
Reach accuracy is a comparison of the actual ohmic reach of the relay under practical
conditions with the relay setting value in ohms.

Reach accuracy particularly depends on the level of voltage presented to the relay under
fault conditions. The impedance measuring techniques employed in particular relay
designs also have an impact.

Operating times can vary with fault current, with fault position relative to the relay setting,
and with the point on the voltage wave at which the fault occurs.

Depending on the measuring techniques employed in a particular relay design, measuring

signal transient errors, such as those produced by Capacitor Voltage Transformers or
saturating CT’s, can also adversely delay relay operation for faults close to the reach
point. It is usual for electromechanical and static distance relays to claim both maximum
and minimum operating times.

However, for modern digital or numerical distance relays, the variation between these is
small over a wide range of system operating conditions and fault positions.

Chapter 9 Page 54 Feeder Protection

ZONES OF PROTECTION

Careful selection of the reach settings and tripping times for the various zones of
measurement enables correct coordination between distance relays on a power system.

Basic distance protection will comprise instantaneous directional Zone 1 protection and
one or more timedelayed zones. Typical reach and time settings for a 3- zone distance
protection are shown in Figure 9-14. Digital and numerical distance relays may have up to
five zones, some set to measure in the reverse direction. Typical settings for three
forward-looking zones of basic distance protection are given in the following sub-sections.
To determine the settings for a particular relay design or for a particular distance
teleprotection scheme, involving end-to-end signalling, the relay manufacturer’s
instructions should be referred to.

Zone 1 Setting

Electromechanical/static relays usually have a reach setting of up to 80% of the protected

line impedance for instantaneous Zone 1 protection. For digital/numerical distance relays,
settings of up to 85% may be safe. The resulting 15-20% safety margin ensures that there
is no risk of the Zone 1 protection over-reaching the protected line due to errors in the
current and voltage transformers, inaccuracies in line impedance data provided for setting
purposes and errors of relay setting and measurement. Otherwise, there would be a loss
of discrimination with fast operating protection on the following line section. Zone 2 of the
distance protection must cover the remaining 15-20% of the line.

Zone 2 Setting

To ensure full cover of the line with allowance for the sources of error already listed in the
previous section, the reach setting of the Zone 2 protection should be at least 120% of the
protected line impedance. In many applications it is common practice to set the Zone 2
reach to be equal to the protected line section +50% of the shortest adjacent line. Where
possible, this ensures that the resulting maximum effective Zone 2 reach does not extend
beyond the minimum effective Zone 1 reach of the adjacent line protection. This avoids the
need to grade the Zone 2 time settings between upstream and downstream relays. In
electromechanical and static relays, Zone 2 protection is provided either by separate
elements or by extending the reach of the Zone 1 elements after a time delay that is
initiated by a fault detector. In most digital and numerical relays, the Zone 2 elements are
implemented in software.

Zone 2 tripping must be time-delayed to ensure grading with the primary relaying applied
to adjacent circuits that fall within the Zone 2 reach. Thus complete coverage of a line
section is obtained, with fast clearance of faults in the first 80-85% of the line and
somewhat slower clearance of faults in the remaining section of the line.

Chapter 9 Page 55 Feeder Protection

 Figure 9-14. Typical Time/distance Characteristics
For Three Zone Distance Relay

Zone 3 Setting

Remote back-up protection for all faults on adjacent lines can be provided by a third zone
of protection that is time delayed to discriminate with Zone 2 protection plus circuit breaker
trip time for the adjacent line. Zone 3 reach should be set to at least 1.2 times the
impedance presented to the relay for a fault at the remote end of the second line section.
On interconnected power systems, the effect of fault current infeed at the remote busbars
will cause the impedance presented to the relay to be much greater than the actual
impedance to the fault and this needs to be taken into account when setting Zone 3. In
some systems, variations in the remote busbar infeed can prevent the application of
remote back-up Zone 3 protection but on radial distribution systems with single end infeed,
no difficulties should arise.

Settings for Reverse Reach and Other Zones

Modern digital or numerical relays may have additional impedance zones that can be
utilised to provide additional protection functions. For example, where the first three zones
are set as above, Zone 4 might be used to provide back-up protection for the local busbar,
by applying a reverse reach setting of the order of 25% of the Zone 1 reach. Alternatively,
one of the forwardlooking zones (typically Zone 3) could be set with a small reverse offset
reach from the origin of the R/X diagram, in addition to its forward reach setting. An offset
impedance measurement characteristic is nondirectional.

Chapter 9 Page 56 Feeder Protection

One advantage of a non-directional zone of impedance measurement is that it is able to
operate for a close-up, zero-impedance fault, in situations where there may be no healthy
phase voltage signal or memory voltage signal available to allow operation of a directional
impedance zone. With the offset-zone time delay bypassed, there can be provision of
‘Switch-on-to-Fault’ (SOTF) protection. This is required where there are line voltage
transformers, to provide fast tripping in the event of accidental line energisation with
maintenance earthing clamps left in position. Additional impedance zones may be
deployed as part of a distance protection scheme used in conjunction with a teleprotection
signalling channel.

DISTANCE RELAY CHARACTERISTICS

Some numerical relays measure the absolute fault impedance and then determine whether
operation is required according to impedance boundaries defined on the R/X diagram.
Traditional distance relays and numerical relays that emulate the impedance elements of
traditional relays do not measure absolute impedance.

They compare the measured fault voltage with a replica voltage derived from the fault
current and the zone impedance setting to determine whether the fault is within zone or
out-of-zone. Distance relay impedance comparators or algorithms which emulate
traditional comparators are classified according to their polar characteristics, the number of
signal inputs they have, and the method by which signal comparisons are made.

The common types compare either the relative amplitude or phase of two input quantities
to obtain operating characteristics that are either straight lines or circles when plotted on
an R/X diagram. At each stage of distance relay design evolution, the development of
impedance operating characteristic shapes and sophistication has been governed by the
technology available and the acceptable cost. Since many traditional relays are still in
service and since some numerical relays emulate the techniques of the traditional relays, a
brief review of impedance comparators is justified.

Amplitude and Phase Comparison

Relay measuring elements whose functionality is based on the comparison of two

independent quantities are essentially either amplitude or phase comparators. For the
impedance elements of a distance relay, the quantities being compared are the voltage
and current measured by the relay. There are numerous techniques available for
performing the comparison, depending on the technology used. They vary from balanced-
beam (amplitude comparison) and induction cup (phase comparison) electromagnetic
relays, through diode and operational amplifier comparators in static-type distance relays,
to digital sequence comparators in digital relays and to algorithms used in numerical
relays.

Any type of impedance characteristic obtainable with one comparator is also obtainable
with the other. The addition and subtraction of the signals for one type of comparator
produces the required signals to obtain a similar characteristic using the other type. For
example, comparing V and I in an amplitude comparator results in a circular impedance
Chapter 9 Page 57 Feeder Protection
characteristic centred at the origin of the R/X diagram. If the sum and difference of V and I
are applied to the phase comparator the result is a similar characteristic.

Plain Impedance Characteristic

Figure 9-15. Plain Impedance Relay Charcteristic

Chapter 9 Page 58 Feeder Protection

Self-Polarised Mho Relay

The mho impedance element is generally

known as such because its characteristic is a
straight line on an admittance diagram. It
cleverly combines the discriminating qualities
of both reach control and directional control,
thereby eliminating the ‘contact race’
problems that may be encountered with
separate reach and directional control
elements. This is achieved by the addition of
a polarising signal. Mho impedance elements
were particularly attractive for economic
reasons where electromechanical relay
elements were employed. As a result, they
have been widely deployed worldwide for
many years and their advantages and
limitations are now well understood. For this
reason they are still emulated in the
algorithms of some modern numerical relays.

The characteristic of a mho impedance

element, when plotted on an R/X diagram, is
a circle whose circumference passes through
the origin, as illustrated in Figure 9-16(b).

This demonstrates that the impedance

element is inherently directional and such that
it will operate only for faults in the forward
direction along line AB.

The impedance characteristic is adjusted by

setting Zn, the impedance reach, along the
diameter and Θ, the angle of displacement of
the diameter from the R axis. Angle φ is
known as the Relay Characteristic Angle
(RCA). The relay operates for values of fault
impedance ZF within its characteristic.

Figure 9-16. Mho Relay Characteristic

Chapter 9 Page 59 Feeder Protection

It will be noted that the impedance reach varies with fault angle. As the line to be protected
is made up of resistance and inductance, its fault angle will be dependent upon the relative
values of R and X at the system operating frequency. Under an arcing fault condition, or an
earth fault involving additional resistance, such as tower footing resistance or fault through
vegetation, the value of the resistive component of fault impedance will increase to change
the impedance angle. Thus, a relay having a characteristic angle equivalent to the line
angle will under-reach under resistive fault conditions.

It is usual, therefore, to set the RCA less than the line angle, so that it is possible to accept
a small amount of fault resistance without causing under-reach. However, when setting the
relay, the difference between the line angle θ and the relay characteristic angle φ must be
known. The resulting characteristic is shown in Figure 9-16(c) where AB corresponds to
the length of the line to be protected. With φ set less than θ, the actual amount of line
protected, AB, would be equal to the relay setting value AQ multiplied by cosine (θ- φ).

Chapter 9 Page 60 Feeder Protection

Offset Mho/Lenticular Characteristics

Under close up fault conditions, when the relay voltage falls to zero or near-zero, a relay
using a self-polarised mho characteristic or any other form of self-polarised directional
impedance characteristic may fail to operate when it is required to do so. Methods of
covering this condition include the use of non-directional impedance characteristics, such
as offset mho, offset lenticular, or cross-polarised and memory polarised directional
impedance characteristics.

If current bias is employed, the mho characteristic is shifted to embrace the origin, so that
the measuring element can operate for close-up faults in both the forward and the reverse
directions. The offset mho relay has two main applications:

Figure 9-17. Typical Application for the Offset Mho Relay

Chapter 9 Page 61 Feeder Protection

Third zone and busbar back-up zone

In this application it is used in conjunction with mho measuring units as a fault detector
and/or Zone 3 measuring unit. So, with the reverse reach arranged to extend into the
busbar zone, as shown in Figure 9-17(a), it will provide back-up protection for busbar
faults. This facility can also be provided with quadrilateral characteristics. A further benefit
of the Zone 3 application is for Switch-on-to-Fault (SOTF) protection, where the Zone 3
time delay would be bypassed for a short period immediately following line energisation to
allow rapid clearance of a fault anywhere along the protected line.

QUADRILATERAL CHARACTERISTIC

This form of polygonal impedance characteristic is shown in Figure 9-18. The

characteristic is provided with forward reach and resistive reach settings that are
independently adjustable. It therefore provides better resistive coverage than any mho-
type characteristic for short lines. This is especially true for earth fault impedance
measurement, where the arc resistances and fault resistance to earth contribute to the
highest values of fault resistance. To avoid excessive errors in the zone reach accuracy, it
is common to impose a maximum resistive reach in terms of the zone impedance reach.

Recommendations in this respect can usually be found in the appropriate relay manuals.

Figure 9-18. Quadrilateral Characteristic

Chapter 9 Page 62 Feeder Protection

 ZL

ZLF2
ZLF1

21 ZLoad
RF
F1 RF F2

X
RF

ZL
RF
ZLoad
ZLF2 RF

ZF1 Increasing Load

ZLF1

Faults R
In Load
Reverse
direction Area

Chapter 9 Page 63 Feeder Protection

Quadrilateral elements with plain reactance reach lines can introduce reach error problems
for resistive earth faults where the angle of total fault current differs from the angle of the
current measured by the relay. This will be the case where the local and remote source
voltage vectors are phase shifted with respect to each other due to pre-fault power flow.
This can be overcome by selecting an alternative to use of a phase current for polarisation
of the reactance reach line. Polygonal impedance characteristics are highly flexible in
terms of fault impedance coverage for both phase and earth faults. For this reason, most
digital and numerical distance relays now offer this form of characteristic. A further factor is
that the additional cost implications of implementing this characteristic using discrete
component electromechanical or early static relay technology do not arise.

DISTANCE RELAY IMPLEMENTATION

Discriminating zones of protection can be achieved using distance relays, provided that
fault distance is a simple function of impedance. While this is true in principle for
transmission circuits, the impedances actually measured by a distance relay also depend
on the following factors:

1. the magnitudes of current and voltage (the relay may not see all the current that
produces the fault voltage)

2. the fault impedance loop being measured

3. the type of fault

4. the fault resistance

5. the symmetry of line impedance

6. the circuit configuration (single, double or multiterminal circuit)

It is impossible to eliminate all of the above factors for all possible operating conditions.
However, considerable success can be achieved with a suitable distance relay.

This may comprise relay elements or algorithms for starting, distance measuring and for
scheme logic. Various distance relay formats exist, depending on the operating speed
required and cost considerations related to the relaying hardware, software or numerical
relay processing capacity required. The most common formats are:

a. a single measuring element for each phase is provided, that covers all phase faults

b. a more economical arrangement is for ‘starter’ elements to detect which phase or

phases have suffered a fault. The starter elements switch a single measuring
element or algorithm to measure the most appropriate fault impedance loop. This is
commonly referred to as a switched distance relay

c. a single set of impedance measuring elements for each impedance loop may have
their reach settings progressively increased from one zone reach setting to another.
Chapter 9 Page 64 Feeder Protection
 The increase occurs after zone time delays that are initiated by operation of starter
elements. This type of relay is commonly referred to as a reach-stepped distance
relay

d. each zone may be provided with independent sets of impedance measuring

elements for each impedance loop. This is known as a full distance scheme,
capable of offering the highest performance in terms of speed and application
flexibility Furthermore, protection against earth faults may require different
characteristics and/or settings to those required for phase faults, resulting in
additional units being required. A total of 18 impedance-measuring elements or
algorithms would be required in a full distance relay for three-zone protection for all
types of fault.

With electromechanical technology, each of the measuring elements would have been a
separate relay housed in its own case, so that the distance relay comprised a panel-
mounted assembly of the required relays with suitable inter-unit wiring.

Digital/numerical distance relays are likely to have all of the above functions implemented
in software. Starter units may not be necessary. The complete distance relay is housed in
a single unit, making for significant economies in space, wiring and increased
dependability, through the increased availability that stems from the provision of
continuous self-supervision.

Starters for switched distance protection

Electromechanical and static distance relays do not normally use an individual impedance-
measuring element per phase. The cost and the resulting physical scheme size made this
arrangement impractical, except for the most demanding EHV transmission applications.
To achieve economy for other applications, only one measuring element was provided,
together with ‘starter’ units that detected which phases were faulted, in order to switch the
appropriate signals to the single measuring function. A distance relay using this technique
is known as a switched distance relay. A number of different types of starters have been
used, the most common being based on overcurrent, undervoltage or under-impedance
measurement.

Numerical distance relays permit direct detection of the phases involved in a fault. This is
called faulted phase selection, often abbreviated to phase selection. Several techniques
are available for faulted phase selection, which then permits the appropriate distance-
measuring zone to trip. Without phase selection, the relay risks having over or underreach
problems, or tripping threephase when single-pole fault clearance is required.

Several techniques are available for faulted phase selection, such as:

a. superimposed current comparisons, comparing the step change of level between

pre-fault load, and fault current (the ‘Delta’ algorithm). This enables very fast
detection of the faulted phases, within only a few samples of the analogue current
inputs

b. change in voltage magnitude

Chapter 9 Page 65 Feeder Protection
c. change in current magnitude

Numerical phase selection is much faster than traditional starter techniques used in
electromechanical or static distance relays. It does not impose a time penalty as the phase
selection and measuring zone algorithms run in parallel. It is possible to build a fullscheme
relay with these numerical techniques. The phase selection algorithm provides faulted
phase selection, together with a segregated measuring algorithm for each phase-ground
and phase to phase fault loop (AN, BN, CN, AB, BC, CA), thus ensuring fullscheme
operation.

However, there may be occasions where a numerical relay that mimics earlier switched
distance protection techniques is desired. The reasons may be economic (less software
required – thus cheaper than a relay that contains a full-scheme implementation) and/or
technical.

Some applications may require the numerical relay characteristics to match those of earlier
generations already installed on a network, to aid selectivity. Such relays are available,
often with refinements such as multi-sided polygonal impedance characteristics that assist
in avoiding tripping due to heavy load conditions.

With electromechanical or static switched distance relays, a selection of available starters

often had to be made. The choice of starter was dependent on power system parameters
such as maximum load transfer in relation to maximum reach required and power system
earthing arrangements.

Where overcurrent starters are used, care must be taken to ensure that, with minimum
generating plant in service, the setting of the overcurrent starters is sensitive enough to
detect faults beyond the third zone.

Furthermore, these starters require a high drop-off to pick-up ratio, to ensure that they will
drop off under maximum load conditions after a second or third zone fault has been
cleared by the first zone relay in the faulty section. Without this feature, indiscriminate
tripping may result for subsequent faults in the second or third zone. For satisfactory
operation of the overcurrent starters in a switched distance scheme, the following
conditions must be fulfilled:

a. the current setting of the overcurrent starters must be not less than 1.2 times the
maximum full load current of the protected line

b. the power system minimum fault current for a fault at the Zone 3 reach of the
distance relay must not be less than 1.5 times the setting of the overcurrent starters

Chapter 9 Page 66 Feeder Protection

On multiple-earthed systems where the neutrals of all the power transformers are solidly
earthed, or in power systems where the fault current is less than the full load current of the
protected line, it is not possible to use overcurrent starters. In these circumstances
underimpedance starters are typically used.

The type of under-impedance starter used is mainly dependent on the maximum expected
load current and equivalent minimum load impedance in relation to the required relay
setting to cover faults in Zone 3. This is illustrated in Figure 9-19 where ZD1, ZD2, and ZD3
are respectively the minimum load impedances permitted when lenticular, offset mho and
impedance relays are used.

Figure 9-19. Minimum Load Impedance Permitted With Lenticular Offset Mho and
Impedance Relays

Chapter 9 Page 67 Feeder Protection

 DISTANCE PROTECTION SETTING EXAMPLE
Objective

To protect the 100Km double circuit line between Green Valley and Blue River substations
using relay protection in the POP Z2 Permissive Overreach mode and to set the relay at
Green Valley substation, shown in Figure 61.

System Data

Line length: 100Km

Line impedances: Z1 = 0.089 + j0.476

= 0.484 /79.40 Ω /km

Z0 = 0.426 + j1.576 = 1.632 / 74.80 Ω /km

Z0/Z1 = 3.372 / -4.60

CT ratio: 1 200 / 5

VT ratio: 230 000 / 115

Chapter 9 Page 68 Feeder Protection

Relay Settings

It is assumed that Zone 1 Extension is not used and that only three forward zones are
required. Settings on the relay can be performed in primary or secondary quantities and
impedances can be expressed as either polar or rectangular quantities (menu selectable).
For the purposes of this example, secondary quantities are used.

Line Impedance

Line impedance secondary = ratio CT/VT x line impedance primary.

Line Impedance = 100 x 0.484 / 79.40 (primary) x 0.12

= 5.81 / 79.40 0 secondary.

Relay Line Angle settings -900 to 900 in 10 steps. Therefore, select Line Angle = 800 for
convenience.

Therefore set Line Impedance and Line Angle: = 5.81 / 800 0 secondary.

Zone 1 Phase Reach Settings

Required Zone 1 reach is to be 80% of the line impedance between Green Valley and Blue
River substations.

Required Zone 1 reach = 0.8 x 100 x 0.484 / 79.41 x 0.12

Z1 = 4.64 / 79.4˚ Ω secondary.

The Line Angle = 800.

Therefore actual Zone 1 reach, Z1 = 4.64 / 800 Ω secondary.

Zone 2 Phase Reach Settings

Required Zone 2 impedance =

(Green Valley-Blue River) line impedance + 50% (Blue River-Rocky Bay) line impedance

Z2 = (100+30) x 0.484 / 79.40 x 0.12 = 7.56 / 79.40 Ω secondary.

The Line Angle = 800.

Actual Zone 2 reach setting = 7.56 / 800 Ω secondary

Chapter 9 Page 69 Feeder Protection

Zone 3 Phase Reach Settings

Required Zone 3 forward reach =

(Green Valley-Blue River + Blue River-Rocky Bay) x 1.2

= (100+60) x 1.2 x 0.484 / 79.40 x 0.12

Z3 = 11.15 /79.40 ohms secondary

Actual Zone 3 forward reach setting = 11.16 / 800 ohms secondary

Zone 4 Reverse Settings with no Weak Infeed Logic Selected

Required Zone 4 reverse reach impedance = Typically 10% Zone 1 reach

= 0.1 x 4.64 / 79.4°

Z4 = 0.464 / 79.40

Actual Zone 4 reverse reach setting = 0.46 / 800 ohms secondary

Zone 4 Reverse Settings with Weak Infeed Logic Selected

Where zone 4 is used to provide reverse directional decisions for Blocking or Permissive
Overreach schemes, zone 4 must reach further behind the relay than zone 2 for the
remote relay. This can be achieved by setting: Z4 ≥ ((Remote zone 2 reach) x 120%)
minus the protected line impedance:

Remote Zone 2 reach =

U U

(Blue River-Green Valley) line impedance + 50% (Green Valley-Tiger Bay) line
impedance = (100+40) x 0.484 / 79.40 x 0.12

= 8.13 / 79.40 Ω secondary.

Z4 ≥ ((8.13 / 79.40) x 120%) - (5.81 / 79.40)

= 3.95 / 79.40

Minimum zone 4 reverse reach setting = 3.96 / 800 ohms secondary

U U

Chapter 9 Page 70 Feeder Protection

Residual Compensation for Earth Fault Elements

The residual compensation factor can be applied independently to certain zones if

required. This feature is useful where line impedance characteristics change
between sections or where hybrid circuits are used. In this example, the line
impedance characteristics do not change and as such a common KZ0 factor can
be applied to each zone. This is set as

Chapter 9 Page 71 Feeder Protection

Chapter 9 Page 72 Feeder Protection
Chapter 9 Page 73 Feeder Protection
Chapter 9 Page 74 Feeder Protection
Chapter 9 Page 75 Feeder Protection
Chapter 9 Page 76 Feeder Protection
FUNCTIONS
• Line distance

- Distance protection (ZM)

- Simplified impedance settings (SIS)

- Phase selection logic (PHS)

- Power swing detection (PSD)

- Power swing additional logic (PSL)

- Scheme communication logic (ZCOM)

- Current reversal and weak end infeed logic (ZCAL)

- Radial feeder protection (PAP)

- Automatic switch onto fault logic (SOTF)

- Local acceleration logic (ZCLC)

• Current

- Instantaneous non-directional phase overcurrent protection (IOCph)

- Instantaneous non-directional residual overcurrent protection (IOCr)

- Definite time non-directional phase overcurrent protection (TOCph)

- Definite time non-directional residual overcurrent protection (TOCr)

- Two step time delayed non-directional phase overcurrent protection

(TOC2)

- Two step time delayed directional phase overcurrent protection

(TOC3)

- Time delayed non-directional residual overcurrent protection (TEF)

- Time delayed directional residual overcurrent protection (TEFdir)

Chapter 9 Page 77 Feeder Protection

 - Four step time delayed directional residual overcurrent protection
(EF4)

- Sensitive directional residual overcurrent protection (WEF1)

- Sensitive directional residual power protection (WEF2)

- Scheme communication logic for residual overcurrent protection (EFC)

- Current reversal and weak end infeed logic for residual overcurrent
protection (EFCA)

- Thermal overload protection (THOL)

- Stub protection (STUB)

- Breaker failure protection (BFP)

• Voltage

- Time delayed undervoltage protection (TUV)

- Time delayed overvoltge protection (TOV)

- Time delayed residual overvoltage protection (TOVr)

• Power system supervision

- Broken conductor check (BRC)

- Loss of voltage check (LOV)

- Overload supervision (OVLD)

- Dead line detection (DLD)

Chapter 9 Page 78 Feeder Protection

• System protection and control

- Pole slip protection (PSP)

- Low active power protection (LAPP)

- Low active and reactive power protection (LARP)

- High active power protection (HAPP)

- High active and reactive protection (HARP)

- Sudden change in phase current protection (SCC1)

- Sudden change in residual current protection (SCRC)

- Sudden change in voltage protection (SCV)

- Overvoltage protection (OVP)

- Undercurrent protection (UCP)

- Phase overcurrent protection (OCP)

- Residual overcurrent protection (ROCP)

• Secondary system supervision

- Current circuit supervision, current based (CTSU)

- Fuse failure supervision, zero sequence (FUSEzs)

- Fuse failure supervision, du/dt and di/dt based (FUSEdb)

- Voltage transformer supervision (TCT)

Chapter 9 Page 79 Feeder Protection

• Control

- Single command, 16 signals (CD)

- Synchro-check and energizing-check, single circuit breaker (SYN1)

- Synchro-check and energizing-check, double circuit breakers (SYN12)

- Synchro-check with synchronizing and energizing-check, double

circuit breaker (SYNsy1)

- Synchro-check with synchronizing and energizing-check, double

circuit breaker (SYNsy12)

- Autorecloser - 1- and/or 3-phase, single circuit breaker (AR1-1/3)

- Autorecloser - 1- and/or 3-phase, double circuit breakers (AR12-1/3)

- Autorecloser - 3-phase, single circuit breaker (AR1-3)

- Autorecloser- 3-phase, double circuit breaker (AR12-3)

• Logic

- Three pole tripping logic (TR01-3)

- Additional three pole tripping logic (TR02-3)

- Single, two or three pole tripping logic (TR01-1/2/3)

- Additional single, two or three pole tripping logic (TR02-1/2/3)

- Pole discordance logic (PDc)

- Additional configurable logic blocks (CL2)

- Communication channel test logic (CCHT)

- Binary signal transfer to remote end (RTC12)

- Multiple command, one fast block with 16 signals (CM1)

- Multiple command, 79 medium speed blocks each with 16 signals

(CM79)

Chapter 9 Page 80 Feeder Protection

• Monitoring

- Disturbance recorder (DR)

- Event recorder (ER)

- Fault locator (FLOC)

- Trip value recorder (TVR)

- Increased accuracy of AC input quatities (IMA)

- Supervision of AC input quantities (DA)

- Supervision of mA input quantities (MI)

• Metering capabilities

- Pulse counter logic for metering (PC)

- Six event counters (CN)

• Hardware

- 18 LEDs for extended indication capabilities

• Several input/output module options including measuring mA input module

(for transducers)

Chapter 9 Page 81 Feeder Protection