CAVITE STATE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

BUILDING UTILITIES 3

LIGHT SOURCES:
THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND APPLICATION

Alde, John Aldrick

Crisostomo,Kristine Lei
Bajade,Nithel
Eusebio,Emilyn
Gaño, Uriela
Gargallo, Hannah Faith
Martillano, Carl Ferdinand
Quilay, Gerald
Physics of Light
Light is “visually evaluated radiant energy” or more simply, a form of energy which permits us
to see. Light is considered as wave.

The Visual Light Spectrum

● The longest wavelength in the visual spectrum is InfraRed

● The shortest wavelength in the visual spectrum in UltraViolet
● Both InfraRed and UltraViolet are the light which our eyes cannot percieve

3 Conditions to Perceive Colors

1. Light
● The Light comes from natural sources like Sun and the Moon or form the
artificial lighting like candles, incandescent lamps, fluorescent lights or LED
lights
● As the sun moves across the sky, the spectrum distribution changes due to
scattering of light

● Colors change according to light color temperature, light sources have spectral
distribution properties and this makes objects color appear differently.

2. Object
● Objects has reflectant properties due to the colorant and material; the Object
will absorb or reflect the light
 ● The interaction of light on an object – the absorption and reflectance of the
object determines the color we see

3. Observer
● Human eyes
● The spectral reflectant absorbs or reflects the light. The reflection of light enters
our eyes that stimulates and gives signal to the brain. The brain processes the
information and returns a color sensation
● Our eyes perceives million of colors

According to research we perceive almost 80% of the world around us by using our
sense of sight. We are able to see the objects around us because of the light coming from
these objects
 The diagram above shows that Luminous Objects such as the sun, fluorescent bulbs
and burning candles generate their own light. While the Non-Luminous Objects cannot
generate their own light such as the things we see around us.

As the luminous object reflects to the non-luminous object which bounce to the
observer (eyes) called Reflection of Light.

The direction of light from the luminous object emits light in all possible direction which
is what we called Rays of Light.
•A ray of light is a straight line path along which light travels
•Light emitted by luminous objects travels in all directions
Incident Ray - path which luminous object travels
Reflected Ray - path which non-luminous object travel going to the eyes or the observer

Laws of Reflection
1. Angle of incidence is always equal to the angle of reflection

2. The incident ray, the normal at the point of incidence and the reflected ray all lie in the
same plane
 For instance, if the reflected ray does not align to the same plane with the incident and
normal ray then it will violate the law and not possible.

“Light has not just intensity, but also a vibration,

which is capable of roughening a smooth material, of
giving three-dimensional quality to a flat surface.”
-Architect Renzo Piano

Luminous Intensity and Luminous Flux

Luminous Intensity
○ The intensity of the light is given by the Poynting Vector, which defines the
power output per unit are (w/m^2) of any electromagnetic waves
○ In physics, the Poynting vector represents the directional energy flux (the
energy transfer per unit area per unit time) of an electromagnetic field. The SI
unit of the Poynting vector is the watt per square metre (W/m2). It is named
after its discoverer John Henry Poynting who first derived it in 1884.

When dealing with light which encompasses the visible spectrum, it is useful to discuss the
brightness of light. The human eye is most sensitive to the light with wavelength of 550 nm
(green)

Luminous Flux – a Measure of perceived power of light. The units of luminous flux are lumens
(lm)
683 lumens = 1 watt carried by light with the wavelength of 555nm.

Luminous Intensity (candela)

○ This is the luminous flux per solid angle. It expresses the directionality of the
energy radiated by the light
○ A solid Angle is a two- dimensional angle with units called steradians. You can
think of solid angle as beginning at a point and encompassing an area A on a
sphere with radius r. the magnitude of solid angle is A/(r^2)
Illuminance (lm/lm^2)
The illuminance of light is the luminous flux per unit area. it tells the
radiation power falls onto a surface

Lighting and their Characteristics

General Remarks:
Electrical Lighting had its real beginning in about 1870 with the development of commercially
usable arc lamps and was given greater impetus nine years later by Edison’s first practical
incandescent lamp. Today’s electric light sources fall into three generic classifications:
○ The Incandescent lamp: including the tungsten- halogen types.
○ The gaseous discharge lamp, which includes the well-known fluorescent neon,
and mercury lamps, plus the more recent metal- halide and sodium lamps; and
○ The electroluminescent sources
The efficiency of a light source is termed its efficacy and is measures in lumens per watt.

The table below lists efficacies of modern light sources, including ballast losses where
applicable.

In general, efficacy increase with wattage; therefore, it is energy – economical to use a small
number of higher -wattage lamps than the reverse. It is also usually more economical with
respect to fixtures) since electric lighting in non-residential buildings consume 25 to 60 % of
electric energy utilized, any attempt to reduce this must necessarily include integration of
cheapest ( in sofer as energy is concerned) the most abundant and , in many ways most
desirable form of lighting available – Daylight

Lighting System in building

● Natural Daylight
● Artificial Daylight
- Incandescent
- Fluorescent
- Mercury
 - Neon
Natural Daylight
Daylight has quantitative benefits that are relatively easy to measure. For instance, it
could be used as a source of illumination to dim (or even turn off) the electrical lighting system.
This can be achieved by designing the electrical lighting layout and controls to align with the
areas that receive plenty of natural light during occupied hours. The electrical control system
is essential to realizing the benefits of daylighting. By dimming electrical lighting, it helps
harvest the available daylight while ensuring occupants always receive the required level of
illumination. In cold climates, daylight can also be used to assist in heating the building by
admitting the sun’s energy into the lived space, providing illumination and heat—the method
that is implemented in passive house design for energy efficiency.

Daylighting design factors for visual comfort

Glare and daylighting design

Designing with daylighting in mind, it presents complex challenges. Daylight is an inherently
dynamic source—its location and intensity changes with time of day, seasons, and weather.
Compared with designing for electrical lighting, which is static and makes it relatively easier to
establish a lighting layout, designing for daylight requires a strategy that works across a wide
variety of daylight conditions and site-specific factors

Characteristics of outdoor illumination

Factors:
The most prominent Characteristics of daylighting is its variability, obviously the source of all
daylight is the sun. the level of exterior illumination, at a particular place and time depends
on:
1. Altitude and azimuth (latitude, date, time of day)
2. Weather conditions (cloud, cover, smog)
3. Effects of local terrain (natural and man-made obstructions and reflections)

The factors impacting the luminous properties of the interior environment could be divided
into:
1. Exterior
Exterior factors include building orientation relative to the sun’s path, surrounding
buildings, and landscape geometries that alter the daylight by blocking, absorbing, and
redirecting light. Sometimes the surrounding landscape can be part of the design solution, and
foliage could be arranged carefully relative to the daylight apertures to provide shading. For
instance, in cold climates, deciduous trees can be planted in a way that provides shading to
the daylight aperture during the summer (high-angle sun) and allows sunlight through for
illumination and heat in the winter time as they shed their leaves. Trees are also very effective
in reducing excessive outdoor daylight level from tens of thousands of lux (for reference, office
electrical lighting is 300 to 500 lux) to a more useful light level (illuminance value lower than
3,000 lux) because of their unique 3-D geometries and luminous properties, such as light
absorbance, scattering, and transmitting.
2. Façade
- Façade factors influence the quantity and quality of daylight to an even greater extent, and
these variables are within the primary scope of daylighting design. Façade factors can be
broken down into three items:

a. External shading devices, such as overhangs or vertical/horizontal louvers, are often

static and permanent, with a strong influence on the architectural appearance.
b. Daylight aperture glazing systems consist of layers of transparent substrate (usually
architectural glass), coatings (for example, Low-E, frit, etc.), interlayers such as PVB,
filling (air, argon, aerogel, etc.), and films for light- or UV-transmittance reduction (for
artwork preservation). Visible light transmittance (VLT) is one of the variables used to
evaluate the glazing system’s optical performance—in other words, it is the percentage
of daylight that is admitted into the interior.
c. Internal shading devices, such as Venetian blinds, fabric shades, and light shelves,
are the last layer of façade daylight control to further influence the daylight entering the
space.
3. interior factors.
- Architectural interior design including the layout, ceiling height and geometry, finishes,
furniture or partitions, and electrical lighting all play an important role in occupants’ visual
comfort. For instance, changing the reflectance of floor carpet could reduce excessive
reflected light, or changing the interior layout could avoid the direct view of the sun for
workstations in an open-office plan and reduce glare probability.

Artificial Daylighting
1. Incandescent Lamps
○ The incandescent filament lamps
○ An Incandescent Light bulb is a Controlled fire display. When electrical current
makes contact with the base of the bulb, electricity enters and heats the
tungsten filament housed inside, and when the filament heats up
“incandescence“is created, which is light produced by heat
○ The light in an incandescent light bulb is really just that effect occurring in a
contained, controlled environment. As the filament continues to burn, particles
fly off the filament. And when there are no more particles to burn, the light bulb
burns out, which typically takes place 800-1,200 hours into the life of the
incandescent light bulb.
Construction:
● This lamp consists simply of a tungsten filament inside a gas filled, sealed glass
envelope as shown in the figure below. Current passing through the high resistance
filament heats it to incandescent, producing light. Gradual evaporation of the filament
 causes the familiar blackening of the bulbs and eventual filament rupture and lamp
failure

Incandescent lamps are available in many bulbs and base types and special designs for
particular application:
A – Standard shape
B, F- Flame shape
C – Cone Shape
GA – Combination of G and A
P- Pear Shape
K- Arbitrary Designation
PS- Pear Shape Straight neck
PAR- Parabolic Aluminized Reflector
R- Reflector
S- Straight
T- Tubular
Types of lamp base
It is where the source of electric current passes. Most lamps are made with screw
bases with various sizes. Mostly common is the medium screw base. General service lamps
are 300w and larger, used the mogul screw based.
Operating characteristics of incandescent light

incandescent light are dependent on the voltage; therefore life, output, and efficiency of a lamp
can be markedly altered by even a small change in operating voltage
illustration; Example:
Burning a 120-v lamp at 125v (104.2%) means
approximately:
16% more light (lumens)
7% more power consumption (watts)
8% higher efficacy (lumens per watt)
42 % less life (hours)
Burning a 120 v lamp at 115v (95.8%) means
approximately
15% less light (lumens)
7% less power consumption (watts)
8% lower efficacy (lumens per watt)
72% more life (hours)

In general it is advisable to generate incandescent lamps at rated voltage, accepting balanced

efficiency, output and life.

Other characteristics
1. Lumen maintenance. Light output decreases slowly with lamp life as the bulb
blackens. Position during burning and bulb temperature affect this
characteristics
2. Color white, with large, yellow- red component and therefore highly flattering to
the skin. Since color depends on temperature, high-voltage lamps are bluer, low-
wattage lamp.s are yellower. Dimmed lamps give yellow-red light.

3. Surroundings. Generally impervious to external heat, cold, or humidity. Starting

completely unaffected.
4. Lamp Efficiency. Since incandescent lamps produce light as a by-product of
heat, they are inherently inefficient. Efficiency increases with wattage, varying
from 8% for a 25W lamp to 13% for a 1 000-W unit. This increased efficiency
can also be noted from the lumen output figures in the table below. Thus a 1
00-W lamp produces the same 1750 lm as two 60-W lamps, representing 20%
increase in efficacy.
The principal advantages of incandescent lamps
1. low cost
2. instant start and restart
3. simple inexpensive dimming
4. simple compact installation requiring no accessories
5. cheap fixtures
6. focusable as a point source
7. as a point source
8. high power factor
9. life independent of number of starts
10. good color.
The principal disadvantages of incandescent lamps

1. low efficacy
2. short lamp life
3. critical voltage sensitivity
4. low efficacy results in a large number of fixtures
5. high maintenance costs
6. large heat gain.
Short lamp life results in high replacement labor cost. Voltage sensitivity requires careful and
expensive circuit design. Also, light concentration at the filament (point source) requires
careful fixture design in order to avoid glare and, if undesirable, sharp shadows. Because of
the poor energy characteristic, incandescent lamp use should be limited to the following
applications:

1 . Infrequent or short duration use

2. Where low-cost dimming is required
3. Where the point source characteristic of the lamp is important, as in Focusing fixtures
4 . Where minimum initial cost is essential

Special incandescent Lamps

1. Tungsten halogen
A halogen lamp (also called tungsten halogen, quartz-
halogen, and quartz iodine lamp) is an incandescent lamp
consisting of a tungsten filament sealed in a compact
transparent envelope that is filled with a mixture of an inert
gas and a small amount of a halogen, such as iodine or
bromine.
So called ''long-Life" lamps, which are guaranteed to burn for
two, three, or five years, are lamps designed for much higher
voltages than that at which they operate. Since they normally sell at a high cost and are very
inefficient, their use is seldom advisable. In a cost comparison made of three lamps with 750,
2500, and 1 0 ,000-hr lives, respectively, including cost of lamps, energy and relamping, the
relative costs per million lumen hours were 1.0, 0.94, and 1.17, respectively.

In 2009, the EU and other European countries began a phase-out of

inefficient bulbs. The production and importation of directional mains-
voltage halogen bulbs was banned on 1 September 2016 and non-
directional halogen bulbs followed on 1 September 2018. Australia
banned halogen light bulbs in late 2021 as the original target date of
September 2020 to keep the policy in line with the European Union.
On June 2021, The UK government also announced plans to end the
sale of halogen light bulbs from September, as part of the UK's wider
efforts to tackle climate change
 2. Reflector Lamps
These are made in "R" and "PAR" shapes and
contain a reflective coating on the inside of the glass
envelope; this gives the entire lamp accurate light
beam control. Both types are available in narrow or
wide beam design, commonly called spot and flood,
respectively. R lamps are generally made in soft
glass envelopes for indoor use, whereas PAR lamps
are hard glass, Suitable for exterior application. Also
available is a lamp with an elliptical reflector bulb
shape. This causes the beam to focus a few inches
in front of the lamp, permitting high-efficiency
application in pinhole downlights or deep baffle units
where use of ordinary R lamps causes trapping and
loss of the most of the lamp's output

Illumination patterns resulting from typical

PAR spot and flood lamps are shown in this
figure below. When using Rand PAR lamps
the fixture acts principally as a lamp holder,
since beam control is built into the lamp.
Typical reflector lamp dimensional and
photometric data given in this figure.

The beam of the PAR lamp is

cone-like in shape. Each type of
PAR lamp has a distinct
illumination pattern which varies
in size and light intensity
depending on the angle at which
the lamp Is aimed and on its
distance from the area
illuminated.
3. INTERFERENCE (DICHROIC} FILTERS

Since filters had been previously used only in specialized applications such as projection
lamps to remove heat from the light beam, are now available in PAR lamps. The basic filter is
a thin film that operates on the interference principle rather than absorption. Thus the surface
remains relatively cool.

In one design that is utilized to limit the heat in the light beam, the film is applied to the inside
back of the lamp. It acts by transmitting infrared heat out of the lamp back while reflecting light
out the lamp front. Typical applications are now window displays, over food counters, and in
any location where a "cool beam" is desirable. Of course, provision must be made for removal
of the heat from fixture if
the lamp is housed.
In a second design, multiple-layer filters are applied to the front of !he lamp. Each film acts to
transmit one color and reflect its complement (two color, hence dichroic). These dichroic filter
lamps produce a purer, more saturated color at high efficacy than is possible with selective
absorption filters.

4. LOW-VOLT AGE LAMPS

These lamps, in PAR shape and for 6-V operation, are available in extremely narrow beam
spread
(5-1 0 °} for special precision control floodlighting. The low voltage makes their application to
exterior work simply

5.KRYPTON GAS

This gas in lamps in place of the usual nitrogen-argon mixture conducts heat more
slowly from the filament and results in the approximately 10% higher efficacy, longer life, and
a smaller envelope. The cost premium for krypton lamps is approximately 50%. Applications
are in long-life lamps to increase efficacy and in exterior spots and floods to increase life and
output.

6. ENERGY-SAVING LAMPS
These are basically long-life lamps that are filled with krypton to raise efficacy. These lamps
can be substituted for standard lamps for appreciable savings in energy costs and relamping
costs. (see table below). Note that efficacy is still considerably below that of a standard lamp.
The use of krypton-filled lamps increases initial cost and decreases energy cost.

Artificial Lighting
2.FLUORESCENT LAMPS
3 Types of Fluorescent Light Bulbs
● T12 bulbs are the oldest type still in use in some
fluorescent fixtures.
● T8 bulbs are more expensive than T12 bulbs but will
start much faster.
● T5 bulbs are a smaller version of their big brothers.

A fluorescent lamp, or fluorescent tube, is a low-pressure mercury-

vapor gas-discharge lamp that uses fluorescence to produce visible
light. An electric current in the gas excites mercury vapor, which produces short-wave
ultraviolet light that then causes a phosphor coating on the inside of the lamp to glow. A
fluorescent lamp converts electrical energy into useful light much more efficiently than
incandescent lamps. The typical luminous efficacy of fluorescent lighting systems is 50–100
lumens per watt, several times the efficacy of incandescent bulbs with comparable light output.
In comparison, the luminous efficacy of an incandescent bulb is only 16 lumens per watt.

Fluorescent lamp fixtures are more costly than incandescent lamps because they require a
ballast to regulate the current through the lamp, but the lower energy cost typically offsets the
higher initial cost. Compact fluorescent lamps are now available in the same popular sizes as
incandescents and are used as an energy-saving alternative in homes.
Because they contain mercury, many fluorescent lamps are classified as hazardous waste.
The United States Environmental Protection Agency recommends that fluorescent lamps be
segregated from general waste for recycling or safe disposal, and some jurisdictions require
recycling of them.
PREHEAT LAMPS
The original fluorescent lamp was of a preheat design. Construction of a typical hot
cathode lamp

Basic Preheat circuit, starter may be any several

types, manual or automatic. The circuit does not
show compensation or other detailed elements
for the sake of clarity. Most preheat lamps are t-
12 and operate at 425 ma
 The circuit utilizes a separate starter,
which is a small cylindrical device that
plugs in-
to a preheat fixture. When the lamp
circuit is closed, the starter energizes
the cathodes; after a 2- to 5- second
delay, it initiates a high voltage arc
across the lamp, causing it to start.
Most starters are automatic, although
in desk lamps the preheating is accomplished by depressing the start button tor a few seconds
and then releasing it. This closes the circuit and allows the heating current to flow; releasing
the button causes the arc to strike.
All preheat lamps have bipin bases (see figure below.) They range in wattage from 4 to 90
Wand in length from 6 to 90 inches (0.15 to 2.25 M.l. A typical ordering abbreviation for a
preheat lamp would be f15T12WW. This translates: fluorescent lamp, 1 5W, tubular-shaped
bulb, 12/8-in. diameter (number represents diameter in one eighths of an inch), warm white
color see table below). In large measure preheat lamps have been supplanted by rapid- start
and instant-start types.

RAPID-START LAMPS
These are similar in construction to the preheat lamps; the basic difference is in the
circuitry

This circuit eliminates the delay inherent

in preheat circuits by keeping the lamp cathodes
constantly energized (preheated).
When the lamp circuit Is energized, the arc is
struck immediately. No external starter
is required. Because of this similarity of
operation, rapid start lamps will operate
satisfactorily in a preheat circuit. The reverse is
not true, because the preheat re·
quires more current to heat the cathode than the
rapid-start ballast provides.
This lamp is used in applications where high output is required from a limited size source such
as outdoor sign lighting, street lighting, and merchandise displays. Because of the serious
heat problems involved, VHO lamps are frequently operate without enclosing fixtures.

INSTANT-START FLUORESCENT LAMPS

Slimline lamps are the best-known variety of instant-start fluorescent lamps. They use a high-
voltage transformer to strike the arc without any cathode preheating. These lamps have only
a single pin at each end that also acts as a switch to break the ballast circuit when the lamp is
removed, thus lessening the shock hazard.
 basic instant-start circuit. voltage from ballast
transformer is high enough to strike an arc directly,
Note:
that unlike preheat and rapid start lamps. these are
single pin, since cathodes are not t-8 lamps
normally operate at 200ma, T-12 lamps at 425 ma

The lamps are generally operated in two-lamp

circuits at various currents; normal
currents are 200 and 425 ma, and normal lengths are 24, 36, 42, 48, 60, 64, 72,
84, and 96 in. (0.60, 0.90, 1.1 5, 1.20, 1.50, 1.60, 1.80, 2.1 0, and 2.40 M.) These lamps are
actually hot cathode instant-start lamps, which differentiates from
the high-voltage cold cathode type. Slimline lamps and ballasts are more expensive than
rapid-start and are somewhat less efficient. However, they are manufactured In certain sizes
and currents not made in rapid-start (ex: 96 in. 430 mal; and they have the additional
advantage of being able to start in much lower ambient temperatures (below 50 °F) than rapid-
start circuits. This starting characteristic makes the instant-start circuit particularly applicable
to outdoor use. A typical ordering description for such a lamp would be: F42T6CW Slimline,
which means: fluorescent,42-in., length tubular 6/8-in. diameter, cool white, instant start. The
T -6 narrow tube indicates a low-current, 200-ma lamp, in lieu of T-12 for the 425-ma lamp.
Note also that in instant-start lamps the number following F indicates length, not wattage. This
is true of all lamps that operate at other than 425 ma, which is the normal current. Typical
characteristics appear in the previous table under pre-heat lamps.
COLD CATHODE TUBES

The true cold cathode tubes uses a large, thimble-shaped

cathode and a high-voltage transformer that literally tears
the electrons out of the large cathode to strike the arc.
These lamps have a very long life which, in
contradistinction to hot cathode lamps, is virtually
unaffected by the number of starts. Cold cathode lamps
have a lower overall efficiency than the hot cathode types
and are normally used where long continuous runs are required as in architectural-type lighting
rather than in lighting fixtures. Cold cathode lamps are readily dimmed and also operate well
at varying ambient temperatures.

The Fluorescent Lamp- Characteristics and Operations

(a) LAMP LIFE

This is dependent on the burning hours per start. The figures listed in the previous table on
Typical Fluorescent lamp data and in the lamp catalogs for lamp life are based on a burning
cycle of 3 hr. per start and represents the average life of a group of lamps; That is, half of the
lamps of any group will have burned out at this time.

Typical lamp mortality curves are shown in figure (a)

and the effect of burning hours per start is shown in figure (b)

The significance of th1s item is connected with energy costs and utilization. From an energy
source viewpoint, if an area is not utilized for periods of 15 min. or more, fluorescent lamps
should be shut off. This takes into account the resource energy required to replace a tube as
a result of shortening its life. From a cost viewpoint, the break-even point depends on these
factors:
1 . Lamp life reduction as a function of burning hours per cycle
2. Cost of energy
3. Cost of lamp and lamp replacement
4. Amount of time lamp remains off when shut off
5. Cost of switching equipment (if any)
6. Life of the building

(b) LUMEN OUTPUT

The lumen output of a fluorescent tube decreases rapidly during the first 1 00 hr. of burning
and thereafter much more slowly. For this reason the tabulated initial lumen figures represent
output after 100 hr of burning. Data are also generally published on the lumen output at 40%
of average rated life.
(c) EFFICACY
Standard 425-ma lamps are most efficient, followed by HO 800-ma lamps, then VHO 1 500-
ma lamps. Specialty lamps such as reflector and low-wattage units are discussed in the
following paragraphs. Ballast losses, which. constitute 5 - 12% of lamp wattage, depend on
ballast type, circuit, manufacturer, and number of lamps connected.

(d) TEMPERATURE
The temperature of the tube. which is also an important factor in light output., is affected by
the ambient temperature. Maximum efficiency occurs with the tube operating at a bulb
temperature of 100 to 200 °f, with output reduction above and below these values.

(e) VOLTAGE
Voltage either above or below rating adversely affect life, unlike the effect of low voltage on
the incandescent lamp. The results of operation at other than rated voltage are shown
graphically in this figure. Normal operating voltage range for ballasts is 110 to 125 V on 120-
V circuits, 200 to 215 V on 208-V circuits, and 250 to 290 V on 277-V circuits.

(f) DIMMING AND LOW-OUTPUT

Dimming and low-output operation are accomplished by the use of special one-and two-lamp
ballasts, with appropriate controls in the case of dimming. Smooth dimming control down to
1% output is possible with solid-state electronic dimming, with the lamp starting at any level.
When specifying dimming equipment. care should be exercised to select high-quality SCR
controls, so as to avoid causing radio frequency interference (RFII. The cost of dimming
equipment is very high and is only justified when smooth changes and unlimited choice of light
level are mandatory. Where it is desired simply to be able to reduce the lighting level, as in
classrooms, lecture halls, or multipurpose areas, two-and three level ballasts are available for
one or two 40-W, 48-in RS lamps.
Special Fluorescent Lamps
 (a) "U"-SHAPED LAMPS

This were developed to answer the need for a high-

efficiency fluorescent source that could be utilized in a
square fixture, since the normal fluorescent lamp
shape
is frequently not architecturally suitable.

The U lamp is basically a standard 40-W, 48-in. fluorescent tube bent into a U shape and
available with 3 5/8 or 6 in. leg spacing; the former can be accommodated three to a 2-ft
sq. fixture. and the latter two to a 2 ft. sq. fixture. The lamps operate on standard
ballasts and have slightly lower output. than the corresponding straight tube. Insofar as
energy as energy is concerned, their use is much more desirable than using 2-ft lamps, as
can readily be seen from the following data.

Two foot square fluorescent fixture with four 2-ft cw lamps 110 w 5200 lm=9000-hr. life.

Two U-shaped, cw lamps 100 w 5800 lm = 12,000-hr life

(b) Reflector and Aperture lamps

These lamps contain an internal reflector that performs in
the same fashion as the
more common reflector in the incandescent Rand PAR
lamp. The reflector lamp is
completely phosphor-coated, while the aperture lamp has
a clear "window"
resulting in very high luminance of this slot.

Both types have lower efficacy than a normal tube and are
generally applied where
an enclosing fixture is uneconomical or impractical. as in
handrails or for sign
illumination.
Tests using 235° reflector lamps in normal fluorescent
fixtures intended for
Standard tubes indicate that the fixture coefficient of
utilization increases
up to 50%, depending on the fixture design. This is
because the light normally trapped between the tubes and the fixture is saved, since
almost no light is radiated above 62. 5c from the vertical (cut-oft of the
internal reflector) . Thus, using reflector lamps for general illumination can result
in considerable savings in energy costs.
(c) Energy-Conserving lamps
These lamps are produced by all three major manufacturers and have trademark
names
WATT-miser by General Electric
Econo-watt by Westinghouse
Super-saver by Sylvania
These lamps are intended as lower-wattage replacements for standard lamps.
Comparative wattages follow.

Artificial lighting
NEON LAMPS
Neon vapor lamps consist of exhausted
glass tubes filled with neon gas that is
ionized
and conducts an electric current through
the tube. A high voltage is required
because of
the large voltage drop at the cathode;
consequently, a transformer is a
necessary part of
the equipment. A step up from 115 to 6000 or 10,000 V may be required. Neon light has a
pink to dark red color, depending on the gas pressure. The tubes are commonly used in street,
window and indoor signs.

Different colors may be obtained by using mixtures of the two, or by using colored glass
tubing.

Artificial lighting
HIGH-INTENSITY DISCHARGE (HID) LAMPS
These lamps have inherently high efficacy and, with appropriate color correction, can be
utilized in any application, indoor or outdoor, that does not have critical color criteria.

Artificial lighting
MERCURY LAMPS
These lamps operate by passing an arc through a high-pressure mercury vapor contained in
an arc tube made of quartz or glass

Application
Mercury-vapor lamps are applicable to indoor and outdoor use with proper attention
to color and fixture brightness. Indoor application is generally limited to mounting 1 0
AFF or higher to avoid glare problems and to permit adequate area coverage. Use in
industrial spaces and stores is common.

Special Mercury lamps

In an attempt to satisfy the desire for a small lamp to take the place of incandescent in
interior fixtures, manufacturers have made available mercury lamps in 40-, 50-, 75-,
100-, and 175-W sizes, in deluxe white and other color-corrected designs. For the smaller
sizes, screw-in-ballasts are available, so that replacing an incandescent is simply a matter of
screwing in a ballast and a small mercury lamp. In the 175-W size the ballast must be
separately mounted. Available also are self-ballasted lamps (require no separate ballast},
which can be used self-ballasted lamps (require no separate ballast), which can be used
where ballast mounting is inconvenient, expensive, or undesirable for other reason . In both
cases, there is no doubt that the extremely long life, good color and reliability of these
incandescent substitutes make their use attractive in locations where relamping is difficult and
expensive.

Metal Halide Lamps

This is basically a mercury lamp that has been altered by the addition to the arc-tube of
halides of metals such as thallium, indium, or sodium. The addition of these salts causes light
to be radiated at frequencies other than the basic mercury colors and increases efficacy, but
reduces the life and reduces lumen maintenance to 60% at two-thirds life. The color produced
is much warmer than that of the mercury light. Clear lamps are recommended for exterior use
and phosphor-coated units for all indoor application including food displays.

Artificial Lighting
High Pressure Sodium Lamps

Construction is quite different from that of mercury and metal-halide lamps and, although
it operates as an arc discharge unit, its excellent characteristics stem from the spectral
absorption phenomenon of the contained sodium under high pressure. The resultant light
is a yellow-tinted color, similar to that of warm white fluorescent lamps. Typical
characteristics are:
Unlike the metal-halide lamp, the HPS unit is not voltage sensitive and is color constant.
As with all discharge lamps, a ballast is required to supply the high voltage to strike the
arc, and to control the arc once struck. On the average HPS lamps will supply double the
efficacy of mercury lamps. These direct mercury replacements are marketed under the
trade names of E-Z lux and unalux by G.E. and Sylvania, respectively. HPS lamps are
available in clear and coated designs. The clear is effectively a point source and. because
of its extreme brightness, must be enclosed in a fixture. The coated is intended to
substitute photometrically for coated mercury lamps and to constitute a lesser glare
source, since lamp surface brightness is correspondingly reduced.

Artificial Lighting
Low Pressure Sodium Lamps

This lamp, also referred to as SOX. produces light of sodium's characteristic

monochromatic deep yellow color, making it inapplicable for general lighting. Because of
its very high efficacy of over 1 50 lumens per watt including ballast loss, it can be applied
wherever color is not an important criteria. Thus SOX is widely used for street, road, and
area lighting, as well as for emergency or after-hours indoor lighting. Another desirable
aspect of SOX lamps is their 100% lumen maintenance. This, coupled with the
discharge lamp's typically long life (18,000 HRS), make SOX lamps the most economical
source available today in terms of cost per million lumens produced.
ILLUMINATION

Good illumination or lighting is necessary for all buildings and has three primary aims.

· To promote work and other activities carried out within the building;
· To promote the safety of the people using the building
· To create, in conjunction with the structure and decoration, a pleasing
environment conducive to interest of the occupants and a sense of their well-being.

Illumination can transform the night-time appearance of a building or landscape. The

aesthetics, usability and desirability of a structure or place can be increased by good
illumination design.

Basic Terminology and Definitions

In illumination, four main units are used to describe light and its effects

Luminous flux : Luminous flux (Φ) is the quantity of the energy of the light emitted
per second in all directions. unit :- lumen (lm).

Luminous intensity : Luminous intensity (I) is the ability to emit light into a given
direction, or it is the luminous flux that is radiated by the light source in a given direction
within the unit of the spatial angel. unit :-candela.
Illuminance : Illuminance (E) is the total luminous flux incident on a surface, per unit
area. unit :-candela /m2

Luminance : Luminance (L) is the luminous intensity emitted by the surface area of 1
cm² (or 1 m²) of the light source. unit :- lux (lx).

E=Φ/S

S= Illuminated surface (m2)

Φ = Luminous flux

E = Illuminance

L=I/S

S = Illuminated surface (m2)

I = Luminous intensity

L = Luminance

Ω = solid angle into which luminous flux is emitted

A = area hit by luminous flux

All four Light units can be described as psychophysical as they

are combination of human response and physical units of power.
luminaire efficiency
Luminaire Efficiency are quoted in terms of light output ratio (
LOR )

Downward Light output ration (DLOR) = Downward lumen output

of luminarire / Total Lamp Lumen output

Upward LIght output ratio (ULOR) = Upward lumen ouput of

luminaire / Total Lamp Lumen output

Light output ratio (LOR) = DLOR + ULOR

Laws of Illumination

The Inverse Square Law of Illuminance

Illuminance (E) at any point on a plane perpendicular to the line joining the point and
source is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the source and
plane.

E = I / d2

I = intensity

d=

The Cosine Law of Illuminance / Lambert’s Cosine Law

Illuminance at a point on a plane is proportional to the cosine of the angle of light

incident (the angle between the direction of the incident light and the normal to the
plane).

Eθ = E cosθ

Laws of Reflection and Refraction

Law of reflection

θ1 = angle of incidence

θ’1 = angle of reflection.

Law of refraction (Snell’s Law) :

θ2 = angle of refraction;

μ1 = refractive index of medium 1

μ2 = refractive index of medium 2

I – Incident ray

R’ – Reflected ray

R- Refracted ray
N- Normal to the surface

I , R’ ,R ,N are in one plane

Visual efficiency & comfort

For practical purpose visual efficiency of person depends on level of

illumination and ability to see objects in three facet
1. Visual acuity (VA) Sharpness of Vision
2. Contrast sensitivity (CS)
3. Visual performance

Visual acuity measured as reciprocal of visual angle ρ (in minutes) subtended at eye
by the least perceptible detail

Contrast sensitivity = (Least perceptible luminence difference (L2-L1) / Lower

luminence (L1) ) X 100%

Visual performance time required for seeing expressed possibly as number of

characters perceived per second

Glare considered as a comfort parameter, is the unpleasant effect caused by an

excessive contrast of luminance in the visual field. Glare is a condition of vision in
which there is discomfort or a reduction in the ability to see significant objects or both
due to an unsuitable distribution or range of luminance or due to extreme contrasts in
space and time.

Day lighting

The primary source of lighting for daylighting is the sun. The light received by the earth
from the sun consists of two parts, namely, direct solar illuminance and sky
illuminance

For the purposes of daylighting design, direct solar illuminance shall not be considered
and only sky illuminance shall be taken as contributing to illumination of the building
interiors during the day.

Daylight factor (DF) is the ratio of the light level inside a structure to the light level
outside the structure.

Ei = illumiance due to daylight at a point on the indoors working plane

Eo = simultaneous outdoor illuminance on a horizontal plane from an unobstructed

hemisphere of overcast sky

Components of Daylight Factor

Daylight factor is the sum of all the daylight reaching on an indoor reference point from
the following sources:

1.Direct sky visible from the point, expressed as the sky component (SC),

2.External surfaces reflecting light directly to the point , expressed as the externally
reflected component (ERC),

3.Internal surfaces reflecting and inter-reflecting light to the point, expressed as the
internally reflected component (IRC).

DF = SC+ ERC+IRC

Design variable for SC

· Area of sky visible from point

· Average altitude angle
· Window size
· Window position in relation to point
· Thickness of window frame member
· Quality of glass
· External obstruction

Design variable for ERC

· The Area of external surface visible from the point

· Reflectance of external surface

Design variable for IRC

· Size of Room
· The ratio of wall etc.
· Surface in relation to window area

· Reflectance of indoor surfaces

Artificial Lighting Design

Artificial lighting may have to be provided,

1.where the recommended illumination levels have to be obtained by artificial lighting

only

2.to supplement daylighting when the level of illumination falls below the
recommended value
3.where visual task may demand a higher level of illumination

A lighting design has several stages. These are as follows:

1.Identification of the requirements for the lighting system, illuminance levels,

colour requirements, available space, etc;

2.Selection of equipment, lamps, luminaires: lamps, which influence the lighting

level, colour characteristics and efficiency of the lighting system; luminaires affect the
efficiency with which the light is distributed and so affect lighting efficiency and
uniformity

3. Design of the lighting system: lighting systems are designed to achieve a

reasonably uniform distribution of light on a particular plane (usually horizontal),
avoidance of glare with a minimum expenditure of energy. The most rudimentary form
of lighting design is done using a manual calculation – the lumen method. However
lighting design is increasingly done by computer.

4. System control: once a lighting system has been designed it can be controlled in
such a way as to make maximum use of available daylight, through selection of
appropriate switching mechanisms and daylight responsive controls.

Identification of Lighting Requirements

Lighting requirements are primarily dictated by the function of a space or the tasks
being performed within it. Lighting requirements are usually specified by value of
illuminance

Recommended Values of Illuminance as per NBC 2016

Light Level or Illuminance is the total luminous flux incident on a

surface per unit area. The area - the work plane - is where the
most important tasks in the room or space are performed.

Illuminance can be expressed as

E=Φ/A (1)

where
E = light intensity, illuminance (lm/m2, lux)

Φ = luminous flux - the quantity of light emitted by a light source

(lumen, lm)

A = area (m2)

Measuring Units Light Level - Illuminance

Illuminance is measured in foot candles (ftcd, fc, fcd) in the
Imperial system or lux in the metric SI system.

● one foot candle = one lumen of light density per square foot
● one lux = one lumen per square meter
● 1 lux = 1 lumen / sq metre = 0.0001 phot = 0.0929 foot candle (ftcd, fcd)
● 1 phot = 1 lumen / sq centimetre = 10000 lumens / sq metre = 10000 lux
● 1 foot candle (ftcd, fcd) = 1 lumen / sq ft = 10.752 lux

Outdoor Light Levels

Common outdoor light levels at day and night:

Condition Illumination

(ftcd) (lux)

Sunlight 10000 107527

Full Daylight 1000 10752

Overcast Day 100 1075

Very Dark Day 10 107

Twilight 1 10.8
 Deep Twilight 0.1 1.08

Full Moon 0.01 0.108

Quarter Moon 0.001 0.0108

Starlight 0.0001 0.0011

Overcast Night 0.00001 0.0001

Indoor Light Levels

The outdoor light level is approximately 10000 lux on a clear day.
In a building in the area closest to the windows the light level may
be reduced to approximately 1000 lux. In the middle area it may
be as low as 25 - 50 lux. Additional lighting is often necessary to
compensate low levels.

According EN 12464 Light and lighting - Lighting of workplaces -

Indoor work places, the minimum illuminance is 50 lx for walls
and 30 lx for ceilings. Earlier it was common with light levels in
the range 100 - 300 lux for normal activities. Today the light level
is more common in the range 500 - 1000 lux - depending on
activity. For precision and detailed works the light level may even
approach 1500 - 2000 lux.

Recommended light levels for different types of work spaces are

indicated below:

Activity Illuminance

(lx, lumen/m2)

Public areas with dark surroundings 20 - 50

 Simple orientation for short visits 50 - 100

Areas with traffic and corridors - stairways, escalators 100

and travelators - lifts - storage spaces

Working areas where visual tasks are only 100 - 150

occasionally performed

Warehouses, homes, theaters, archives, loading bays 150

Coffee break room, technical facilities, ball-mill areas, 200

pulp plants, waiting rooms,

Easy office work 250

Class rooms 300

Normal office work, PC work, study library, groceries, 500

show rooms, laboratories, check-out areas, kitchens,
auditoriums

Supermarkets, mechanical workshops, office 750

landscapes

Normal drawing work, detailed mechanical workshops, 1000

operation theaters

Detailed drawing work, very detailed mechanical 1500 - 2000

works, electronic workshops, testing and adjustments

Performance of visual tasks of low contrast and very 2000 - 5000

small size for prolonged periods of time

Performance of very prolonged and exacting visual 5000 - 10000

tasks
 Performance of very special visual tasks of extremely 10000 - 20000
low contrast and small size

Calculating Illumination
Illumination can be calculated as

E = Φl Cu LLF / Al

where

E = illumination (lux, lumen/m2)

Φl = luminance per lamp (lumen)

Cu = coefficient of utilization

LLF = light loss factor

Al = area per lamp (m2)

Example - Illumination
10 incandescent lamps of 500 W (10600 lumens per lamp) are
used in an area of 50 m2. With Cu = 0.6 and LLF = 0.8 illumination
can be calculated as

E = 10 (10600 lumens) (0.6) (0.8) / (50 m2)

= 1018 lux

FACTORS

The most prominent characteristic of daylight is its viability. Obviously the source of all
daylight is the sun. The level of exterior illumination, at a particular palce and time,
depends on:

1. Altitude and azimuth (latitude, date, time of day)

 2. Weather conditions (cloud, cover, smog)

3. Effects of local terrain (natural and man-made obstructions and

reflections).

The position of the sun in the sky is expressed in terms of its altitude above the horizon
and its azimuth angle. The latter is defined as its horizontal position angles, measured
from the south. Both are normally expressed in degrees

It is assumed that the reader is familiar with the basic astronomical phenomena
governing the motion of the earth, which produces seasonal and latitudinal variations
in the positions of the sun. For our purpose, we will simply state the important facts,
which are:
SKY CONDITIONS

In view of the extreme variability of exterior

illumination and the difficulty involved in
determining it, several fundamental questions
face the designer
1. Should an accurate calculation be attempted,
boned on a specific location,
or should prevailing weather and its
attendant eky Conditions be used?
2. The sun's values of eaten, illunlinalinn
SnOulO be used In CalCallatino interior levels in
view of the daily and seasonal changes?
3. What degree of accuracy is necessary?
When using hand methods las opposed to
computers). 11 is not practical to calculete
hourly, daily, or even monthly variations. it is
sufficient coestablish four basic sky conditions,
which can then be used with the Specific design
approach desired these ore
1. Completely overcast sky
2. Clew sky, without sun
3- Clem sky, with sun
4. Partly cloudy sky

FACTORS IN INTERIOR DAYLIGHTING:

⦁ HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL SURFACES

⦁ WINDOWS DETAILS

The effect of window construction on total fenestration area reduction is often

neglected even windows with narrow mullions and light metal frames have 8 to 10%
obstruction, heavy window supports and small glass, lights can result proportional
daylight reduction. Further obstruction readily results from dust accumulation, wired
glass, and mechanical system items such as pipes and ducts inside the room, adjacent
to windows.

⦁ SURFACE REFLECTION

Interior reflection are very important in daylight design. In addition to determining the
magnitude of the internally reflected light component (IRC) within the room, they
determine in large measure the eye adaptation level.

⦁ GLARE AND HEAT CONTROL

These are among the difficult problems to overcome in daylighting. The following
recommendations will be helpful.

1. Provide high-reflectance surfaces particularly toward the back of the room

where daylight factor is low.
 2. Building orientation is the factor that determines which areas are exposed to
natural glare and heat extremes.

BEAR THESE FACTS IN MIND:

A. Southern exposure receives maximum overall daylight but without the

extremes associated with low sun angles, except at a high altitude.
B. Northern exposure receive minimum daylight and no direct sun. As a
result levels are low but relatively constant throughout the day.

East and west exposures receive extreme light and heat because of low sun
angles in early morning and late

3. Provide fixed sunshades on sun exposure at low altitudes: and operable sun control
devices on sun exposures at all latitudes.

4. Translucent, limited-brightness, glass or plastic fenestration including light directing

glass block just below the ceiling line and above the vision panels (clear windows)
provides maximum penetration and minimum glare.

5. Tinted windows and heat reflective films are not usually desirable, except in retrofit
installations because the affect the quality of daylight.

6. 6. Orient furniture so that daylight comes from the left side or the rear of the line of
sight.

7. 7. Sunlight reflection from adjacent structures can be a source of intense glare and
heat.
QUANTITY OF LIGHT
INTRODUCTION:
When choosing a light source for a particular installation, many factors
must be taken into consideration, such as the purpose of the area you are
illuminating, cost of installation and maintenance. Two of the most
significant considerations in lighting installations are
the Quantity and Quality of Light produced.
Explanation : Some tasks or areas will require higher lighting levels than
others, and so the Quantity of light produced may need to be increased,
perhaps with higher wattage lamps.
QUANTITY OF LIGHT DEFINITION
Merriam Webster:
Luminous energy that is the product of mean, luminous flux by time
Architectural Utilities 3 (Lightings % Acoustics)
by: George S. Salvan:
Concept of Quantity Of Light:

Quantity > 3 PROPERTIES OF LIGHT/ LANGUAGE OF LIGHT

1. Quantity
2. Quality
3. Direction
Quantity of light is sometimes referred to as intensity of light.
It basically means, how much light is there, it could be expressed by
exposure of the power of light.
FILAMENT LAMP: 1200 lumens, intense, focused/ directed distribution

FLUORESCENT TUBULAR LAMP: 1200 lumens, less brighter because

it is emitted from a much larger area and it spreads over a wide angle.
The list shown below includes IES recommended lighting levels for a
selection of industrial/commercial spaces. It gives these recommendations
in the form of average foot-candles and lux values. Both of these are
measurements for how much light makes it onto a surface. Lux means
lumens per square meter, and foot-candles means lumens per square foot.
A lumen is simply a measurement that describes the amount of light
produced by a bulb or fixture.
Light Sources
DAYLIGHT

Daylight is the most sustainable source of light for building interiors. The application
of daylight as a primary source of illumination for buildings has expanded in recent years, with
the increased focus on high performance and green building design. Implementation of
daylighting in architectural spaces, however, is a challenging task due to its variability in both
quantity and direction across time of day, season and weather conditions.

Daylight is distinguished as a light source by its unique changing spectra and

distribution. The daily and seasonal movements of the sun with respect to a particular
geographic location produces a predictable pattern in both the amount and direction of the
available daylight. Superimposed on this predictable pattern is variation caused by changes
in the weather, temperature, and particulate matter in the air. The source of all daylight
originates with the sun, however in daylighting design, the sun and sky are generally
considered as distinct sources because they have very different characteristics, as described
below.

THE SUN

The solar disk is roughly one-half degree in diameter, with a luminance prior to
atmospheric attenuation of approximately 1.6 x 109 cd/m2. This extreme luminance and the
sun’s output in the non-visible portion of the electromagnetic spectrum are capable of causing
permanent physical damage to the eye if viewed directly. If allowed to enter a building, the
primary concern is glare caused either by a direct view of the sun, or by the high luminance
patterns it creates. The sun traverses an arc across the sky throughout the course of a day,
with the position of this arc varying with time of year and site latitude. The apparent motion of
the sun along this path is 15° per hour. Its highest point above the horizon occurs at solar
noon, which coincides with the orientation of the North or South Pole, depending on site
location.

Solar illuminance measured on a plane normal to the sun’s direction is a function of

both solar altitude and sky clearness, and can reach values as high as 100,000 lux. Since the
earth’s orbit is elliptical, the value at the outer reaches of the earth’s atmosphere varies by
approximately ±3.2% from its yearly average, peaking around January 3rd and reaching a
minimum on or about July 4th. Given its magnitude, the sun is a significant source of daylight,
but only if it is appropriately controlled and distributed within a space. The sun can also be a
significant source of glare and heat gain, which is why many daylight systems attempt to block
direct sunlight and transmit the diffuse daylight from the sky and ground.
The ever-changing position of the sun in the sky presents a major challenge when attempting
to redirect, control or eliminate direct sunlight. The sun’s position is expressed in terms of two
angles: the solar altitude, at (the vertical angle of the sun above the horizon), and the solar
azimuth, as (the horizontal angle of the sun measured from a polar south direction with positive
angles in a westward direction).
Figure 1, Represent sun paths across the year. Solar
position is relative to the center of the large circle
surrounding the building. The arcs represent the 21st day
of each month, while the loops represent solar positions
at the top of each hour (in solar time). The shape of these
single hour loops is the effect of the Equation of Time.
The lowest sun path occurs at the winter solstice, and the
highest path at the summer solstice. Rendered shadows
in these figures permit the evaluation of sunlight
penetration through daylight apertures into spaces. Note
that the software tool used to generate these images
(EcotectTM) places the zero-degree solar azimuth at
north rather than south.

Figure 2 | Solar Position

Solar altitude (at) and solar azimuth

(as) define
the sun’s position in the sky.
The Sunlight After Sunset

Lingering daylight after the sun is below the horizon is

another effect of refraction. Light travels at a slightly slower
speed in Earth’s atmosphere than in space. As a result,
sunlight is refracted by the atmosphere. In the morning, this
refraction causes sunlight to reach us before the sun is
actually above the horizon. In the evening, sunlight is bent
above the horizon after the sun has actually set. So, daylight
is extended in the morning and evening because of the
refraction of light. Note: the picture greatly exaggerates this
effect as well as the thickness of the atmosphere.

Dispersion of Light

Dispersion is the separation of light into a spectrum by refraction. The index of

refraction is actually a function of wavelength. For longer wavelengths the index is slightly
small. Thus, red light refracts less than violet light. (The pic is exaggerated.) This effect causes
white light to split into its spectrum of colors. Red light travels the fastest in glass, has a smaller
index of refraction, and bends the least. Violet is slowed down the most, has the largest index,
and bends the most. In other words: the higher the frequency, the greater the bending.
There are many natural occurrences of light optics in our atmosphere. One of the most
common of these is the rainbow, which is caused by water droplets dispersing sunlight. Others
include arcs, halos, cloud iridescence, and many more.
Rainbow

A rainbow is a spectrum formed when

sunlight is dispersed by water droplets in the
atmosphere. Sunlight incident on a water
droplet is refracted. Because of dispersion,
each color is refracted at a slightly different
angle. At the back surface of the droplet, the
light undergoes total internal reflection on the
way out of the droplet, the light is once more
refracted and dispersed. Although each
droplet produces a complete spectrum, an
observer will only see a certain wavelength of
light from each droplet. (The wavelength
depends on the relative positions of the sun,
droplet, and observer.) Because there are
millions of droplets in the sky, a complete
spectrum is seen. The droplets reflecting red
light make an angle of 42o with respect to the
direction of the sun’s rays; the droplets
reflecting violet light make an angle of 40.

The Sky

A clear sky is made luminous through

Rayleigh scattering of sunlight by air
molecules, small particles of water vapor, and particulate matter in the atmosphere. Shorter
wavelength light is scattered more than longer wavelengths, giving the sky its blue color. When
clouds are present, they reflect and diffuse sunlight with minimal influence on the spectrum.
For daylight purposes, the sky is considered to be a luminous hemisphere, providing light from
multiple directions with a luminance distribution that varies with solar position and atmospheric
conditions. The highly diffuse nature of daylight from the sky is quite the opposite of direct
sunlight, which is highly directional. For daylight striking a horizontal plane such as the ground
or the roof of a building, an unobstructed sky covers the entire field of view. For a vertical
surface such as a window, the sky encompasses one-half of all possible incident light
directions, with the ground covering the other half.

A wide range of sky conditions exist between a totally clear and overcast sky. The
standard partly cloudy sky model is an average of these. Figure 7.5 shows the luminance
distribution of the sky dome for a standard partly cloudy sky. The more advanced Perez and
CIE models provide sky conditions that obscure the sun to varying degrees, while also
addressing the sky luminance distribution under these conditions.
Externally Reflected Daylight
 While the sun and sky are the primary sources
of daylight, externally reflected light from the ground
and adjacent structures or objects also contributes
luminous flux to daylight apertures. For a vertical
window on a flat site, the ground encompasses the
lower half of the field of view.
Like skylight, ground light is usually diffuse, with its
luminance a function of the ground reflectance, the
sky conditions, and shadowing and reflections
provided by surrounding objects. Light reflected from
the ground provides an important daylight
contribution, since it is directed through vertical
apertures to the ceiling and walls. The fraction of the
total incident daylight on a vertical façade that arrives
from the ground can range from below 10% to as high
as 70-80% at a ground reflectance of 20%. The
lowest fractions occur when direct sunlight strikes the
facade, while the highest occur on a facade facing
away from the sun on a clear day, when the sky is
deep blue and the ground is sunlit. Under an overcast
sky, the ground contribution is generally around 20%.
Ground reflectance can vary significantly, as shown
in Table 6. Light-colored ground surfaces such as
sand and snow will result in higher ground contributions.

Objects such as trees, neighboring buildings, and other portions of the same building
can limit the view of the ground or sky seen from a daylight aperture. In these situations,
daylight from portions of the sky or ground is replaced by light reflected from the obstructing
object, which may either increase or decrease the daylight delivered to a building interior.

Spectrum

Daylight spectra are continuous and have nearly equal energy per wavelength.
Because the spectral distribution of daylight changes with solar position as well as sky
conditions, the Commission Internationale de l’Éclairage (CIE). These SPDs are used as the
reference sources for the evaluation of CRI for light sources with CCT of 5000 K or higher.

The luminous efficacy of daylight varies with sky conditions.

The overall global average across a year is generally in the range of 105-110 lumens
per watt. Solar beam efficacy is relatively low at roughly 70-95 lumens per watt, while the light
from the sky is generally on the order of 115-120 lumens per watt for an overcast sky and 120-
160 or more lumens per watt for a clear sky [6]. Spectrally selective glazing can increase the
efficacy of daylight that enters a building by excluding a greater fraction of the non-visible
wavelengths.
 The resulting impact of daylight efficacy is quite different from that of efficacy for
electric light. The watts associated with daylight entering a building are realized as heat gain
within a building, whereas with electric lighting these watts also must be spent to power the
light source. If thermal losses are low and interior daylight levels or system losses are not
excessive, this can lead to an energy advantage for daylighting. Become warm on the CCT
scale, when it can fall as low as 2000 K. At these times, the shorter wavelengths are removed
by atmospheric scattering of the sunlight beam, lowering the CCT and creating colorful orange
and red sunrises and sunsets. In general, the CCT of daylight incident on an aperture will be
5000 K or higher most of the time, and is a function of the amount of light received from the
sun, sky, and ground, as well as the sky conditions and aperture orientation. Glazing material
that is not spectrally neutral will alter the makeup of the transmitted light, and change the CCT
of daylight within a space

Color Rendering

Daylight’s continuous and relatively uniform output across the visible spectrum delivers
relatively consistent and high-quality color rendering. Colors tend to take on their “natural” hue
under daylight, although certain daylight conditions can create very high CCTs, which will alter
the color appearance of materials due to the relatively large blue component. Since
standardized daylight spectra serve as the reference source for determining CRI for light
sources above 5000 K, the CRI of daylight is generally near 100. However, like with CCT, the
spectral transmittance of glazing materials can alter the color rendering characteristics of
daylight.

Solar Position

The position of the sun is specified by two angles, the solar altitude, at, and solar
azimuth. The solar altitude is the vertical angle of the sun’s position with respect to the horizon,
while the solar azimuth denotes the sun’s position in a horizontal plane measured from south
(note that some sources measure solar azimuth from north). Both of these angles are a
function of the site latitude, solar time and solar declination (the tilt of the earth’s axis with
respect to the sun, which is a function of the calendar day).

Site Location

A site’s location is one input in determining solar position, and is specified by both its latitude,
, and longitude, L. These values can be determined for most sites using an atlas or the Internet.

Conventions for expressing latitudes used in equations are:

Positive = northern hemisphere

Negative = southern hemisphere

Conventions used in expressing longitudes are:

Positive = west of prime meridian (Greenwich, United Kingdom)

Negative = east of prime meridian
 Solar Time

To determine the sun’s position, it is first necessary to determine the solar time, which is based
on the local time and site location. A 24-hour clock is used to express time. Three adjustments
must be considered in converting local time to solar time.

If daylight savings time is in effect, one hour must be subtracted from the local clock
time to arrive at standard time, ts.

ts = tlocal – 1

Where: ts = standard time tlocal = local time

The Equation of Time (ET), which accounts for the earth’s elliptical orbit about the sun
and the tilt of the earth’s axis relative to its plane of orbit, adjusts the time between -14 and
+16 minutes over the year

Where:

ET = Equation of Time correction, in decimal hours (for example, 1:30 p.m. = 13.5)
J = Julian day, a number between 1 and 365 While this equation should suffice for most
applications, a more accurate and less simplified equation is provided by Meeus

The longitude correction accounts for the site’s longitude relative to a time zone’s
standard meridian (its center longitude). Time zones are nominally 15 degrees wide, therefore
solar noon at the east and west boundaries of a time zone occur approximately one-half hour
earlier and one-half hour later than at the standard meridian, and intermediate positions
receive correspondingly smaller corrections based on their position within the time zone.

Solar time, t, is computed from standard time, ts, using the following equation, where the
rightmost term is the longitude correction
Solar Angles

The solar azimuth and

altitude define the
sun’s position and are determined from solar time and site latitude through a series of
equations.
 If the sun is above the horizon, this equation returns an angle between 0 and pi/2. The
solar altitude is negative when the sun is below the horizon. The solar azimuth, as, the
horizontal angle of the sun’s position measured from south, is determined as follows.

The solar azimuth can range from -pi to +pi, with negative angles east of south and
positive angles west of south. To achieve the full range of required angles, the arctan function
used in the above equation must be capable of evaluating the sign of both the numerator and
denominator to place the angle in the appropriate quadrant and assign it the correct value.

Solar Angles Relative to a Vertical Surface

In analyzing daylight systems, it is often necessary to determine the incident angle, ai , at

which sunlight strikes an aperture as shown in Figure 7.9. For a vertical aperture, such as a
window, this angle is based on the solar elevation azimuth, az, the azimuth angle of the sun’s
relative to a façade’s elevation azimuth.

Where:

az = solar elevation azimuth in radians,

as = solar azimuth in radians,
ae = elevation azimuth in radians.

Positive angles are measured in a clockwise direction, with both ae and as referenced
from south.
The incident angle for a vertical surface is the angle between a vector normal to the surface
and the direction to the sun, and is equal to:
 The profile angle, ap, is the apparent altitude of the sun relative to a vertical surface of
interest. It can be used to evaluate sunlight penetration distance or the shading impact of an
overhang or light shelf.

Where:
ap = profile angle in radians,
at = solar altitude in radians,
ai = incident angle in radians,
az = solar elevation azimuth in radian

DAYLIGHT AVAILABILITY

The phrase “daylight availability” refers to the amount of light provided from the sun, sky and
ground at a specific location, orientation, time, date, and sky condition. Measurements of
daylight illuminance and sky luminance by researchers working all over the world have
resulted in very similar mean values for the sun and sky contributions. Formula to estimate
the available daylight illuminance have been derived from these values. Because these are
best fits to average values, they are unlikely to agree with instantaneous values, and it is not
unusual for instantaneous values to be more than twice or less than half of these mean design
values.

Calculation of daylight availability at a site begins with a determination of solar position. For a
particular sky condition, standard equations can then provide either the daylight illuminance
for a complete full or half-sky on a horizontal or vertical plane, or the complete luminance
distribution of the sky. Software tools generally apply sky luminance patterns to determine the
available daylight onto daylight apertures and can address complex situations involving a
partial view of the sky.

STAR – The star is the other factor that produces light even though the amount of quantity
that reaches the earth is small.

MOON – Moon is also one planet that gives light as well but not of its own. The light that the
moon gives is the light reflected from the sun because the moon does not have its own light.
 FILAMENT LAMPS

Filament lamps consist of a wire filament mounted within a glass bulb that contains a gas or
a vacuum. Optical radiation is emitted when the filament is heated to incandescence by the
passage of electrical current. End of life is most commonly due to tungsten evaporation, which
leads to failure of the filament.

General Principles of Operation

Electric current passes through a thin filament of tungsten wire, heating it until it emits optical
radiation. The efficacy of light production depends on the temperature of the filament: the
higher the temperature, the greater the portion of optical radiation emitted in the visible region.

The major factors that affect filament temperature are: the filament material, microstructure,
and geometry; the composition of the atmosphere, and its pressure; and the magnitude of
electrical current. All else equal, lamp life is inversely related to filament temperature. It is
therefore important in the design of a lamp to keep the filament temperature as high as is
consistent with satisfactory life.

Construction

The basic components are a filament, bulb, gas fill, and base. When the gas fill includes a
halogen, usually bromine, the lamp is referred to as a tungsten halogen lamp. When a special
coating is applied to a tungsten halogen capsule to redirect infrared radiation back to the
filament, it is then known as a halogen infrared lamp

Filament

Early

incandescent lamps used carbon, osmium, and tantalum filaments, but tungsten has the
desirable properties of a high melting point, low vapor pressure, high strength, and suitable
radiating characteristics and electrical resistance. Its melting point of 3382° C permits high
operating temperatures and high efficacies in comparison to other potential filament materials.
Drawn tungsten wire has high strength and ductility, allowing the uniformity necessary for
present-day lamp tolerances. In some lamp designs tungsten is alloyed with other metals,
such as rhenium, and thoriated tungsten wire is used in filaments for rough service
applications. Less than 10% of the total radiation from an incandescent source is in the visible
region of the spectrum. As the temperature of a tungsten filament is raised, the proportion of
radiation in the visible region increases, and thus luminous efficacy increases. The luminous
efficacy of uncoiled tungsten wire at its melting point is approximately 53 lumens per watt. In
order to obtain long life, it is necessary to operate a filament at a temperature well below the
melting point, resulting in lower efficacies. In tungsten filament lamps the hot resistance is 12
to 16 times greater than the cold resistance. The comparatively low cold resistance results in
an initial in-rush of current, which may be important in the design and adjustment of circuit
breakers, in the design of lighting-circuit switch contacts, and in dimmer design. The in-rush
lasts for only a fraction of a second and is negligible as an additional energy load.

Bulb

General lighting service (GLS) filament lamps have one bulb; it is the outer envelope and is
made of soda lime (soft) glass. Higher wattage lamps may use heat resisting (hard) glass
made of borosilicate, or a specialized hard glass such as fused silica (quartz), high-silica, or
aluminosilicate. Hard glass is needed for lamps that have small bulbs and high wattages, or
to prevent glass breakage due to moisture or other environmental factors. Tungsten halogen
and halogen infrared lamps may have one or two bulbs. When a bulb within-a-bulb
construction is used, the inner bulb is known as a capsule. It is typically made of quartz or
hard glass rather than soft glass in order to withstand the higher bulb wall temperatures
required for the halogen cycle, which is described in the next section. When a quartz capsule
is accessible, it should not be handled with bare hands because the oils in human skin coupled
with the heat of operation may lead to devitrification and non-passive failure.

If a quartz capsule is handled by accident, it should be cleaned with rubbing alcohol or mineral
spirits. The tungsten halogen or halogen infrared capsule is commonly placed within an outer
glass bulb, as with PAR lamps. The bulb may provide protection of the filament, optical
diffusion, shaping of the luminous intensity distribution, and spectral filtering. In the case of
halogen infrared lamps, the halogen capsule is used for redirection of infrared radiation.
Protection of the filament: Tungsten will quickly evaporate if heated to incandescence in free
air. The bulb creates a hermetically sealed environment that is either a vacuum for GLS lamps
below about 25W, or an atmosphere of gas.

Diffusion:

Frosting may be applied to the inner surface of a bulb to diffuse the extremely high filament
luminance. This produces moderate diffusion with very little reduction in output while mostly
eliminating striations and shadows from internal lamp components. Finely powdered white
silica is typically employed.

Shaping of the luminous intensity distribution:

The luminous intensity distribution may be shaped with reflection and/or refraction. When
reflection is employed a portion of the inner surface of the bulb is coated with aluminum or
silver and the lamp shape is used to direct light out of the uncoated bulb wall. Silver has the
advantage of higher reflectance and therefore higher efficiency. The most common type of
reflectorized lamps has parabolic glass envelopes, although other shapes are available,
including elliptical reflector lamps, and A-shaped lamps with half-coated bulbs, known as
silver-bowled-reflector lamps. For parabolic reflector lamps the dimpling or prismatic pattern
on the face is used as a refractive optic: clear lenses are used for narrow beam distributions
with an increase in dimpling with beam width.

Spectral filtering:

Filament lamps are available with inside- and outside-spray-coated, outside-ceramic,

transparent-plastic-coated, and doped-glass bulbs. Daylight lamps have bluish glass bulbs
that absorb some of the long wavelengths produced by the filament. The transmitted light is
of a higher correlated color temperature than standard incandescent. Bulb glass doped with
neodymium selectively filters some of the yellow optical radiation generated by the filament.
Filament lamps with spectrally selective filters have a lower CRI than standard incandescent
lamps. This is a consequence of the way CRI is defined, but does not necessarily mean that
such lamps exhibit poorer color rendition.

Redirection of infrared radiation:

The capsule for halogen infrared lamps is designed to redirect infrared radiation back to the
filament, which leads to a higher filament temperature at the same electrical current, thus
increasing luminous efficacy. Halogen infrared capsules are constructed with a multilayer
coating that allows visible optical radiation to pass through while reflecting infrared and
absorbing ultraviolet radiation. Such capsules are typically, although not always, placed inside
an outer envelope. The capsule shape and filament location must be precisely engineered
and manufactured for the reflected IR to be focused on the filament.
Base

The functions of the base are to: make the electrical connection, support the lamp, and in
some cases provide optical positioning within a luminaire. Most GLS lamps employ a screw
base. Bi-post and pre-focus bases ensure proper filament location in relation to luminaire
optical elements. Lamp wattage is also a factor in determining base type.
 The halogen cycle only occurs if the temperature is sufficient to maintain the halides
in their gas phase, which corresponds to a minimum temperature of 260° C at the bulb wall.
At lower temperatures the evaporated tungsten will deposit on the bulb wall. Dimmed tungsten
halogen lamps should periodically be run at full power, inducing the tungsten halogen cycle to
clean the tungsten off the bulb wall, thereby maintaining lamp efficacy over time.

The requirement of a high bulb wall temperature for the halogen cycle has the corollary
effect of requiring smaller bulbs. At equal wattage, smaller bulbs have a higher loading of
optical radiation, and higher bulb-wall temperatures. This led first to the development of small
low-voltage reflector lamps and later to the incorporation of tungsten halogen capsules in
various reflector envelopes such as PAR and MR. Tungsten halogen and halogen infrared
capsules are today housed in A, G, BT, F and other envelopes as replacements for
conventional GLS incandescent lamps. The small size of the capsule makes it more
economical to incorporate larger molecular weight atoms in the gas fill. Some capsules are
also pressurized, which further retards the evaporation of tungsten, thus allowing for longer
life and/or an increase in efficacy. These variables of lamp engineering—gas fill, gas fill
pressure, operating temperature—are responsible for the fact that tungsten halogen and
halogen infrared lamps have longer lives and/or greater efficacy than standard filament lamps.
The halogen cycle is itself not responsible for an increase in life; it is responsible for keeping
the bulb wall clean of tungsten and maintaining lumen output.

Luminous Intensity Distribution

The filament may be shaped to slightly modify the distribution emitted from the bulb, but major
optical redirection is best achieved with reflection and/or refraction. Reflectors may be
incorporated into a filament lamp, as with PAR, MR, and AR shaped bulbs. PAR lamps also
incorporate a refractive optical element at the face of the lamp. Luminous intensity distributions
are available from nearly-is radiant, to wide flood, to very narrow spot.

Operating Characteristics

If the voltage applied to the filament is varied, there is a change in the filament temperature,
resistance, current, power, lumen output, efficacy, and life. These characteristics are
interrelated; not one of them can be changed without affecting the others. Some are input
variables while others are output measures. For example, increasing current (an input
variable) will increase lumen output (an output measure).

Voltage

Filament lamps are available in line-, low-, high- and specialty-voltage designs. In comparison
to line-voltage lamps, low-voltage lamps have the advantages of greater resistance to vibration
and shock because of their larger diameter filaments, a more compact filament that allows
better beam control, and higher efficiency. Typical low-voltage lamps operate at 12 and 24 V.
Voltage is supplied through a step-down transformer. Low voltage lamps tend to be either
small capsules, such as T4, or small reflector types, such as MR16. High voltage lamps for
220 and 300 V operation are available. High voltage lamps have filaments of small diameter
and longer length and require more supports than corresponding 120 V lamps. Therefore, they
are less rugged and less efficient. For specialty applications, lamps with other voltage ratings,
such as 84 and 200 V, are also available.

130 V lamps are also available, and in the past have been intended for use on 120 V circuits.
This had the effect of operating the lamp in a continuously dimmed state, thus extending life,
but at a lower luminous efficacy. The U.S. DOE rulemaking for 2012 standards will likely
eliminate this practice as it relates to PAR 20, 30, and 38 lamps.

Dimming

Dimmers serve several purposes: energy reduction; variable illuminance; and aesthetic
lighting effects. Filament lamps can be dimmed by reducing the voltage or by rapid on/ off
switching. With either method, less power is dissipated and less light is produced with a lower
color temperature. Since lower temperature operation decreases tungsten evaporation, life is
increased but at the expense of luminous efficacy. Dimming tungsten halogen and halogen
infrared lamps has a deleterious effect on lumen maintenance because the halogen cycle no
longer operates when the bulb wall temperature falls below 260° C, leading to bulb wall
blackening. This can be partially reversed by periodically operating the lamp at full light output,
which helps clean the bulb wall of tungsten deposits.

Most dimmers for filament lamps are electronic, using thyristor and transistor circuits that have
low power dissipation. Thyristors operate as high-speed switches that rapidly turn the voltage
to the lamp on and off. The rapid on/off switching, or ‘chopping’, lowers time-averaged power
consumed by the lamp, thus lowering the filament temperature while reducing energy
consumption. This is different than lowering the voltage delivered to the lamp. This switching
can cause electromagnetic interference with other electrical equipment as well as audible
buzzing in the lamp filament. Magnetic coils functioning as inductors and known as chokes
can be used as filters to reduce these effects. With many wall-box dimmers, however, lamp
buzzing cannot be completely eliminated because a larger choke is needed than space allows.
For these cases, remotely mounted, properly sized lamp debuzzing coils or additional chokes
are recommended.
Luminous

Efficacy
A typical T60 shaped halogen infrared lamp (as of this writing) has an efficacy in
excess of 22 lumens per watt. The typical efficacy (as of this writing) for a PAR38 halogen
infrared lamp is about 24 lumens per watt. The most efficacious commercially available
halogen infrared lamps (as of this writing) are double-ended cylindrical bulbs that achieve
efficacies in excess of 34 lumens per watt.

Lumen Maintenance

Over time incandescent filaments evaporate and shrink, which increases their
resistance thereby reducing current, power and lumens. A further depreciation in lumens is
caused by the absorption of light due to the deposition of evaporated tungsten on the bulb
wall. Tungsten halogen and halogen infrared lamps have significantly less lumen depreciation
due to the halogen cycle.
Ultraviolet Radiation

When operated at full output filament lamps generate some ultraviolet (UV) radiation.
The higher the filament temperature, the greater is the amount of UV generated by the
filament. The amount of UV that escapes the bulb is determined by the capsule and/or outer
envelope materials. Fused quartz and most high-silica glass transmit most of the UV radiated
by the filament, while high-silica and aluminosilicate glasses absorb UV radiation. Some
tungsten halogen lamps transmit more UV radiation than standard incandescent lamps due to
their higher filament temperatures and quartz envelopes. Halogen infrared lamps, however,
emit less ultraviolet radiation despite their higher filament temperature, as the capsule absorbs
ultraviolet radiation. If the lamp does not filter UV radiation, then a UV-absorbing lens or cover
glass should be employed. A tempered lens will also provide protection in case of lamp
breakage. In applications where the reduction of UV radiation is critical, additional filtering as
with a supplementary lens or cover glass might be required.

Special Considerations

Tungsten halogen and halogen infrared lamps are not equipped with filament supports
since they would reduce luminous efficacy by conducting heat away from the filament. It is
also desirable to remove filament supports since they introduce non-uniformity and striations
in the beam. However, without such support’s tungsten halogen and halogen infrared lamps
are susceptible to premature failure from rough handling or vibration. As with all lamps, these
lamps should be installed when power is off. Rotational torque during installation or revamping
causes the filament to move. In energized sockets the inrush current shocks the moving
filament and some of the filament turns may be shorted, leading to failure. For directional
lamps that cannot be extinguished during aiming, they should be aimed with slow, smooth
movements.

Lamp Life and Failure Mechanism

Many factors inherent in the manufacturing process make it impossible for every lamp
to achieve the rated life associated with the product. For this reason, lamp life is rated as the
average of a large group. For laboratory test operation normal tungsten filament evaporation
determines lamp life. Lamp life may also be determined by filament notching, which is the
appearance of step-like or saw-tooth irregularities on all or part of the tungsten filament
surface. These notches reduce the filament wire diameter at these points. Faster spot
evaporation due to high temperatures at the notch and reduced filament strength become the
dominant factors influencing lamp life. Predicted lamp life can be reduced by as much as one-
half. Among the factors producing filament notching is direct current (DC) operation.

Nomenclature

The typical nomenclature for filament lamps follows a pattern of:

Wattage/Shape/Diameter/Technology/Optical.

For example, 55PAR38/IRC/Hal/SP10 indicates a 55-watt lamp with a parabolic aluminized

reflector (PAR) outer bulb, which has a diameter of 38/8” (4 ¾”), employs halogen infrared
technology (IRC/Hal), and has a spot distribution with a beam angle of 10 degrees. The
specific nomenclature varies from one manufacturer to the next, but follows a similar format.
Not all lamp types require all categories to be listed. The diameter designation may be in units
of 1/8” or mm, which must be inferred from context. For example, an AR111 is an aluminized
reflector lamp with a diameter of 111 mm and a T60 lamp is a “T” shaped lamp with a diameter
of 60 mm. The “T” (tubular) is a straight sided version of the ubiquitous “A” (arbitrary) shaped
bulb.

Types

There are no sharp dividing lines among groups of filament lamps. The sources most suitable
for application in the built environment are outlined below. Even so, filament sources should
seldom be used in permanent installations, and preferably only in situations where they are
not the sole source of light or operated continuously for long periods.

General Lighting Service (GLS)

Standard filament GLS lamps are rarely appropriate for functional lighting and should be
reserved for special situations, such as where low-wattage bare lamps are needed for
decorative appearance and effect. If filament lamps must be used for functional lighting,
tungsten halogen or halogen infrared are the appropriate choices. Common shapes include
the T60, BT, and TB.

Reflector Lamps

Halogen infrared reflector lamps include the PAR and MR shapes. PAR is an acronym for
parabolic aluminized reflector. Some advanced PAR lamps are now reflected with silver due
to its higher reflectance, but they are still known as PAR lamps. PAR lamps are made of
precisely formed cast glass with aluminum or silver deposited on the inner surface. A halogen
infrared capsule is fitted at the focal point of the parabola, such that rays are reflected parallel
to one another. A refractive optical component attached to the face of the reflector disperses
the beam of parallel reflected rays, as well as the rays that directly strike it from the filament.
Different refractive optical components control whether or not the beam is narrow (spot) or
wide (flood).

PAR lamps are most commonly designed for line voltage (120 V) operation. MR is an acronym
for multifaceted reflector. The most common type, MR16 lamps, have a 2” diameter reflector
that surrounds a small tungsten halogen or halogen infrared capsule. Because of the
possibility of non-passive failure, MR16 lamps with exposed capsules are only intended to be
used with luminaires that incorporate a tempered glass lens. MR16 lamps with integral lenses
are available for use in open luminaires. Most MR16 lamps are designed for 12V operation
and therefore require a transformer. Some MR16 lamps are also available with screw-bases;
in these cases, the transformer is built into the lamp itself. The screw-based MR16 lamps are
intended as a retrofit product and are considerably larger than the standard MR16 lamps that
make use of a 2-pin or turn-and-lock base

Other 12 V tungsten halogen lamps include the PAR36, AR70, and AR111. None of these
lamps employ a halogen infrared capsule, and their luminous efficacy is accordingly lower.

However, these lamps employ a filament cap that serves two purposes:
1) it eliminates the light emitted directly from the filament, thus leading to a highly controlled
and crisp-edged beam;
2) it blocks a view of the filament, providing much less glare from most viewing angles.
The lack of spill light and glare makes them suitable for high contrast focal lighting. These
lamps are used in limited situations where beam control, luminous intensity, and dimming are
more important than luminous efficacy.

By limiting unwanted stray light, they may provide energy effective solutions

Double-Ended Lamps

The T3 halogen infrared lamp has a tubular shape with a 3/8” diameter. This lamp is available
for 120, 130, 240, and 277 V operation. Its linear filament and small bulb diameter make it well
suited for highly efficient linear reflectors used in surface washing and grazing applications.
These lamps should be used sparingly, but may be appropriate in applications that require
punch and that will only be used for relatively few hours per week.

3. FLUORESCENT
Fluorescent lamps are the most widespread and versatile of the discharge lamps. They are
employed almost universally in offices, educational facilities, healthcare, and other commercial
applications, while finding widespread use in industrial, retail, institutional, and residential
lighting. This is because fluorescent lamps are available in a wide variety of lumen outputs,
shapes, and colors, while having desirable characteristics that include good to excellent life,
luminous efficacy, lumen maintenance, and color rendering

General Principles of Operation

The fluorescent lamp is a low-pressure gas discharge source, in which light is produced
predominantly by fluorescent powders, also known as phosphors, that are activated by UV
energy generated by a mercury arc. The electrodes of most fluorescent lamps are pre-heated
prior to ignition, causing them to emit electrons, which collide with mercury atoms contained
within the discharge tube. Collisions may happen with such force to free electrons from
mercury atoms, a process known as ionization, which is necessary to maintain the arc.
Collisions at lower force may elevate an electron of the mercury atom to a higher energy level,
which is known as excitation. When the electron of an excited mercury atom returns to its rest
state, a photon is released. In a low-pressure mercury discharge, most of these photons are
in the ultraviolet (UV) region of the spectrum. Phosphors on the inside of the tube convert the
UV radiation into visible optical radiation.
Because the mercury discharge has a negative volt-ampere relationship, fluorescent lamps
must be operated in series with a current-limiting device, commonly called a ballast. A ballast
limits the current to the value for which the lamp is designed, provides the required starting
and operating lamp voltages, and may provide dimming control.

Construction
The basic components are the bulb, electrodes, gas fill, phosphor, and base. The ballast may
be an auxiliary component or integrated within the lamp itself.

Bulb

The tube of a normal linear fluorescent lamp is made of soda-lime glass doped with iron oxide
to limit the emission of UV radiation. Low sodium content glass is also used for very highly
loaded lamps, such as compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs). Tube length and diameter have
been standardized. Diameter is determined first by the desired loading on the phosphors;
higher loadings increase lumen output per unit area, and are associated with smaller tube
diameters. Length is dictated first by the luminous flux to be produced by the lamp. All else
being equal, higher lumen output requires more surface area of phosphor and therefore longer
tubes. The diameter and length also dictate the voltage across the discharge tube, and hence
lamp voltage. Reducing the diameter increases the required lamp voltage, and increasing the
length increases the required lamp voltage. It is also possible to adjust lamp voltage by altering
the gas fill. Single ended fluorescent lamps, such as CFLs, have multiple shaped tubes joined
together to form a continuous arc path. This is done to increase the ratio of lumen output to
overall size. Some bubs are designed to approach the size of a GLS incandescent lamp.
Electrodes

Two electrodes are hermetically sealed at opposite ends of the bulb. They conduct electrical
power into the lamp and provide the electrons necessary to maintain the arc discharge.
Constructions vary, but all are made of tungsten coated with a mixture of alkaline earth oxides,
which readily emit electrons when heated to a temperature of about 800° C. The tungsten is
coiled into shapes similar to those used in incandescent lamps, although triple coils are
common, as are structures made by winding one tungsten wire around another and then
double-coiling the resulting wire, a structure known as ‘wound round’ or ‘intertwined’. Coiling
and winding are done to hold as much emitter material as possible.
Electrodes may be preheated, continuously heated, or ‘cold’, states which are controlled by
the ballast. In the ‘cold’ mode, high voltage is used to start the fluorescent lamp instantly,
causing electrons to bombard the electrodes at high velocity. Such collisions heat the
electrodes and facilitate the emission of electrons via thermionic emission. Ion bombardment
also occurs, which causes sputtering of the electron emissive material leading to end
blackening and reduced electrode life. In some lamp designs electrode life is the principal
cause of lamp failure, and thus, the instant start associated with the ‘cold’ mode may lead to
premature lamp failure. Preheating is gentler on the electrodes. It causes them to emit
electrons that facilitate starting with less loss of electron emissive material. Once the lamp is
operating, the ballast may continue to heat the electrodes or switch them off. Since the
temperature necessary for continued electron emission is maintained by electrons from the
discharge that bombard the electrodes, and because energy can be conserved, it is most
common to employ ballasts that switch off the heating.

Gas Fill

The inside volume of the tube is a near-vacuum containing a mixture of saturated mercury
vapor and an inert buffer gas. The inert buffer gas controls the speed of the free electrons in
the discharge, which is important because:
1) it prolongs the life of the electrodes by reducing sputtering that results from high velocity
ion bombardment;
2) it balances the fraction of ionization versus excitation that results from collisions between
electrons and vaporized mercury.
If the electron and ion speeds are too high, the result is excessive sputtering and too little
mercury excitation. The inert gas also facilitates starting, especially at low temperatures. Buffer
gasses include argon, neon, xenon, and krypton. For a given tube length and diameter, lamp
voltage decreases as the atomic weight of the buffer gas increases. This is one of the principal
variables in creating, for example, 28 or 30 W T8 lamps that operate on ballasts originally
intended to drive 32W T8 lamps.

During normal operation mercury is present in the tube in both liquid and vapor forms. Mercury
condenses on the coolest part of the bulb, which for linear lamps will normally be at the bottom-
middle of the tube. The mercury vapor pressure is strongly dependent upon temperature. The
fraction of radiant energy emitted in the UV bands is strongly dependent upon the vapor
pressure, and since luminous flux output is strongly dependent upon the generation of UV by
the mercury, it is highly sensitive to ambient temperature.

A mercury amalgam may be employed to reduce temperature dependence. An amalgam is a

chemical compound consisting of mercury and one or more metals, such as the bismuth-
indium-mercury amalgam commonly employed with CFLs. The amalgam stabilizes and
controls the mercury vapor pressure in the discharge by absorbing or releasing mercury, thus
keeping mercury pressure in the discharge close to its optimal value as the lamp temperature
changes.

An amalgam lamp can produce more than 90 percent of its maximum light output over a wide
temperature range. A downside is that amalgam lamps can take longer to reach full light output
when turned on, usually in the order of several minutes in a room-temperature ambient
environment.

Phosphors

Approximately 97% of the fluorescent lamp spectrum is determined by the phosphor, with the
balance due to direct emission from the low-pressure mercury discharge into visible optical
radiation. The choice of phosphors fixes the lamps CCT and CRI, and is strongly related to
luminous efficacy and lumen maintenance. Although several naturally occurring minerals
exhibit fluorescence, they are a product of modern chemical engineering. The requirements
of modern light sources demand highly purified compounds combined with a small amount of
another compound that serves as an activator. Luminous efficacy is also dependent upon the
physical characteristics of the phosphor and how it is applied to the bulb wall. It needs to be
thick enough to efficiently convert UV into visible optical radiation, yet as thin as possible to
prevent the outer layers from absorbing the optical radiation emitted by the inner layers. In
modern lamps the average thickness of the phosphor layer is about three layers of crystals.

Bases

The base physically supports the lamp and provides a means of electrical connection. Typical
bases for linear and compact fluorescent lamps, which also includes ANSI designations.

Preheat and rapid start linear fluorescent lamps have four electrical connections, two at each
end of the tube; which allows a circuit path for electrode heating prior to lamp ignition. Such
medium bipin linear fluorescent lamps may also be operated in an instant start mode, which
is governed by the ballast. Linear fluorescent lamps designed for only instant-start operation
have just two connections, one pin at each end. Many sockets are available for fluorescent
lamps with bipin bases, including those with straight-slot entry and quarter-turn sockets that
click and lock the lamp in place. Spring-loaded plunger sockets are available for single pin and
bipin based fluorescent lamps. In the case of circular lamps, a single four-pin connection
(G10q) is employed.

Single-ended compact fluorescent lamps of different wattages have unique base designs to
help ensure their use with the correct ballast. They may have two or four pins. The two-pin
varieties have starting components mounted in the base, including an integral glow-switch
starter and noise reduction filter capacitor. These lamps are not dimmable. The four-pin bases
are smaller (at equal wattage) and such lamps can be used with dimming ballasts. Compact
fluorescent lamps may also have a medium screw base for compatibility with sockets originally
intended for use with GLS incandescent lamps. Such compact fluorescent lamps have an
integral ballast. Note that as pin configuration changes, so too will power factor (PF) and total
harmonic distortion (THD). This is not directly due to the pin configurations, but is rather due
to the different ballast circuitry associated with the different pin configurations.
Other Fluorescent Lamp Components

When a fluorescent lamp is extinguished some of the vaporized mercury condenses

on the bulb wall, where it may momentarily melt the glass and then become entrapped when
the glass cools. Such entrapped mercury will no longer be available to the discharge, and thus
mercury entrapment is one possible failure mechanism. In the past, lamps were dosed with
extra mercury to provide satisfactory life. This is no longer an acceptable practice because of
the increased awareness of the detrimental effects of mercury and associated legislation that
places upper limits on hazardous materials in consumer products. Modern fluorescent lamps
employ barrier layers between the glass and phosphor that minimize the absorption of mercury
when the lamp is extinguished, and reduce interactions between the mercury and glass during
operation. The barrier also protects the phosphor from the sodium in the glass, significantly
improving lumen maintenance. Finally, the barrier acts as a reflector of UV, and thus reduces
the amount of phosphor required for maximum luminous efficacy. Materials employed for the
barrier layer include alumina, gamma alumina, and alpha alumina, but may also be an oxide
formed from the group consisting of magnesium, aluminum, titanium, zirconium, and rare earth
elements.

Other coatings are employed as starting aids. A thin layer of tin or indium oxide may be
applied between the tube wall and phosphor. This layer helps with cold weather starting, and
is also employed in reduced-wattage lamps that are designed to operate on standard wattage
ballasts. Most fluorescent lamps, especially linear types, have a water-repellent coating of
silicone applied to their exterior to help prevent starting problems in environments that have
high humidity.

Spectrum

Many different white and colored fluorescent lamps are available, each having its own
characteristic SPD. Typical CCT, and CRI are included for each SPD. Popular “white-light”
triphosphorus fluorescent lamps use three highly efficient narrow-band, rare-earth activated
phosphors with emission peaks in the short-, middle-, and long-wavelength regions of the
visible spectrum. Triphosphorus lamps have high color rendering and improved lumen
maintenance and efficacy, in comparison to fluorescent lamps that employ halo phosphate
phosphors. A variety of lamp types is available that radiate in particular wavelength regions
for specific purposes, such as plant growth and medical therapy. Various colored lamps, such
as red, blue, green, and gold, are obtained by phosphor selection, and in some cases,
subtractive filtration.
Nomenclature

Fluorescent lamp nomenclature tends to follow a standard pattern. The bulb is typically
designated by a letter indicating the shape, followed by a number indicating the maximum
diameter in eighths of an inch. Hence T8 indicates a tubular bulb, 8/8 in., or 1 in. (26 mm), in
diameter. Numerical codes are included to indicate the CCT and CRI, followed by optional
modifiers that may indicate features such as extended life (for example: XL, XXL), reduced
wattage (for example: EW, ES), or high lumen output (for example: HL, HO).

Types
Most fluorescent lamps can be categorized as linear or compact. Standard tube diameters
have been adopted for linear lamps: T1 (3.2 mm), T2 (6.4 mm), T5 (16 mm), T6 (19 mm), T8
(26 mm), T10 (32 mm), T12 (38 mm), and T17 (54 mm). The most common nominal lengths
for straight fluorescent lamps are 24 to 48 in. (1200 mm) for T12 and T8 lamps and 21 to 46
in. (1150 mm) for T5 lamps; the complete range includes lengths from 6 in. (150 mm) to 8 ft.
(2400 mm). The nominal length includes the thickness of the standard lamp holders and is the
back-to-back dimension of the lamp holders with a seated lamp. Compact fluorescent lamps
are either screw-based (a.k.a. integrated, retrofit), pin-based (a.k.a. dedicated socket), or have
a special twist and lock pin base with an integral ballast (a.k.a. GU24). Other types of
fluorescent lamps include circular fluorescent lamps, cold cathode, and inductive discharge.
The most common fluorescent lamp types are summarized below.

MOST COMMON FLUORESCENT LAMP TYPES

-Standard Output Linear T12 Lamps
-Standard Output Linear T12 Lamps
-High Output T8 and T12 Lamps
-Very High Output T12 Lamps
-Linear T8 Lamps
-Linear T5 Lamps
-Pin-based and Screw-Based Compact Fluorescent Lamps
-GU24 Compact Fluorescent Lamps
-Inductive Discharge Fluorescent Lamps
-Cold Cathode Fluorescent Lamps
-UV Lamps

Operating and Other Characteristics

Relevant characteristics for fluorescent lamps include: luminous efficacy, lumen maintenance,
lamp life and failure mechanism, system efficacy, ballasts, dimming, thermal characteristics,
disposal and recycling, non-visible optical radiation, intensity distribution and source
luminance, and flicker.

Luminous Efficacy

THREE MAIN ENERGY CONVERSIONS OCCUR IN A FLUORESCENT LAMP:

1) electrical energy is converted into kinetic energy by accelerating charged particles;

2) kinetic energy is converted to electromagnetic radiation, particularly UV, during particle
collisions;
3) UV is converted to visible light by the lamp phosphor. During each conversion some energy
is dissipated as heat and only a small percentage of the input is converted into visible radiation

The geometric design and operating conditions influence efficiency. At constant current, as
the lamp diameter increases, efficacy increases, reaches a maximum, and then decreases.
This occurs because:
1) in lamps of small diameter, an excessive amount of energy is lost by recombination of
electrons with ions at the bulb wall;
2) in lamps of large diameter, losses due to imprisonment of radiation become correspondingly
larger. The optimum bulb diameter maximizes efficiency by balancing these factors.

The length of the lamp also influences efficacy; the greater the length, the higher the efficacy.
This is due to two separate energy losses within the lamp:

1) the energy absorbed by the electrodes, which do not generate any appreciable light;
2) the energy losses associated with the generation of light.

The electrode losses are essentially constant, whereas the loss associated with light
generation depends on lamp length. As lamp length increases, electrode loss decreases
relative to the total loss. The operating voltage of a lamp, like its efficacy, is a function of its
length. The operating voltage is that supplied to the lamp by the ballast. It is not the building
system line voltage that is supplied to the ballast.

Lumen Maintenance

The light output of fluorescent lamps decreases with accumulated operating time
because of photochemical degradation of the phosphor coating and glass tube and the
accumulation of light-absorbing deposits within the lamp. The rate of phosphor degradation
increases with arc power and decreases with increased coating density. Note that luminous
efficacy and system efficacy degrade over time in concert with LLD, since input power is
relatively constant over the life of a fluorescent lamp. Rare earth phosphors are more stable
than halo phosphates, allowing for higher wall loadings. The exceptional LLD of modern T5
and T8 lamps is a result of employing rare earth phosphors in concert with protective coatings
that are designed to reduce phosphor degradation.

The deposit of electrode coating material causes end darkening. The electrode coating may
be sputtered during starting, evaporated during normal lamp operation, and is dependent upon
the starting and operating conditions that are governed by the ballast. The deposits reduce
UV radiation into the phosphors, thereby reducing light output near the ends.

Lamp Life and Failure Mechanism

Reducing power to a fluorescent lamp does not increase lamp life as it does for filament lamps.
End of life is most typically due to electrode failure or mercury depletion. A lamp may also fail
due to a bad or missing ground connection
Electrode Failure
Some of the emissive coating on the electrodes is eroded from the filaments each time the
lamp is started. Emissive coating is also lost by evaporation during normal lamp operation.
Electrodes are designed to minimize both of these effects. When the coating is completely
removed from one or both electrodes, or when the remaining coating becomes none missive,
the lamp has reached end of life.
The loss of electron emissive material can be accelerated by several factors:
1) excessive switching,
2) insufficient preheating of the electrodes,
3) line voltage variations, and
4) sharp peaks in the lamp current.
Because some of the emissive coating is lost from the electrodes during each start, the
frequency of starting hot cathode lamps may influence lamp life. The rated average life of
fluorescent lamps is usually based on three hours of operation per start. The estimated effect
of burning cycles on lamp life varies with the lamp/ballast combination and with the lamp
manufacturer. Cold cathode lamps are not appreciably affected by starting frequency
If line voltage is too high, it can cause instant starting of lamps in preheat and rapid-start
circuits. If it is too low, slow starting of rapid-start or instant-start lamps, or the recycling of
starters in preheat circuits, can result. All of these conditions adversely affect lamp life. The
peak current ratio is the quotient of the peak value of the lamp current to the root mean square
(RMS) value. For most fluorescent lamps the maximum permissible peak factor is about 1.7,
otherwise life may be affected. Magnetic ballasts have a peak factor close to this value,
whereas electronic ballasts have a peak factor close to 1.0. Electronic ballasts are also better
at governing the voltage across the lamp as line voltage fluctuates. These are two of the
reasons why fluorescent lamps operated on electronic ballasts have longer average lives than
those operated on traditional magnetic ball.

Mercury Depletion
Mercury consumption is determined by the quantity of mercury which is bound on lamp
components during operation, and is thus no longer available for operation of the lamp. Lamp
failure can occur when there is no longer a sufficient quantity of mercury to sustain the arc.

System Efficacy

System efficacy is equal to the lumens generated by the lamp when operated with a specific
ballast or auxiliary gear, divided by the input watts into that same ballast or auxiliary gear.
System efficacy is more relevant to lighting design than luminous efficacy. System efficacy
applies to all lamps that require a ballast or auxiliary gear, including inductive discharge, HID,
cold cathode, and LEDs.

Ballasts

Fluorescent lamps, like all discharge lamps, have negative resistance characteristics and
therefore must be operated with a ballast, which is a current limiting device. The ballast also
controls the starting of the lamp, the electrical conditions during operation (e.g., power factor,
harmonics), and is a key component of system efficacy. The current limiting component of a
ballast can be a resistor, capacitor, inductor (a.k.a. ‘choke’), or an electronic circuit. High
frequency electronic ballasts should be employed for new specifications because they have
several important advantages over the magnetic types: improved lamp and system efficacy of
approximately 10%, no flicker or stroboscopic effects, integrated starting circuitry, increased
lamp life, excellent ability to regulate lamp lumen output, integrated power factor (PF)
correction, quiet operation, comparatively light weight, many options for input voltage, and
some can be used with direct current (DC). Regarding lamp life, some manufacturers provide
plots of lamp life as a function of ballast starting method and lamp type, and as a function of
the operating cycle. These plots show that the lamp/ballast combination may affect lamp life
by 50% or more. The lamp and ballast manufacturers should be consulted when making a
specification decision.
Typical parts of an electronic ballast include:
electromagnetic interference (EMI) filter
rectifier; preconditioner
high frequency oscillator (inverter)
current limiting device
integrated circuit (IC) control

Dimming

Continuous dimming is achieved by reducing the lamp current. Concurrently, it is necessary

to supply the full starting voltage and to maintain the restrike voltage necessary at each 60-
Hz half cycle, which becomes increasingly important as lamp lumen output is lowered. If the
ballast circuit does not maintain the restrike voltage the lamp(s) will extinguish. It is also
necessary to provide cathode heating in order to maintain the required electron emissions
from the electrodes at all levels of lumen output.

The requisite electrical conditions are created by a dimming ballast, which receives a signal
from a controller such as a wall switch, daylight photocell, computer interface, and/or handheld
remote control. Most commercially available dimming ballasts are electronic, though magnetic
dimming ballasts may still be encountered in existing construction. The dimming ballast must
be able to communicate with the connected control devices, which forms the basis for a
controls protocol. Control protocols can be either analog or digital. Analog control equipment
includes 0-10V DC, two-wire phase control, three-wire phase control, and infrared control.
Digital control makes use of a five-conductor system with separate wires for power and digital
control. It provides a higher degree of control capability, including the ability to individually
address and group ballasts, reconfigure zones and scenes without rewiring, digitally monitor
use, and detect and diagnose faults within the lighting circuits.

Stepped dimming can be achieved in one of two ways:

1. by switching off one or more lamps in a multi-lamp lamp luminaire;
2. with stepped-dim ballasts. Consider a three-lamp luminaire.

In the switching method, a one-lamp ballast or tandem wiring may be used for the inboard
lamp and a two-lamp ballast for the outboard lamp. By separately switching the ballasts, zero,
one, two, or three lamps may be turned on, corresponding to dimmed steps. Switching may
be controlled by a wall switch, occupancy sensor, daylight photocell, time clock, or some
combination.

Thermal Characteristics

Lumen output for fluorescent lamps is temperature dependent. T5 lamps are designed to
achieve rated lumen output at a higher temperature than T8 lamps. Amalgam lamps are
designed to maintain lumen output over a wider range of temperatures in comparison to non-
amalgam lamps. Cold weather starting can be facilitated with special lamp designs and control
gear. This temperature dependency places constraints on the design and/or specification of
luminaires, which is a central factor in governing the local thermal environment experienced
by the lamp(s).

Intensity Distribution and Source Luminance

The emission of optical radiation from phosphors is diffuse. The specific intensity distribution
of a fluorescent lamp is therefore dependent upon the geometry of the tube, which may be
straight, curved, bent in half, or bent many times to form a more compact shape. Unlike
tungsten filaments, which can approach point sources, fluorescent lamps emit optical radiation
from a comparatively large area. Smaller lamps and smaller diameter linear lamps permit
better luminaire optics. At equal lumen output, a lamp with a smaller surface area will have
higher luminance.

Flicker

Discharge light sources operated on alternating current will flicker. The degree to which flicker
is perceived, if at all, depends on the frequency of the alternating current delivered to the lamp,
the persistence of optical radiation generated by the lamp, and viewing conditions.
The flicker index is a relative measure of the cyclic variation in output of various sources at a
given power frequency. It takes into account the waveform of the light output as well as its
amplitude. It is calculated by dividing the area above the line of average light output by the
total area under the light output curve for a single curve. The flicker index has a range of 0 to
1.0, with 0 for steady light output. Area 2 in Figure 18 may be close to zero if light output varies
as periodic spikes, leading to a flicker index close to 1.0. Higher values indicate an increased
possibility of noticeable flicker and stroboscopic effect. The flicker index is not suitable for
evaluating non-visual biological responses to flicker that may occur when flicker is visually
imperceptible.

When a fluorescent lamp is operated on a magnetic ballast with a 60 Hz power input

frequency, the resulting 120 Hz variation coupled with phosphor persistence makes the
fluctuating light output too rapid for most people to perceive. This assumes, however, that the
power input is free of electrical noise from other equipment, which can result in frequencies
that manifest themselves as visible flicker. Under noise-free operating conditions, the flicker
index for typical fluorescent lamps operated with electromagnetic ballasts ranges from 0.01 to
approximately 0.1. The index is much lower when high frequency electronic ballasts are
employed due to the high frequency operation in the range of 20 kHz and above

4.HIGH INTENSITY DISCHARGE

High-intensity discharge (HID) lamps include the groups commonly known as high pressure
mercury, metal halide, ceramic metal halide, and high-pressure sodium. The light producing
element of these lamp types is an arc discharge contained within a refractory envelope (arc
tube) with wall loading in excess of 3 W/cm2 (19.4 W/in.2).

General Principles of Operation

All HID lamps produce light by means of an electrical arc discharge contained in an arc tube,
which is usually housed within an outer bulb. The arc tube contains: electrodes that terminate
the arc discharge; a starting gas that is relatively easy to ionize at low pressure at normal
ambient temperatures; and metals selected to produce optical radiation. The starting gas is
usually argon or xenon, or a mixture of argon, neon, and xenon, depending on the type of HID
lamp. The metals, or halide compounds of metals, produce characteristic lines of optical
radiation when evaporated in the arc discharge. High pressure sodium lamps produce optical
radiation by exciting sodium atoms. Metal halide lamps produce optical radiation by exciting
several different atoms and molecules, which may include sodium, scandium, tin, cesium,
lithium, thulium, holmium, dysprosium, thallium, calcium, and others. The arc discharge has
negative resistance characteristic and therefore all HID lamps must but be operated with a
ballast

Lamp Construction

The arc tube, made of quartz (fused silica) or ceramic (polycrystalline alumina), is often
contained inside an outer bulb that may be made of soft or hard glass, or quartz. It protects
the arc tube and internal electrical connections from the ambient environment. The outer bulb
may be coated with a diffusing material to reduce source luminance. With metal halide lamps,
if a diffuse coating is employed, it may be a phosphor selected to improve color rendering by
converting UV to visible optical radiation. Since high pressure sodium arc tubes produce a
negligible amount of UV, an inert white powder is employed when diffusion is desired. The
diffusing material increases the luminous size of the source, which may decrease the optical
efficiency of the luminaire that houses the lamp. In some metal halide lamps the outer bulb is
designed to absorb UV optical radiation.

When the arc tube is housed in an outer bulb, within the outer bulb there will be: wires to
conduct electricity to the arc tube; structural components to support the arc tube; and other
components that may include resistors, diodes, or UV enhancers used to help start the arc
discharge, and devices called getters to purify the atmosphere within the outer bulb. The
atmosphere in the outer bulb might be a low-pressure gas (usually nitrogen) or a vacuum. For
“O” rated lamps, which are designed for operation in open luminaires, the arc tube may be
surrounded by a containment shroud. HID lamps may have screw bases (medium or mogul)
made from brass, nickel, or special alloys to minimize corrosion. Some HID lamps have bi-pin
bases or pairs of single contact bases at each end of the lamp to provide electrical
connections. See Figure 7.35 for common HID lamp base

Ballasts

All HID lamps have negative resistance characteristics. A current-limiting device, usually in
the form of a transformer and reactor ballast, must be provided to prevent excessive lamp and
line currents. Lag circuit and lead circuit ballasts are available. The current control element of
a lag circuit ballast consists of an inductive reactance in series with the lamp. The current
control element in lead circuit ballasts consists of both inductive and capacitive reactance in
series with the lamp; net reactance is capacitive in circuits for metal halide lamps and inductive
in circuits for high pressure sodium. Wattage losses in ballasts are usually in the order of 5 to
15% of lamp wattage.

Dimming

Metal halide and high-pressure sodium lamps are optimized to operate at full power, but some
energy savings may be obtained through dimming. The slow warm-up and hot restrike delay,
which are characteristic of HID sources, also apply to dimming. HID lamps respond to changes
in dimmer settings much more slowly than incandescent or fluorescent sources; delays
between minimum and maximum light output varies from about three to ten minutes. In
addition to speed, the range of response is not comparable to that of incandescent or
fluorescent dimming. In most cases lamp efficacy and color are reasonably good down to 50%
dimming. While not well suited to dramatic lighting or theatrical effects, this range can be quite
satisfactory for many energy management applications. The slow response of HID lamps
provides minimal occupant distraction.

HID lamps should be started at full power and the dimming delayed until the lamp is fully
warmed up. Properly designed dimming systems ensure that this occurs. Figure 7.36 provides
the approximate relationship between input power and lumen output for metal halide lamps
with quartz arc tubes (QMH) and high-pressure sodium (HPS) lamps. The lamp
manufacturer’s warranty may be limited when dimming.

Lamp Life and Lumen Maintenance

Average rated lamp life is defined as that time after which 50% of a large group of lamps are
still in operation. The IES procedure prescribes operating cycles for HID lamps of 11 hours
on, 1 hour off [28]. HID lamp life and lumen maintenance are affected by changes in the
operating cycle. It should be noted in manufacturers’ literature when lamp life is based on
something other than the 11 on, 1 off cycle. As a rule of thumb, as the operating period is
shortened by 50%, lamp life is reduced by approximately 25%.

Lamp manufacturers should be contacted for further information about shorter operating
cycles and reduced lamp life. HID lamps are usually rated for initial lumens after 100 hours of
operation. For certain lamp types and applications, criteria other than failure to light may be
considered, such as cycling, color shift, or significant reduction in lumen output.
Flicker and Stroboscopic Effect

HID lamps that employ magnetic ballasts and operate on 60 Hz line frequencies can exhibit
visibly perceptible flicker. Flicker and stroboscopic effects may be annoying to spectators in
games such as tennis or ping-pong, and operators of rotating machinery can find it distracting.
To minimize the stroboscopic effect, systems with a flicker index of 0.1 or less are suggested.
In three-phase power distribution system, the effects of flicker can be partially mitigated by
running alternate luminaires on different phases. The only method of completely eliminating
flicker is to operate the lamps at high frequency, which can be achieved by employing high
frequency electronic ballasts. However, as of this writing, some lamp types such as ceramic
metal halide are not compatible with high frequency operation due to acoustic resonance
instabilities and shortened life. Low frequency square wave (LFSW) electronic ballasts can be
employed.

Nomenclature

The nomenclature for HID lamps tends to follow a pattern that is authorized and administered
by ANSI. This is only one example; often manufacturers will adopt variations. The type of HID
lamp is designated by a letter, followed by an electrical characteristic number that is used for
pairing the lamp with a ballast. A code is included that describes the bulb characteristics. A
luminaire characteristic letter may be included to indicate such features as whether or not the
lamp can be used in an open luminaire, or if and what type of enclosed luminaire is required.
Optional modifiers may follow that indicate features such as wattage or CCT. Official
designations are described fully in ANSI C78.380-2007.

Metal Halide

Metal halide has evolved into the most versatile of the HID lamps. They are employed for
applications as diverse as roadway, sport fields, landscape, industrial, retail, floodlighting, and
vehicular headlamps. Metal halide lamps generate their lumens from a relatively small arc
tube made of either quartz or ceramic, permitting them to be efficiently coupled with optical
systems. They are available in a wide variety of lumen outputs, several different CCTs, and
have desirable characteristics that include, good to excellent luminous efficacy fair to excellent
CRI, and fair to good life and lumen maintenance.

General Principles of Operation

Optical radiation is produced by the passage of an electric current through a vapor of elements
and molecules that includes mercury and argon, and may include sodium, scandium, tin,
cesium, lithium, thulium, holmium, dysprosium, thallium, calcium, and others, suitably blended.
When the lamp is turned on the arc is initially struck through the ionization of argon. Once the
arc strikes, its heat begins to vaporize the mercury, with the additional heat being sufficient to
vaporize the metal halides. When the lamp attains full operating temperature, the metal halides
in the arc tube are partially vaporized. When the halide vapors approach the high temperature
central core of the discharge, they dissociate into the halogen and the metals, with the metals
radiating their spectrum. As the halogen and metal atoms move near the cooler arc tube wall
by diffusion and convection, they recombine, and the cycle repeats. The discharge from the
metals dominates the spectrum of optical radiation that is generated.

Arc Tube Construction

There are many variations in the design of the arc tube. The material may be quartz or ceramic.
The shape may be nominally cylindrical and pinched closed (if quartz) or sealed closed (if
ceramic). It may also be formed into a non-cylindrical shape, including being bent into an arc
(if quartz) when the lamp is designed for horizontal operation, or formed into an ovoid body
(employed with quartz and ceramic).

Spectrum

When fully stabilized, the output spectrum is due to the characteristic spectral emission of the
metals within the arc. Since there are about fifty metal iodides that can be employed, a wide
range of SPDs are possible, ranging from those with mostly line spectra, to those with
continuous spectra.

Color Uniformity and Stability

The arc tube cold spot temperature determines the vapor pressure and the composition of the
halide atmosphere in the arc, and thus the color of the optical radiation. Some metal halide
lamp types exhibit inherent color variations from lamp-to-lamp (uniformity) and they may
change in color as they age (stability). This is a result of variations in the manufacturing
process (that affect uniformity) and chemical changes that occur during operation (that affect
stability). Manufacturing challenges include: electrode gap size; arc tube geometry and
volume; heat reflection; and halide density. Changes that occur over life include: tungsten
transport as a result of reactions with impurities such as oxygen and water; reactions between
the halide dose, arc tube walls, and electrodes; and sodium ion diffusion through the arc tube
wall.

UV Optical Radiation

Metal halide discharges emit UV optical radiation. Exposure to people can produce severe
erythemal effects (skin reddening) or eye damage. A hard glass outer bulb will absorb most
optical radiation below 350 nm. Quartz, whether employed for the arc tube or outer bulb, may
be doped with ceria-titania, which absorbs UV radiation below 375 nm. A UV blocking thin film
may also be applied to the lamp surface. Self-extinguishing lamps are available that contain a
tungsten filament in place of a portion of the lead-in conductor that will oxidize quickly when
the outer bulb is broken, thereby breaking the circuit and extinguishing the arc.

Operating Characteristics

Luminous Efficacy

New metal halide lamps have a luminous efficacy of 80 to 120 lumens per watt. As the lamp
ages, voltage rises and lumen output declines, both of which combine to reduce luminous
efficacy.

Lamp Life and Lumen Maintenance

Metal halide lamp life and lumen maintenance are related to lamp design factors and external
factors.
Lamp design factors include:
control of wall blackening due to electrode sputtering and evaporation;
control of sodium loss;
and depreciation of the phosphors for coated lamps.

Wall blacking results from tungsten depositing on the wall of the arc tube causing a reduction
in light transparency. Electrodes are designed to minimize tungsten loss by proper choice of
their size, and by controlling their maximum temperature through the use of impregnated
emitters such as thorium, or by the use of gas phase emitters such as cerium, cesium,
dysprosium, and other rare earth materials. These rare earths also make up part of the iodide
salt mix, especially in ceramic metal halide lamps, and are significant contributors to the high
CRI’s of those types. Tungsten is also deposited on the walls through chemical transport
processes as a consequence of the lamp metal halide chemistry. Control of sodium loss in
quartz metal halide lamps is paramount to lumen maintenance and lamp life as sodium is one
of the main radiative components in sodium-scandium quartz metal halide lamps. Ceramic
metal halide lamps do not suffer from sodium loss to the extent of quartz metal halide lamps
and, as a result, have much better lumen maintenance and color stability performance over
that of quartz metal halide lamps.

External factors include:

type of ballast and ignitor;
the value and stability of the supply voltage;
the orientation of the arc tube; and the on/off switching cycle.

The type of ballast may influence voltage stability across the arc tube, and the type of ignitor
will influence sputtering of electrode material. Voltage variations of more than about 10% will
result in color shifts, and high voltages will shorten lamp life. Orientation affects the cold spot
temperature, which, in addition to affecting the color of optical radiation, can also have a
deleterious effect on lamp life by changing the vapor pressure of the discharge. More frequent
switching will reduce the hours that the lamp operates, but may not reduce the length of time
between revamping.

Orientation

Metal halide lamps may be rated for universal orientation, horizontal-only, vertical-only, or for
a limited range of rotation. Orientation will affect the cold-spot temperature of the arc tube,
thus affecting lumen output and color. This is less problematic for ceramic metal halide lamps.

Flicker

Flicker in metal halide lamps is partially dependent on operating position and is more likely to
be problematic in vertically operated lamps

SOLID STATE LIGHTING

Solid-state lighting (SSL) is a term for a family of light sources that includes:
Semiconductor Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs);
Organic Light Emitting Diodes (OLEDs); and
Polymer Light-Emitting Diodes (PLEDs).

The descriptor “solid state” is shorthand for solid state electroluminescence. Most important
for architectural lighting at the time of writing and into the near future, are LEDs, which
generate light based on injection luminescence, which is the most efficient kind of
electroluminescence. Thus, LEDs are the most efficient SSL light sources and are the focus
of this section.

General Principles of Operation

A diode is an electronic component that substantially conducts electric current in only one
direction. In lighting, diode is shorthand for semiconductor diode. A semiconductor is a
material that has electrical conductivity greater than that of an insulator, but less than that of
a conductor. The resistance of a semiconductor may change in the presence of an electric
field. In the semiconductors employed for LEDs, current is carried by the flow of “electron
holes” (usually referred to simply as “holes”) in the electron structure. In solid-state physics, a
hole is a theoretical concept that describes the lack of an electron at a position where one
could exist, such as the absence of an electron from an otherwise full valence band. The
concept of a hole has been introduced in solid-state physics as a matter of convenience: when
an electric field is applied, instead of analyzing the movement of an empty state in the valence
band as the movement of billions of electrons, the empty state is treated as a single imaginary
particle moving in the opposite direction, a hole. All diodes emit radiation due to the
recombination of holes and electrons. The type of material in the construction of the diode
determines the wavelength of emission. The wavelength of emission for certain diodes can be
in the visible, or nearly visible, range. These are LEDs, which are optimized to take advantage
of this photon emission property.

The simplest form of an LED is a semiconductor crystal that is connected to two electrical
terminals forming a positive-negative (p-n) junction. A p-n junction is a transition point for
recombination between electrons and holes, which is the basis of injection luminescence. By
selectively adding impurities to a crystalline semiconductor, semiconductors can be formed
with either an excess of free electrons (n-type) or an excess of holes (p-type). Manufacturing
techniques have been developed to create crystals in which the conductivity changes from p-
type to n-type within a narrow transition region, forming a p-n junction. If a forward bias voltage
is applied across the p-n junction, electrons flow into the p-side and holes into the n-side. This
can be conceptualized as electrons being injected into holes, where the recombination
process produces optical radiation (radiative recombination) and heat (nonradiative
recombination).
The simplest type of recombination takes place in a direct-gap semiconductor, also known as
a p-n homojunction, where a free electron recombines with a free hole and the emitted photon
has energy nearly equal to that of the energy gap. An energy gap, which is also known as a
band gap, is an energy range in a semiconductor between a valence band and conduction
band where no electron states exist. Electrons can exist in the conduction or valence bands,
but not in the energy gap between, a region known as the forbidden gap. In indirect-gap
semiconductors, a controlled introduction of impurities allows for electron states within the
forbidden gap. Recombination in indirect-gap semiconductor materials takes place via
forbidden gap states. Structures composed of semiconductors that have different energy gaps
due to different chemical composition are called heterostructures, and they form p-n
heterojunctions. While the photon generation process is less efficient in a heterojunction than
in a homojunction (because the energy of the emitted photons is less than that of the full
energy gap), heterojunctions can be designed so that less optical radiation is absorbed within
the semiconductor, markedly improving the injection and internal quantum efficiencies.
Practical high brightness LEDs employ double heterostructures, also called quantum wells,
which employ advanced energy-gap engineering.

Construction

LED chips are manufactured using standard production processes for multilayer
semiconductor devices. Clean rooms are necessary as a high level of crystalline perfection is
required, as is a high level of chemical purity. The substrate for the light-emitting element of a
LED chip is a crystal wafer that has been sliced from a rod-shaped ingot of single-crystal
material, which itself is made by slowly withdrawing a seed crystal (of, for example, gallium
phosphide or gallium arsenide) from pure molten material. Since alloys cannot be grown in
this way, the active LED area is deposited on the pure wafer with epitaxial deposition
techniques, which are employed to first grow an n-type material, and on top of that, a p-type
material. Electrical contacts to the n-type and p-type sides are formed by photolithography and
metal evaporation, after which the wafer is scribed and divided into dice, which are the small
LED chips that are the actual emitters of optical radiation. To form an LED package, the dice
are mounted on a base and lead wires are attached. Most typically, dice are encapsulated in
a lens, which is most typically made with an epoxy resin. The base in high-flux LED packages
is the first component of a thermal heatsink, designed to be coupled to a larger heatsink when
the LED package is incorporated into a LED luminaire. The n-type and p-type layers are made
from a variety of inorganic semiconductor materials.

The two most common materials are:

-aluminum indium gallium phosphide (AlInGaP) for the wavelength region above about
580 nm, and
-indium gallium nitride (InGaN) for the wavelength region below about 550 nm.

During the epitaxial deposition phase, the ratio of the chemical elements, and the selective
introduction of impurities, governs the spectral emission of the final product. Other elements
employed to create n- and p-type semiconductor materials include:
-gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP);
-gallium phosphide (GaP);
-aluminum gallium arsenide (AlGaAs);
-aluminum gallium phosphide (AlGap);
-silicon (Si); and
-silicon carbide (SiC)

Spectrum

The optical radiation emitted from a p-n junction is within a narrow spectral region around the
band gap of the semiconductor material. SPDs are approximately Gaussian, with typical full-
width at half-maximum (FWHM) in the range of 20-25 nm. LEDs designed to emit in the middle-
wavelength (green) region of the spectrum tend to have broader emission spectra than those
in the short- and long-wavelength regions. LEDs may have FWHM of less than 5 nm if they
employ a resonant cavity construction. White light is created by additively mixing the optical
radiation from two or more narrow-emitting LEDs, or by coupling a short-wavelength emitting
LED with one or more phosphors

Colored Light from LEDs

With their narrow SPDs, LEDs are highly efficient emitters of deeply saturated colored light.
LEDs emit deeply saturated colors without the use of subtractive filters, as are commonly
employed to create richly colored light from other light sources. For applications where colored
light is desired, LEDs are likely to be more efficient than technologies that employ subtractive
filters.

White Light from LEDs

Two common ways of generating white light with LEDs are:

1) convert short wavelength optical radiation with a down-conversion phosphor to create a
broad emitting SPD; and
2) combine multiple narrow-band LEDs using additive color mixing.

Down-Conversion Phosphor

Phosphor-based LEDs operate on the same general principles as a fluorescent lamp: short-
wavelength energy is converted to longer wavelengths by one or more phosphors. In such
LEDs, the chip emits short-wavelength optical radiation (typically in the range of 380– 470 nm)
via injection luminescence, and one or more phosphors convert some of that into longer
wavelength optical radiation via down-conversion and Stoke’s shift. The loss of energy during
the down-conversion and nonradiative recombination make this process inherently less
efficient than direct emission in the visible range. LEDs that employ one phosphor are bimodal,
and those that employ more than one phosphor are multimodal. Bimodal phosphor-based
LEDs employ a single chip and a single phosphor coating. Most typically, short-wavelength
energy in the blue spectral region is converted into a broad spectrum that peaks near the peak
of the photopic luminous efficiency function. Colloquially, the phosphor would be considered
an emitter of “yellow” optical radiation. The phosphor thickness and density are specified such
that a predetermined amount of “blue” light is leaked, creating a bimodal blended spectrum.
Luminous efficacy, CCT, and CRI, which are conventional quantities employed for spectral
optimization, can be adjusted by changing the blue/yellow concentrations.
Single phosphor spectrums tend to be deficient of long-wavelength (red) optical radiation. To
improve the color characteristics one or more additional phosphors may be added to emit
long-wavelength optical radiation. The white-point can be varied by adjusting the thicknesses
of the phosphors. Color rendition is improved at the expense of luminous efficacy, since the
emission of optical radiation is moved away from the peak of the luminous efficiency function.

LEDs that make use of long-, medium-, and short-wavelength emitting phosphors are also
possible. In such constructions, a UV-emitting chip may be used, and the phosphors are
selected to completely absorb the UV optical radiation. The short-wavelength phosphor is
selected to generate optical radiation at a predetermined wavelength that yields an SPD with
a higher CRI than directly leaked blue emission.

UV and near-UV energy has greater potential to degrade packaging materials, leading to the
possibility of chemical bond cracks, especially at higher operating temperatures. Such cracks
can allow UV to escape. This safety concern necessitates additional UV considerations to
guarantee safety, which are not a concern for LEDs that do not generate high levels of UV, a
category that includes nearly all mixed LED sources and most LEDs that employ one or more
down-conversion phosphors.

Nomenclature

Most current SSL products resemble both light sources and luminaires, making it difficult to
separate LED packages from LED luminaires.

LED Packages

There is no standard nomenclature for ordering or characterizing LED packages; multipage

data guides are required to communicate the relevant characteristics, which includes:
physical size;
maximum ratings for DC forward current;
maximum permissible peak forward current;
maximum LED junction temperature;
reverse voltage limit;
operating and storage temperature ranges;
and minimum, typical, and maximum forward voltages.

LEDs are typically sorted into bins with respect to radiant flux and dominant wavelength, both
of which must be specified with respect to a DC forward current. The cut sheet may also
provide plots of wavelength shift versus forward current, relative output versus forward current,
SPDs, and a polar plot of luminous intensity. The operational data are temperature dependent;
data guides are typically based on a 25° C ambient temperature.

LED Luminaires

The label is intended to provide specifiers and end-users with objective information and
facilitate comparisons. An example is given as Figure 7.50. The label includes: lumen output;
input power; system efficacy (reported as “efficacy”); CRI; CCT; model number, type, and
brand; and a unique registration number. To participate in the program, manufacturers must
pledge to comply with conditions, including random product testing and compliance with LM-
79: Approved Method for Electrical and Photometric Measurement of Solid-State Lighting
Products. Notably absent from the Lighting FactsCM labeling are data about lumen
maintenance and life. Recommendations for testing and reporting LED luminaire lifetime have
been separately published by DOE in cooperation with the Next Generation Lighting Industry
Alliance (NGLIA). The efficacy listed on the label is an initial value which can be expected to
be cut in half (when L50 is reached) as the product ages. In many LED luminaires, the LED
package is non-replaceable and the entire luminaire must be discarded at failure; this is unlike
traditional luminaires that have replaceable lamps.
LED package data are particularly relevant to luminaire manufacturers that are incorporating
packages into LED luminaires. However, LED package data may also be relevant to lighting
specifiers because characteristics of the LED package may be influenced by the design
application. Ambient temperature, in particular, cannot be controlled by the manufacturer of
either the LED package or LED luminaire. Successful use of LEDs therefore requires good
coupling between the LED package, LED luminaire, and design application.

Types

LEDs entered applied lighting in the 1960s as narrow emitting, long lasting, low intensity
replacements for incandescent indicator lights. They have blossomed into sources that, at the
time of publication, have moderate lumen output, moderate luminous efficacy, and potential
for extensive use in general illumination.

Miniature LED lamps are available in many shapes and sizes ranging from 2 to 8 mm. They
do not have a heat sink or mechanism for coupling to a heat sink, which sets an upper limit for
both power consumption and lumen output. Common drive currents are 1 to 20 mA. In addition
to individual use as indicator lights, they have been grouped into arrays for use in traffic
signals, variable message signs, commercial advertising signs, and EXIT signs.

In architectural applications, it is more typical to employ so-called “high-flux” LED lamps.

Unlike miniature LED lamps, high-flux LED lamps have their die coupled to a heat sink, which
is intended to be coupled to another heat sink when integrated into an LED luminaire. “High-
flux” is a relative term, as the lumen output is greater than that of miniature LED lamps, but
still low in comparison to other light sources. At the time of this writing, a single-chip high-flux
LED lamp may generate 60 to 100 lumens at a drive current of 350 mA. Such LEDs can
typically be driven up to 500 mA, or in some cases as high as 700 mA, which increases lumen
output, but with a higher junction temperature, and thus shorter life. There are no conventions
with respect to high-flux LED lamp characteristics in any category, including: physical (size,
shape); optical (SPD, lumen-output, intensity distribution); electrical (forward current, voltage,
wattage); or mechanical (base type, heatsinking). High-flux LED lamps are rapidly evolving
products on an open market that has not yet matured to the point of commodification.

LED lamps are not typically specified directly by lighting specifiers on luminaire schedules or
in specifications. Rather, they are incorporated into LED luminaires as an integral component,
and may or may not be replaceable. It is incumbent upon the LED luminaire manufacturer to
effectively couple the LED lamp into the LED luminaire, and for the lighting specifier to apply
the product in the intended manner. Thermal management is among the most important
considerations in achieving rated performance

Operating Characteristics

Salient LED operating characteristics include: lumen output; lamp life and lumen maintenance;
lamp lumen depreciation; failure mechanism; wall-plug, lamp, and system efficacy; dimming
characteristics; and color rendition. Many of these characteristics are quite different than those
of traditional light sources, even when similar language is employed.
Lumen Output

The amount of luminous flux varies according to the LED’s color and depends upon the current
density that the LED die can manage. All else being equal, luminous flux is greater when there
is a greater percentage of optical radiation near the peak of the luminous efficiency function,
and when the LED device can handle more current. The amount of optical radiation near the
peak of the luminous efficiency function is limited by many factors, including the physics and
chemistry of semiconductor-based light production, and spectral design considerations related
to CCT and color rendition. LED package properties limit the electrical current that can be
safely driven to the die.

Lumen output per LED package is a rapidly changing landscape, especially in the category of
so-called “high-flux” LEDs. As of this writing, LED packages are available that deliver in excess
of 1500 lumens at efficacies greater than 75 lumens per watt, when driven at 250 mA. Such
packages consist of an array of chips (in this example, 49 chips) mounted on a single board,
and encapsulated in one refractive optic. High flux devices are made by combining several
dies into a single luminaire.

Lamp Life and Lumen Maintenance

LEDs have the potential to exhibit very long operational lives. Depending on their construction
and use conditions, they may achieve service lives of 50,000 hours or longer.

Use conditions that affect performance include:

operating cycle;
electrical conditions imposed by auxiliary equipment;
thermal conditions associated with the luminaire;
ambient temperature;
airflow;
and orientation.

Unlike traditional light sources, lamp life is more commonly governed by parametric rather
than catastrophic failure. Like all light sources, the lumen output from LEDs decreases over
time. Therefore, even though the LED source may continue to light, lumen depreciation can
result in lower light output than intended in the specification, or required by codes, standard
practices, or regulations. For these reasons, lamp life and lumen maintenance are connected
more intimately with LEDs than they are with traditional light sources.
Like all other electric light sources, LEDs produce less lumens as they age. As of this writing,
it is difficult to generalize the lumen maintenance performance of LEDs because they are a
rapidly developing technology. Further, LEDs are expected to have long-lives, and as a result
long-term testing for new and recently introduced products is based largely on probabilistic
projections, rather than on actual measurement.

Failure Mechanism
Failure occurs when the LED can no longer perform its intended function. Failure can be
catastrophic or parametric.
Catastrophic failure means that the LED will no longer light; it is not accompanied by glass
breaking or other non-passive failure mechanisms. Catastrophic-failure mechanisms are
generally due to electrical or thermal overstress, and may include:
broken bond wires;
delamination of the package layers;
or a break in the metallization of the die.

The typical end-result is either an open circuit or a short circuit within the package. Failures in
the package cannot be repaired. Parametric failure means a key parameter has drifted by
more than an acceptable amount from its initial value, even though the LED package will still
produce optical radiation.

Parametric-failure mechanisms include degradation or shifts in:

luminous flux;
luminous intensity;
luminous efficacy;
dominant wavelength;
forward voltage; and
reverse leakage current.

L70 and L50 are examples of criteria that could be used to define parametric failure.
In considering a large batch of LED packages, some early failures should be expected (“infant
mortality”), followed by a useful-life period in which occasional random failures may occur
(“middle age”), followed by a more rapid wear-out period among the batch (“old age”). Age is
not just a function of operating time, but is also a function of stress during operation. LED
package stress is most closely related to heat (thermal stress), though electrical stress may
also lead to failure. Thermal and electrical stresses are both directly related to the drive
current.

Dimming

In theory, it is possible to dim LED lamps from 100% lumen output to less than 1%. Much like
a ballast (the auxiliary component that permits dimming in discharge lamps by controlling the
electrical conditions), the LED driver is the auxiliary component that permits dimming of LEDs
by controlling the electrical conditions.

There are two principle methods for dimming LEDs:

-linear reduction of forward current (constant current reduction, CCR); and
-pulse-width modulation (PWM).

Constant current drivers can be designed to employ either method, whereas PWM is the only
method that can be employed by constant voltage drivers. Most drivers for new specifications
employ PWM, which rapidly switches the LED lamp on and off from hundreds to hundreds of
thousands of modulations per second. At such frequencies LED flicker is undetectable by the
human visual system

Note that most dimmers today were designed around the electrical characteristics of purely
resistive incandescent loads. When multiple LED loads are connected to the same dimmer,
the electrical stresses placed on the dimmer may not be adequately represented by the
published load wattage. Higher initial inrush current or repetitive peak currents (when used
with a leading-edge dimmer) may stress the dimmer beyond its design margins, even if the
nominal wattage rating has not been exceeded.

Important caveats include the facts that there are no standards for LED lamp/driver
compatibility and there are no standards to characterize dimming performance. With some
LED lamp/driver combinations, flicker will occur during dimming, rather than the smooth
change in lumen output associated with incandescent and fluorescent dimming systems.
In some systems, LED lamps may abruptly extinguish at 10 – 20% lumen output rather than
providing continuous dimming to less than 1%. Shifts in CCT and color rendition may occur,
though they tend to be negligible in phosphor-based LED lamps. Before making a
specification, samples of the products under consideration should be evaluated to ensure
compatibility with the expectations of the owner and design team. Dimming LEDs does not
result in a reduction in luminous efficacy. Lamp life is not shortened, and may in fact be
lengthened since dimming reduces the p-n junction temperature, which is one of the leading
determinants of LED life.

Wall-Plug Efficiency, Luminous Efficacy, and System Efficacy

Luminous efficacy is dependent upon the wall-plug efficiency considerations described above,
but also on the relationship between the wavelengths of optical radiation that can be generated
with current materials science, and the luminous efficiency function While it is theoretically
possible to construct an LED with virtually any peak wavelength in the visual spectrum, it is
currently impractical to do so in the region from approximately 550 to 580 nm. Bridging this
gap is an active area of research. The power consumed by the driver must be considered
when determining system efficacy.

Thermal Characteristics

Several characteristics of LEDs are sensitive to heat, including: lumen output; luminous
efficacy; the color of the optical radiation; and life. These characteristics are related to the p-n
junction temperature, more simply referred to as junction temperature. The colder the junction
temperature, the better a LED will perform. Temperatures exceeding the maximum junction
temperature (TJMAX), which should be listed on the data sheet for the LED package, should
always be avoided since exceeding this temperature may result in catastrophic failure of the
packaging. Plots showing temperature-dependent characteristics as a function of temperature
should be provided by the LED lamp manufacturer. For example, a plot of the change in
dominant wavelength as a function of temperature for an InGaN LED lamp.

Color Rendering

Experiments have shown that visual-rankings contradict CRI-rankings when white LED light
sources are among the light sources used to illuminate an array of colored objects. As a result,
CIE concluded that CRI is not applicable to predict the CRI rank-order of a set of light sources
when white LED lamps are involved in the set, and CIE recommended the development of a
new color rendering index, or a set of color rendering indices. This work is currently being
undertaken by TC1-69 Color Rendering of White Light Sources.
Color Uniformity and Stability

Some LED lamps exhibit inherent color variations from lamp-to-lamp (uniformity), and they
may change in color as a result of a change in some operating conditions (stability). Uniformity
problems are a result of the inherent complexities of manufacturing semiconductors When a
semiconductor wafer is scribed and cut into die, different parts of the die will have different
properties. Also, different wafers will have different properties, varying from batch-to-batch.
The most workable solution has been to employ binning. A bin is a restricted range of LED
performance characteristics used to delimit a subset of LEDs near a nominal LED performance
as identified by chromaticity and photometric performance. There is no existing standard for
binning-colored LEDs, and so manufacturers adopt their own criteria; such data should be
available on product datasheets. LEDs that generate white light at a constant CCT should be
binned according to ANSI C78.377.

Note that some manufacturers employ tighter (smaller) bins than other manufacturers, and
there may be visibly discernable differences between LED lamps even within the same bin. If
color uniformity is critical, numerous device samples should be attained, preferable at the
extents of the bin limits. Binning is performed for LEDs with and without phosphors. At the
time of writing, LEDs that employ a phosphor tend to have better color uniformity than colored
LEDs. Some LEDs shift in color with changes in the junction temperature, which may be a
result of dimming. It is not possible to generalize the magnitude of the color shift. AlInGap
LEDs (above about 580 nm) tend to have larger color shifts with a change in temperature than
to InGaN LEDs (below about 550 nm). LED lamps may also shift in color as they age, and
different spectral components may have unequal lumen depreciation. Some multimodal LED
systems that create white light with the additive mixing of red-, green-, and blue-emitting LEDs
employ active feedback to hold chromaticity constant during dimming and over life. This is
achieved by differentially adjusting the red-, green-, and blue-emitting components. As of
publication, LED lamps that employ a phosphor tend to be less susceptible to color shift with
respect to both diming and life.

DISFAVORED LIGHT SOURCES

Certain lamp types have been employed for many decades, but are no longer appropriate for
new specifications. These include: standard filament incandescent; mercury vapor HID; and
low-pressure sodium. Standard filament incandescent lamps have been superseded by
halogen and halogen infrared technologies, which have improved life and luminous efficacy.
High pressure mercury vapor lamps have been superseded by metal halide lamps, which have
better color-rendering and luminous efficacy. Low-pressure sodium lamps were employed in
the past due to their high luminous efficacy, which is achieved at the expense of color rendition.
They are disfavored because the tradeoff between luminous efficacy and color rendition is too
severe. Low pressure sodium lamps produce monochromatic-yellow light, resulting in abysmal
color rendition and making them unsuitable for general lighting applications where color
rendition is of even minor importance.

CHARACTERISTICS OF LIGHT
SOURCES

Light sources have five (5) characteristics: efficiency, color temperature, color rendering index
(CRI), timing and aging.

Efficiency

Some lamp types are more efficient in converting energy into visible light than others. The
efficacy of a lamp refers to the number of lumens leaving the lamp compared to the number
of watts required by the lamp (and ballast). It is expressed in lumens per watt. Sources with
higher efficacy require less electrical energy to light a space.

Color Temperature

Another characteristic of a light source is the color temperature. This is a measurement of

"warmth" or "coolness" provided by the lamp. People usually prefer a warmer source in lower
illuminance areas, such as dining areas and living rooms, and a cooler source in higher
illuminance areas, such as grocery stores.
Color temperature refers to the color of a blackbody radiator at a given absolute temperature,
expressed in Kelvins. A blackbody radiator changes color as its temperature increases (first
to red, then to orange, yellow, and finally bluish white at the highest temperature.

A "warm" color light source actually has a lower color temperature. For example, a cool-white
fluorescent lamp appears bluish in color with a color temperature of around 4100 K. A warmer
fluorescent lamp appears more yellowish with a color temperature around 3000 K. Refer to
Exhibit 5 for color temperatures of various light sources.

Color Rendering Index

The CRI is a relative scale (ranging from 0 - 100). indicating how perceived colors match actual
colors. It measures the degree that perceived colors of objects, illuminated by a given light
source, conform to the colors of those same objects when they are lighted by a reference
standard light source. The higher the color rendering index, the less color shift or distortion
occurs.
The CRI number does not indicate which colors will shift or by how much; it is rather an
indication of the average shift of eight standard colors. Two different light sources may have
identical CRI values, but colors may appear quite different under these two sources.

Timing
Timing is yet another vital characteristic of light sources. It covers the flicker and the turn on
time. When it comes to turn on time, incandescent bulbs are known to be very simple. When
power is applied to them, they can easily turn on immediately. They simply glow to the full
brightness. On the other hand, fluorescent bulbs require extra timing. They can be very
complex as well. In most cases, a fluorescent bulb may take some minutes before coming
up. The filament is usually preheated before the plasma arc is created to ensure the longevity
of the tube. The preheat time usually takes up to 700msec. When the tube is put on
eventually, it may take some minutes before coming to full brightness. This delay is actually
one of the major flaws of most fluorescent bulbs. You may be delayed from seeing light when
you use such bulbs. Some of the fluorescent bulbs do have lower start times. Sodium
streetlights take several minutes to turn on. This is usually the case when they are put on at
night.

The HID lamps don’t usually turn on again after you put them off. You have to wait for about
10 to 15 minutes before you can put them on again. This can be very problematic especially
when there’s a sudden power outage. You may have to wait for several minutes to put the HID
lamps on.

Meanwhile, the term flicker refers to what happens when a light turns off every time the AC
line passes through 0 volts. Most incandescent lamps are usually known to be involved in
this. However, you may not be able to notice this since they have filaments that take enough
time to cool down. This makes the light change unnoticed. The filament of an incandescent
lamp usually has a long thermal time constant. You can discover this when you put off an
incandescent bulb. The light usually continues to showcase for some seconds after the turn
off.

On the other hand, fluorescent tubes are known for extinguishing their plasma arc within 100
μ sec. this is why a 10 KHz fluorescent tube has a 10% efficacy advantage over the one with
60Hz capacity. This usually causes the fluorescent tube to turn off and on 50 or 60 times per
second. In most cases, this produces an annoying flicker for most of the fluorescent bulbs.
LED lights also encounter such problems since they normally turn off faster than the ordinary
fluorescent tubes.

Dimming
Most of the light sources usually have dimming problems. Incandescent bulbs for instance
drop their CCT levels as they dim. This usually makes them look redder in color.
Fluorescent tubes also turn off when they become dim. They usually perceive the missing
voltage as a blatant decrease in the average line voltage. Again, if the voltage applied to the
ballast of a fluorescent tube is reduced, the arc current and the filament power will also be
reduced. This shortens the lifetime of the tube. LEDs also have dimming issues. They can
be designed to dim.

Aging
Aging issues also occur in most of the light sources. If one of multiple incandescent bulbs is
replaced in a fixture, this can indicate that the older bulbs have worn out over time. The same
scenario is also seen in fluorescent bulbs and LEDs. However, there’s a difference in aging
duration for all the light sources. An incandescent bulb has a lifetime of 100 hours of usage.
Fluorescent bulbs have a complex lifetime since their lifetime depends on how many hours
they are used as well as the on/off cycles used. Basically, their lifetime stands at 10,000 hours
of usage.
LEDs have longer lifetimes. This is because they are made of semiconductors that last for
years. LEDs can serve for thousands of hours. Their average lifetime stands at 50,000 hours.
In all, the above characteristics of light sources help you to know more about different kinds
of light systems. You can use them as background knowledge as you study more about LEDs
and their modes of operation.

Definition of terms
Ballasts- A current-limiting device necessary for the operation of discharge lamps.
Candlepower-is the unit of luminous intensity.
Diffusion- the action of spreading the light from a light source evenly to reduce glare and
harsh shadows.
Electrodes- is an electrical conductor that contacts the nonmetallic circuit parts of a circuit,
such as an electrolyte, semiconductor, or vacuum.
Electron holes- a surplus of positive charges in a semiconductor.
Filament- a conducting wire or thread with a high melting point, forming part of an electric
bulb or vacuum tube, and heated or made incandescent by an electric current.
Fluorescent- defined as emitting light due to absorbing radiation from an external source, or
something vividly colorful.
Heterostructures- is defined as a semiconductor structure in which the chemical
composition changes with position.
Illuminance- is defined as the amount of light incident on a unit area
Infrared- (of electromagnetic radiation) having a wavelength just greater than that of the red
end of the visible light spectrum but less than that of microwaves.
Julian Day- a Julian date or day number is the number of elapsed days since the beginning
of a cycle of 7,980 years invented by Joseph Scaliger in 1583.
Lumens-derived from the spectral luminous efficiency function for photopic vision only
Luminaires- a complete lighting unit, comprised of a light source (lamp or lamps), together
with the parts that distribute the light, position and protect the lamps, and connect the lamps
to the power supply.
Luminous Efficacy- is defined as the percentage of power/energy converted to visible
radiation.
Luminous Flux- is defined as the amount of light emitted per second from a light source
Luminous Intensity- is defined as the flux of light emitted per second in one direction.
Optical Radiation- Optical radiation is a type of electromagnetic (EM) radiation. As with
other types of EM radiation, optical radiation is defined according to the wavelength of the
energy that it emits.
Phosphorus- A highly reactive, poisonous nonmetallic element occurring naturally in
phosphates, especially in the mineral apatite.
Quantum Wells-is a nanometer-thin layer which can confine (quasi-)particles (typically
electrons or holes) in the dimension perpendicular to the layer surface, whereas the
movement in the other dimensions is not restricted.
Rayleigh Waves- an undulating wave that travels over the surface of a solid, especially of
the ground in an earthquake, with a speed independent of wavelength, the motion of the
particles being in ellipses.
Solar Altitude- the 0 degree at sunrise and usually 90 degrees when the sun is overhead at
noon.
Solar Azimuth- is defined as the angle between the projection of sun’s center onto the
horizontal plane and due south direction.
Solar Illuminance- an integral part of total energy balance fundamental to both short-term
weather events and long-range estimations of climate change.
Spectrum- spectrum is simply a chart or a graph that shows the intensity of light being
emitted over a range of energies.
Summer Solstice-the two moments during the year when the path of the Sun in the sky is
farthest north in the Northern Hemisphere (June 20 or 21) or farthest south in the Southern
Hemisphere (December 21 or 22).
Ultraviolet- situated beyond the visible spectrum at its violet end —used of radiation having
a wavelength shorter than wavelengths of visible light and longer than those of X-rays
Winter Solstice- also called hibernal solstice, the two moments during the year when the
path of the sun in the sky is farthest south in the Northern Hemisphere and farthest north in
the Southern Hemisphere.
Zenith- is the imaginary point that is directly above a particular location on the celestial
sphere.
Inverse Square Law of Light
The inverse-square law works as follows: “If you double the distance between subject
and light source, it illuminates a surface area four times greater than the one before.”

In general, we therefore multiply the distance with itself in order to calculate the
enlargement of that surface area. However, a larger surface area leads to a light intensity that
is inversely proportional to the square of the distance, since the same amount of light has to
be distributed onto a larger surface area respectively.
Therefore, we see light fall-off, meaning a decrease of light intensity. In technical terms the
inverse-square law reads as follows:

“The energy (in our case: light intensity) at location A (subject area) decreases inversely
proportional to the square of A’s distance to the energy source (for example, our flash head).”

Picture from: https://petapixel.com/2016/06/02/primer-inverse-square-law-light/

It only requires some basic math knowledge to write down the inverse-square law (its
formula). However, the physics behind it is generally very complex. Because of this, we are
only going to approach this law in an illustrative way and from the viewpoint of photography.

For this reason, we are referring to the exposure of the image sensor or film and to the
lighting of the subject. When using flash and spotlight, the inverse-square law is especially
handy.
Picture from: https://petapixel.com/2016/06/02/primer-inverse-square-law-light/

The light intensity, for example, quadruples (4) upon halving (1/2) the distance to the
light source and subject. Respectively, the light intensity decreases to a quarter if we double
the distance. According to this, these exemplary pairs of digits are valid (distance: 3-fold;
intensity: 1/9) and (4; 1/16) if we multiply the distance respectively.

In general, the inverse-square law explains the disproportionate light fall-off with
increasing distance of the subject to the light source. This knowledge helps us to better
understand how to correlate light and lighting with the distance to the subject and its
brightness.

PRACTICAL APPLICATION

Because of the inverse-square relationship of the described law, the light intensity
drops rather heavily when the subject is first moved further away from the light source. After
that, it continuously decreases on a weaker level. For example: If we increase the distance
between light source and subject from 1 meter to 2 meters, 75 percent of light intensity is lost
on the subject. But when we increase the distance from 4 to 10 meters, we only lose 5 percent.

So, the light intensity close to the light source has especially high values. But in the
distance, this intensity only reaches a tiny value. Here’s how we create the appropriate

lighting: At constant shutter speed the f-value increases, the closer the subject gets to
the light source – the smaller the aperture, the less light enters into the camera.

Vice versa too: the f-value decreases as the distance of the subject to the light source
increases. In both cases the respective shots almost look the same: Simply because the same
amount of light enters through the lens.
 This is how we theoretically create the correct f-value for each combination of distance,
light intensity and shutter speed.

Special Problem: Correctly Illuminate Backgrounds

In our images, we oftentimes of course also wish to see contrasts instead of uniform
brightness: We have a desire for lighter and darker parts of the image. For example, we are
in need of a rather dark background against which our attractive model will be illuminated in a
correct and bright way – close to the light source! The quadratic light fall-off to the further away
background then leads to the underexposed and therefore dark background. This is how
strong contrast works to our advantage thanks to the inverse-square law.

In turn, we also use this “inverse-square law” when we desire an evenly and well
illuminated model and background: We then place the light source in a significant distance to
both the model and background – this way we achieve a very even illumination.

As you can see in the example below, it is already sufficient to place the light source
in a distance of 4 meters to the model in order to evenly illuminate both the model and
background. The difference between model and background is only 2/2 stops now. If the
model was yet placed closer against the background, the light fall-off could be reduced even
further.
 By the way, if the light source is placed too close to the model (only 1 meter here) as
seen in the upper example, the light fall-off on the model’s body is already so huge that – in
case of a full body shot – the legs would be underexposed. Therefore, such a positioning is
only worth to be considered for a portrait shot.

CONCLUSION

Regarding the aperture: The difference from one f-stop to the next always either leads
to a doubling or halving of brightness. For the flash head this also always means a doubling
or halving of output (Ws). For example, if the flash head’s output is changed from 5 to 6, then
this is exactly equal to one f-stop.

Regarding the distance: If an object is placed close to the light source, the light fall-off
on said object is very high in comparison to the background. Light fall-off to the square! When
doubling the distance to the object, 4-times the light energy is required in order to balance the
difference in brightness.

Doubling/Halving of distance is always equal to 2 f-stops regarding the difference of

brightness!

A longer distance between light source and subject leads to a more uniform illumination
of both the subject and background because the light fall-off keeps decreasing as the distance
increases. Therefore, this effect has a huge influence on lighting design.

INVERSE SQUARE LAW FORMULA COMPUTATION

The inverse square law describes the intensity of light at different distances from a light
source. Every light source is different, but the intensity changes in the same way. The intensity
of light is inversely proportional to the square of the distance. This means that as the distance
from a light source increases, the intensity of light is equal to a value multiplied by 1/d 2,. The
proportional symbol, , is used to show how these relate.

The relationship between the intensity of light at different distances from the same light
source can be found by dividing one from the other. The formula for this is shown below.
Visible light is part of the electromagnetic spectrum, and the inverse square law is true for any
other waves or rays on that spectrum, for example, radio waves, microwaves, infrared and
ultraviolet light, x rays, and gamma rays. The intensity of visible light is measured in candela
units, while the intensity of other waves is measured in Watts per meter squared (W/m2).

Proportional:

I = light intensity (candela, W/m2)

means "is proportional to"

d = distance from a light source (m)

Intensity at different distances:

I1 = light intensity at distance 1

I2 = light intensity at distance 2

d1 = distance 1 from light source (m)

d2 = distance 2 from light source (m)

INVERSE SQUARE LAW FORMULA QUESTIONS:

1) If a bright flashlight has a light intensity of 15.0 candela at a distance 1.00 m from
the lens, what is the intensity of the flashlight 100.0 m from the lens?
Answer:

The intensity at the farther distance can be found using the formula:

If d1 = 1.00 m from the lens, and d2 = 100.0 m from the lens, then I1 = 15.0 candela, and we
need to solve for I2. This requires rearranging the equation:

Now, substitute the values that are known in to the equation:

I2 = (0.0001)(15.0 candela)

I2 = 0.0015 candela

The intensity of the flashlight at a distance of 100.0 m is 0.0015 candela.

2) The intensity of a radio signal is 0.120 W/m2 at a distance of 16.0 m from a small
transmitter. What is the intensity of the signal 4.00 m from the transmitter?

Answer: The intensity at the near distance can be found using the formula:

If d1 = 4.00 m from the transmitter, and d2 = 16.0 m from the transmitter, then
I2 = 0.120 W/m2, and we need to solve for I1. This requires rearranging the equation:
Now, substitute the values that are known in to the equation:

I1 = (16.0)(0.120 W/m2)
I1 = 1.92/m2
The intensity of the radio signal 4.00 m from the transmitter is 1.92 W/m2.