CONTENTS

CHAPTER -1: QUANTUM PHYSICS 1.1-1.72

1.1 Black body Radiation
1.2
A.1.1 Spectral distribution ofenergyin the Black body Radiation 1.2
1 2 Planck's Law ofRadiation 1.4
1.2 Dual Nature of
ElectromagneticRadiation 1.9
1.3 The Compton Effect 1.9
3.1 Experimental Demonstration of Compton Effect 1.13
1.4 Matter Waves 1.14
1.4.1 Wavelengthof Matter Waves 1.15
J4.2 Properties of matter waves 1.17
1.4.3 Wavelength of MatterWaves AssociatedwithDifferent Particles 1.17
1.5 Davisson and Gemer Experiment 1.21
1.6 Uncertainty Principle 1.24
1.6.1 Applications ofUncertainty Principle 1.26
1.7 Wave Function 1.31
1.7.1 Physical significance ofthewavefinction and its interpretation 1.33
7.2 Schrodinger's equation 1.35

Schrodinger time independent wave equation 1.35

L7.3
J7.3
1.38
4 Schrodinger time dependent wave equation
Free Particle in a onedimensional box 1.39
1.45
1.8 Application of Quantam Mechanics
1.8.1 TunnelEffect 1.45
1.46
1.8.2 Barier penetration
1.53
1.8.3 Scanning Tunneling Microscope
1.56
Solved Problems
1.66
Points to Remember
1.68
Review Questions
CHAPTER-2: NANO TECHNOLOGY 2.1-2.36
2.1
2.1 Introduction.
2.2 Nanoscale
2.4
2.3 Nanophase materials 2.5
2.4 Moore's law 2.7
2.5 Semiconducting nanoparticles 2.8
 CHAPTER 1

QUANTUM PHYSICS

Introduction
The end ofthe nineteenth centurywitnessed àremarkable and exciting period 0

when number of experimental results were obtained about physical phenomena

occurring in nature. Most ofthese results could be explained by Newtonianmechanics
more popularly known as classical mechanics. Bven the motion ofheavenly bodies
could be explained by classical mechanics. imi

However, when applied to electrons and nucleus, the classical mechanis gave
only approximate results. Then it was found that concepts ofclassicalmechanics are
not applicable to microscopic world ofatoms, electrons, protons and quarks etc., the
ultimate constituents of matter. Likewise the quantization of energy is an idea entirely
new to classical mechanics. The interaction ofradiation with matter where photons are

involved is another new concept to be incorporated in classical mechanics.

Such and many other disagreementsrequired that a new formalism has to be
developed which could be applied to bodies of atomic and nuclear dimensions.
Quantum mechanics was found to be the formalism which revolutionized the thinking

ofphysicists dealing with microscopic bodies.

First quarter ofthe twentieth century was an epoch making era. The founders of
Quantum mechanics were mainly Max Planck, Albert Einstein, Louis de Broglie, Erwin
Schrodinger. Wemer Heisenberg, Dirac and Max Bom. These and many others, during
the period 1900-1930, developed Quantum Mechanics.
 1.2 MODERN PHYSICS

With the passage of time.pt more and more experimental data were made
available conceming the atomic and subatomic particles, elegant formalism ofquantum
mechanics was developed. It is now believed that classical mechanics is an approximate
version ofquantum mechanics.
Modem Physics essentially means the physicsofthe twentieth century and thereafter
Undoubtedly, the physics of the future will still refine our understanding of nature and
world around us. We should be fortunate enough to be alive in this marvelous time of
Modern Physics.

dtOurba1.l Black body Radiation

Radiation is emitted by every substance as a result ofthe vibration of its particles
aluet and the character ofradiation depends on the nature and temperature of the substance.
Cm2
The ability ofa body to radiate is closely related to its ability to absorbradiationasat any
constant temperature, the body will be in thermal equilibrium with its surroundings and
must be absorbing radiation at the sane rate asitlimi. em d
Different solids emit radiations at different rates at the same temperature; the rate is
maximum when the solid is perfectly black ie. behaves as a black body. A black body
can absorb all the radiations that fals on it.

For practical purposes anisothemal cavity with a small aperture through which
/radiations from outside may be admitted and absorbed completely due to repeated
reflectionsinside the enclosure is considereda black body. Radiations emerging from the
small hole of such a hollow enclosure is, therefore, called"black body radiations'.

Theintensityofradiationisi.e.totalradiationsemittedper unitsurfacearea,froma
depend
blackbodydependsonly ontemperature(T)andisindependentofthenatureofthe solid
1.1.1 Spectral distribution ofenergy in the Black body Radiation
The radiation emitted by a black body is not confined to a single wavelength but is
speread over a wide spectrum ofwavelength. The experimentally observed dependence
ofthe energy density on wavelength ()atdifferent temperatures is shown in figure 1.1.
Aclose investigation reveals the following important facts:
PHYSICS QUANTUM PHYSICS
1.3
ere made
fquantum 100000000t Utraviolet Visible
oroximate 1000000 VIBGYOR Infrared
1000000 25000K
thereafter. 100000 10000K
ature and 10000
1000 S00OK
is time of
100
300OK
10
0.01 0.1
1C
particles Wavelength (pum)
ibstance.
as at any Figure 1.1: Experimental dependence ofthe
energy density
lings and on
wavelength and temperature
Atagiven temperature, the energy is not uniformly distributed in the radiation
the rate is spectrum.
ack body Atagiven temperature the density of radiant energy increases with increase in
wavelength and becomes maximum at aparticular
increase in wavelength, the wavelength). With further
zh which density radiant energy dereases.
of

Tepeated ) Anincrease in temperature increases the enegy

from the short wavelength cutoffadvance towards the
of all spectral components. The
and the peak ofthe curve shifts to shorter
origin as the temperature increases
.
for which energy emittedis
wavelength, i.e.), (the wavelength
a, froma maximum) decreases.
the solid. The shift of the peak of the curve was found to
obey the following empirical
relationship, commonly called Wien displacement law
th but is TCconstant (1.1)
endence With the help ofclassical
of energy contained in the
thermodynamics, Wien has further shown that the amount
gure 1.1.
spectral region included within the wavelength à and 3+da
emited by a black body is given by

(1.2)
where A and B are constants.
 MODERN PHYSICS
1.4

are considerable
deviations
There
Wien law works well only for short wavelengths. obtains
temperatre. From equation (1.2), one
from Wien's lawat long wavelength and high
that energy E)
finite energy even for T= (infinite). Rayleigh
o argued that it is unlikely
should be finite forT =o.
classical physics
rigorous method based on
Later, Rayleigh and Jeans adopted
a more

and came up with the following

d a = CATe-wAT

where Cis another constant.

This Rayleigh-Jeans law describes the experimental
curve quite wellin the long
and approaches
but the density E increasesrapidlyas decreases
wavelength region energy
black body radiation, was such
infinity for shorter wavelengths.
This failure, for explaining
catastrophe.
blowto classical physics that it is historically referredasthèultraviolet
acrushing can the
that iflight emissions is a quanturmphenomenon
It led Max Planck to discover only
body radiation be obtained.
corect formula for the energy density ofblack

law to explain the spectral energy curves of black

The failure of Rayleigh-Jeans
that the fundarmental assumptions ofclassical physics required
body radiation indicated
suitable modification.

1.1.2 Planck's Law ofRadiation

shortcomingsofboththeRayleigh-Jeansand WienRadiation
Being wellawareofthe
remarkably well with the observed energy
proposed
Laws, Planck in October 1900,
The formula could be written as
curves ofthe black body radiation.
av . (1.3)

exp T -
no theoretical background
and
numerical constants. This formula had
where a and bare observed results.
by the trial and error method to explain the
was obtained empirically
announced the theoretical
few weeks later, i.e. in December 1900Planck
However, a
that a black body chamber was
law (1.3). For this, he proposed W
derivation of his radiation
with radiation butalsowithmolecules of aperfectgas,anddipoleoscillators en-
fillednotonly the black body absorbed energy form
the radiation cO
ofmolecular dimensions constituting
 QUANTUM PHYSICS
1.5
and transferred it partly or
wholly to the gas molecules when the latter collided with them.
This was a round about way of
explaining the emission andabsorption of radiation by the
black body but there vwas no other
way as the mechanism of emission and absorption of
radiation by atoms and molecules by direct
exchange was not known at that time. Planck
calculated that the number of oscillators unit volume
per was 8V2/C) so that theradiation
density wasgiven by

) = 8 r y 2

81TE)
C (1.4)
where E(v) is the mean energy of the oscillator
emitting radiation of frequency v. Now, if
E(V) were to be detemined by equipartition law, i.e. E(V) =k,T, then equation (1.4)
would lead to the Rayleigh-Jeans law, Planck
gaveup the hypothesis of continuous emission
ofradiationby oscillators and assumed that they emitted energy only when they acquired
certain minimum energyE or an integral
multiple ofit, nE. That is to say an oscillator having
an amount of energy nE could emit only after it had absorbed the amount (n+1)E, and afer
emitting the amount of energy E it reverted back to the previous state of energy nE. Thus
the radiation of energy E could be emitted
by only those oscillators which had energy E,
2E, 3E...nE. Further E was directly proportional to v, i.e.

E hv (1.5)
where the constant ofproportionality, h, was called the Planck's constant.The above idea
can be expressed in the form of following revolutionary postulates which have become the
foundation of quantum theory ofradiation;
The amount ofenergy emitted or absorbed by an oscillator is proportional to its
frequency. Calling the constant of proportionality h, one can write for the change
in oscillator energy

AB=hv
i) An oscillator cannot have an arbitrary energy but must occupy one ofa discrete
set of energy states given by

E = nhv
where n is an integer or zero. It was assumed that the ground state corresponds to the zero
energy state. The value of h=6.62619x10-4 Js. Planck'sconstant (h) is a universal
constant which plays important role in all quantum phenomena.
 MODERN PHYSICS
1.6
a discrete
ofoscillator states is now replaced by
The previous pictureof acontinuum also
energy emitted or absorbed is
set of "quantised" states. Furthermore,
theamount of
the energy difference between two
correspond to
quantised, since each quantum must
energy is called photon.
a
ofelectromagnetic
states of a given oscillator. Each quantum formula.
now derive the
famous Planck's radiation
Using Planck's quantum hypothesis, we
then the
of Planck's oscillator and E, is their total energy,
Let N be the total number
is given by
average energy per oscillator E,

.(1.6)
E
oscillators having energies 0, E, 2E,
Let Ng, N,NgsN.etc. be the number of
3E,..nE etc. respectively, then

.(1.7)
N N+N,+N,t...+N,t.

(1.8)
and E 0+EN,+2EN,t.. -nEN,+ -2n
distribution function, the number ofresonators or
According to Maxwell-Boltzmann
oscillators having energy nE will be

nE . (1.9)
N- N,exp kT
thus less likely to be populated, and as
Obviously, the higher energy states are

Putting yexpP

N,- N
 QUANTUMPHYSICS
1.7

NMNy+yt. =N . (1.10)

Similarly E, EN2ny n-0

EN, (y+2y+3y+..)
EN, Y(1+2y+3yt..)

EN,y .(1.11)
(1-y
Hence E-EN,d-)
1-y N
E
(1.12)
y 1 exp T -1
Since E=hv and c= va , we can write E=he/
Equation 1.12 becomes

.(1.13)
-1
The number of oscillators per unit volume in the wavelength range a and
+da = 8rh da >

Hence the energy density of radiation between wavelength range A and

tdh-(Average densityofan oscillator xNumber ofoscillators per unit volume)

he
=
x 8ta da

8Th ca da
T-1 .(1.14)
 MODERN PHYSICS
1.8
of radiation is
In terms offrequency the energy density

8thv dv . (1.15)
E, dy

formula.
T.
This is the Planck's radiation
radiation
When v is large,
hv
1 and e-1 =e and hencethe Planck's
<T
formula reduces to Wien's law.

radiation
hv and eAT-1 =andhencethePlanck's
When vissmall, KT T
formula reduces to Rayleigh Jeans law.
all that is valid from the
Obviously, the Planck's theory ofradiation incorporates advance
an excellent example ofaconceptual
older theories as special cases. It thus serves
much ofthe older physics.
which opened exciting new fontiers while still preserving
was the newidea of discontinuous
The most important aspect ofPlanck'shypothesis
can absorb or emit any
emission of radiation. According to classical physics, system
a

energy emitted by a black body

is
amount of energy where as in Planck's hypothesis
definite amount ofenergy, hv, Planck gave the
restricted by therelationE=hv.To this
in
while in classical physics energy is continuous variable, quantum
name "quantun". Thus,
physics it is "quantised".

Let us now reflect for a moment on the significance of Planck's

postulate. It states
in terms of its frequency ofvibration,
that the energy ofa harmonic oscillator expressed
occur in units no smallerthan (E=nhv
where n=0,1,2,.). It does not
may on the average
oscillator at any instant, nor does it say how the value ofh is
say what is the energy ofthe
to be calculated.
h whose value cannot
Planck's postulate is empirical, i.e. it contains parameter
a
)
some expression in which it
be calculated except through the comparison of
results. Thère is no theory of Planck's
appears with the appropriate experimental
reason we can givefor its existence is that itis
invaluable
constant. The only physical *********
for the elucidation ofmicroscopic phenomena.
32.
 QUANTUM PHYSICS
1.9

i) The postulate is statistical in that it refers only to the time

the microscopic oscillator. averaged behaviour of
Nothing is said about energy except that it varies
directly with the frequency ifevaluated over period of time long
compared with
v uiwbug )
i) The postulate does not in auggest that a flaw exists in the Maxwell's
of electromagnetism. It states theory
only what energy an oscillator must have on the
average if itis to remain in themmodynamic
equilibrium with a radiation field.We
should not conclude from this the latter must
necessarily exhibit discrete
energies when interacting with matter. We have verified the quantum hypothesis
only for the emission of radiation by a heated solid!
1.2 Dual Nature of
Electromagnetic Radiation
It is well known that
thejphenoména such as interference, diffaction and polarisation
can be
explained only on the basis ofwave nature of light. But this wave picture of light
could not explain the
phenomena such as photoelectric effect, compton effect, etc
Max Planck, in 1900, put forth a new and
revolutionary theory called the quanturn
theory of light. Planck proposed that emission and absorption of energy does not
take
place continuously but at discrete intervals and in discrete bundles or packets of energy.
These packets of energy are known as quanta which we call
photons. The energyof each
photon is equal to hv, where h is the Planck's constant and v is the frequency of the
associated radiation. Hence, light, or in general, any electromagnetic radiation has dual
nature, meaning both wave and particle nature.

1.3 The Compton Effect

One of the ways for radiation to interact with atoms is by means ofCompton effect
discovered by Prof.A.H. Compton in 1923. It involves essentially scattering between a
high frequency photon such as an X-ray photon and a loosely bound, nearly frecelectron
which is assumed to beat rest,
In this scattering, the photon delivers a part of its energy to the electron and goes
with areduced energy. Obviously the scattered
photon wllhavean increase in its wavelength

(Compton scattering or incoherent scattering). This is totally contradictory to the wave

picture in which the scattered radiation is les energetic than the incident radiation but has
the same wavelength (1homson scattering or coherent scattering).

The collision between the photon and the electron can be analysed in the same way
as billiard-ball collisions are
analysed in mechanics.