Lecture 

Note On Machine Drawing 
 
CHAPTER ONE

FUNDAMENTALS OF MACHINE DRAWING

DRAWING SHEET SIZES

Working drawings are often plotted or printed on

standard drawing sheets that are made of different
materials such as vellum, polyester film (Mylar is
trade name), and tracing paper. Tracing paper is a high
grade transparent paper suitable for making drawings
in pencils and ink. Vellum is a special tracing paper
and is perhaps the most common type of drawing
sheets. Mylar is an extremely transparent and durable
material for drawings, but is rather expensive.
Drawing sheet sizes have been standardized by ANSI
(American National Standards Institute) and ISO
(International Standards Organization). Table 1
summarizes the standard sheet sizes for English
(ANSI) and Metric (ISO) applications.

Note that Metric is the preferred units. Drawing sheets

also come in rolls of different widths and lengths. The
width usually corresponds to one of the standard sheet
dimensions. Drawing sheet size may be dictated by
policy. The design drafter chooses the front view and scale of a drawing.

SHEET LAYOUT

Drafting paper layout refers to the arrangement of information on the paper. Fig. shows the
general layout of a template drawing sheet. Broadly, the information in a drawing sheet may be
classified into two groups of technical and administrative.

The technical information consists of drawing views and annotations. The annotation depends on
the amount of details desired in a drawing and may include dimensions and tolerances, notes,
and bill of materials in assembly drawings. The technical information usually takes the greater
portion of the drawing sheet.

Hairedin Ismael Page 1

 
Lecture Note On Machine Drawing 
 
Administrative information on a standard drawing sheet includes title block and revision block
information. A margin is provided at each edge of the sheet and is defined by the border line (not
shown in Fig.) that is drawn at some distance from the edge. Top, bottom, left and right side
margins are provided. They provide spaces for filing and handling the sheet. A more detail
discussion of the content of a drawing sheet follows but they are of a general nature. Specifics
will vary from company to company and from one country to another. Sheet number, if there are
multiple sheets in the set.

ELEMENTS OF WORKING DRAWINGS

Working drawings consist of graphic views and annotations. Drawing views depend on the type
of documentation required and annotation content will vary accordingly. The elements usually
found on a working drawing include:

a. Views
b. Title block
c. Name of part/assembly
d. Quantity
e. Part number

Hairedin Ismael Page 2

 
Lecture Note On Machine Drawing 
 
f. Material and grade
g. Dimensions
h. Tolerances
i. Scale
j. Notes
k. Drawing number
l. Revision
m. Project number
n. Assembly number
o. Zone markers
p. Surface quality

Hairedin Ismael Page 3

 
Lecture Note On Machine Drawing 
 
SCALES

Scale is the ratio of the linear dimension of an element of an object as represented in the
drawing, to the real linear dimension of the same element of the object itself. Wherever
possible, it is desirable to make full size drawings, so as to represent true shapes and sizes. If
this is not practicable, the largest possible scale should be used. While drawing very small
objects, such as watch components and other similar objects, it is advisable to use enlarging
scales.

DESIGNATION

The complete designation of a scale should consist of the word Scale, followed by the indication
of its ratio as:

SCALE 1: 1 for full size,

SCALE ×: 1 for enlarged scales,

SCALE 1: × for reduced scales.

The designation of the scale used on the drawing should be shown in the title block.

RECOMMENDED SCALES

The recommended scales for use on technical drawings are given in the following table. The
scale and the size of the object in turn, will decide the size of the drawing.

SCALE SPECIFICATION

If all drawings are made to the same scale, the scale should be indicated in or near the title
block. Where it is necessary to use more than one scale on a drawing, the main scale only
should be shown in the title block and all the other scales, adjacent to the item reference
number of the part concerned or near the drawings.

Hairedin Ismael Page 4

 
Lecture Note On Machine Drawing 
 
TITLE BLOCKS

Title blocks are used to record all the important information necessary for the working drawings.
The title block is normally located in the lower right corner of the drawing sheet. Title blocks
should contain the following:

 Name and address of the company or design activity.

 Title of the drawing.
 Drawing number.
 Names and dates of the drafters, checker, issue date, contract number, etc.
 Design approval, when subcontractors are used.
 Additional approval block.
 Predominant drawing scale.
 Federal supply code for manufacturers (FSCM) number.
 Drawing sheet size letter designation.
 Actual or estimated weight of the item.

The title block should lie within the drawing space such that, the location of it,
containing the identification of the drawing, is at the bottom right hand corner. This
must be followed, both for sheets positioned horizontally or vertically.

The direction of viewing of the title block should correspond in general with that of the
drawing. The title block can have a maximum length of 170 mm. Figure shows a typical
title blocks, providing the following information:

i. Title of the drawing

ii. Sheet number
iii. Scale
iv. Symbol, denoting the method of projection
v. Name of the firm
vi. Initials of staff drawn, checked and approved.

NOTE According to Bureau of Indian Standards, S P -46:1998, ‘‘Engineering

Drawing Practice for Schools and Col l e ges ’ ’ , First angle projection is preferred.

LETTERING

For writing on drawing one should be careful to make it legible and uniform. The letters must
conform to certain rules. The letters can be upright or slant. The writing should use capital case
only except in case of abbreviations which are in small case. Slant letters are inclined at 750 to
the vertical. The proportions are as below with reference to four parallel lines as in Figure below.

 If h be the height of upper case letters:

 Height of lower case letter will be
 Thickness of the line of letter will be

Hairedin Ismael Page 5

 
Lecture Note On Machine Drawing 
 

 Distance between top and bottom line will be

 Minimum spacing between words will be
 Thickness of the lines will be

BILL OF MATERIALS BLOCK

Assembly drawings normally carry a block for a bill of materials or parts list. It is usually a table
list of the parts or components in an assembly. By ANSI standard, it should be located on the
lower right corner of the drawing sheet, on top of the title block, but variation exists in the
industry on its placement. The block width varies, with a minimum value of about 65 mm (2.5”)
for smaller sheet sizes. It may be as much as 200 mm (8”) for the larger sheet sizes. The height
of block also varies, depending on the number of components in the assembly. The header of the
block usually has two rows, each of 6 mm (.25”) high.

BILL OF MATERIALS (BOM)

An assembly drawing should have a bill of materials or parts list. It is usually a table list of the
parts or components in an assembly. Important information in BOM includes item reference
number (IRN), quantity, part name, part record number (PRN), description, catalogue number for
standard parts, and name of vendors.

The item number is the number assigned to a component in a particular assembly drawing, a
form of local identification and can change with different assembly drawings. The part number is
a fixed number assigned to that specific component, a form of company/global identification and
should not change for different drawings. Because detail drawings are not required for standard
parts, their specifications are normally provided in BOM. The specifications for standard parts
include name, size, grade, quantity, and catalog number. In general, other information like
weight, stock size, etc. may be included in the parts list.

Hairedin Ismael Page 6

 
Lecture Note On Machine Drawing 
 
CHAPTER TWO

TYPES OF MACHINE DRAWING

ASSEMBLY DRAWING

Any machine is represented totally in assembly drawing

with parts placed in right positions. It is preferable that
the dimensions of the parts of the machine are not
shown as they would crowd the drawing. Instead overall
dimensions are shown. This drawing may be used
during assembling.

PART DRAWING Figure 1 Assembly and part drawing 

Each part of the machine is drawn separately with a number of views so that its manufacture will
become convenient. Besides dimensions surface finish and limits, the part drawing shows
finishing processes like heat treatment and any other surface finish (see Figure) should be
explained.

SHOP FLOOR DRAWING

This drawing comprises both

part and assembly drawings
and facilitate manufacturing.

CATALOGUE DRAWINGS

The skeletal drawings with

leading dimensions and
without sections are used in
catalogues for presenting
before potential buyers and
users.

Figure 2 Catalogue Drawing and instruction manual drawing 

Hairedin Ismael Page 7

 
Lecture Note On Machine Drawing 
 

INSTRUCTION MANUAL DRAWING

These are meant for users and are assembly drawings of a machine with parts numbered for
ready identification. If need arises, the machine can be knocked down and reassembled with the
help of instruction manual drawing (see Figure).

DRAWINGS WITH EXPLODED VIEW

These drawing shows parts separated in full view and numbered. The parts appear in exact
sequence of assembly and can be assembled easily even if one does not have such experience.
No dimensions are placed on exploded view drawing.

DRAWINGS WITH SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION

It is an important characteristic of machine

drawing that several parts that are
repeatedly used in machines are assigned
symbols. For example, gears are represented
by circles, springs by lines and threads by
other schemes. There are many parts that
come ready made from other manufacturers
like ball and roller bearing pneumatic,
electric and hydraulic transmission systems.
They all have symbolic representations. If
machine uses such parts the details of
standard parts is omitted and symbols
occupy their positions.

PATENT DRAWING Figure 3 Drawing with schematic representation 

These drawings are more loaded towards establishing a claim of innovation and invention rather
facilitating someone to understand for manufacture and assembly or operation. Though it may
carry overall or leading dimensions, the detailed dimension may be missing.

Hairedin Ismael Page 8

 
Lecture Note On Machine Drawing 
 

CHAPTER THREE

DIMENSIONING PRINCIPLES

A drawing should provide a complete specification of the component to ensure that the design
intent can be met at all stages of manufacture. Dimensions specifying features of size, position,
location, geometric control and surface texture must be defined and appear on the drawing once
only.

Dimensioning therefore, should be undertaken with a view to defining the shape or form and
overall size of the component carefully, also the sizes and positions of the various features,
such as holes, counter bores, tappings, etc., from the necessary datum planes or axes.

The completed engineering drawing should also include sufficient information for the
manufacture of the part and this involves the addition of notes regarding the materials used,
tolerances of size, limits and fits, surface finishes, the number of parts required and any further
comments which result from a consideration of the use to which the completed component will
be put. For example, the part could be used in sub-assembly and notes would then make
reference to associated drawings or general assemblies.

British Standard 8888 covers all the ISO rules applicable to dimensioning and, if these are
adhered to, it is reasonably easy to produce a drawing to a good professional standard.

1. Dimension and projection lines are narrow continuous lines 0.35 mm thick, if possible,
clearly placed outside the outline of the drawing. As previously mentioned, the drawing
outline is depicted with wide lines of 0.7 mm thick. The drawing outline will then be
clearly defined and in contrast with the dimensioning system.
2. The projection lines should not touch the drawing but a small gap should be left, about 2
to 3 mm, depending on the size of the drawing. The projection lines should then continue
for the same distance past the dimension line.
3. Arrowheads should be approximately triangular, must be of uniform size and shape and
in every case touch the dimension line to which they refer. Arrowheads drawn manually
should be filled in. Arrowheads drawn by machine need not be filled in.
4. Bearing in mind the size of the actual dimensions and the fact that there may be two
numbers together where limits of size are quoted, then adequate space must be left
between rows of dimensions and a spacing of about 12 mm is recommended.
5. Centre lines must never be used as dimension lines but must be left clear and distinct.
They can be extended, however, when used in the role of projection lines.
6. Dimensions are quoted in millimeters to the minimum number of significant figures. For
example, 19 and not 19.0. In the case of a decimal dimension, always use a naught before
the decimal marker, which might not be noticed on a drawing print that has poor line
definition. We write 0.4 and not .4. It should be stated here that on metric drawings the
decimal marker is a comma positioned on the base line between the figures, for example,
5,2 but never 5.2 with a decimal point midway.

Hairedin Ismael Page 9

 
Lecture Note On Machine Drawing 
 
7. To enable dimensions to be read clearly, figures are placed so that they can be read from
the bottom of the drawing, or by turning the drawing in a clockwise direction, so that they
can be read from the right hand side.
8. Leader lines are used to indicate where specific indications apply. The leader line to the
hole is directed towards the center point but terminates at the circumference in an arrow.
A leader line for a part number terminates in a dot within the outline of the component.
The gauge plate here is assumed to be part number six of a set of inspection gauges.

When components are drawn in orthographic projection, a choice often exists where to place
the dimensions and the following general rules will give assistance.

1. Start by dimensioning the view which gives the clearest understanding of the profile or
shape of the component.
2. If space permits, and obviously this varies with the size and degree of complexity of the
subject, place the dimensions outside the profile of the component as first choice.
3. Where several dimensions are placed on the same side of the drawing, position the
shortest dimension nearest to the component and this will avoid dimension lines crossing.
4. Try to ensure that similar spacing is made between dimension lines as this gives a neat
appearance on the completed drawing.
5. Overall dimensions which are given for surfaces that can be seen in two projected views
are generally best positioned between these two views.

CHAIN DIMENSIONING AND AUXILIARY DIMENSIONING

Chains of dimensions should only

be used where the possible
accumulation of tolerances does
not endanger the function of the
part.

PARALLEL DIMENSIONING

Improved positional accuracy is

obtainable by dimensioning more
than one feature from a common datum, and
this method is shown in Fig.

DIMENSIONING CIRCLES

The symbol Ø preceding the figure is used

for specifying diameters and it should be
written as large as the figures which establish
the size, e.g. Ø65. Alternative methods of
dimensioning diameters are given below. The
size of hole and space available on the
drawing generally dictates which method the draughtsman chooses.

Hairedin Ismael Page 10

 
Lecture Note On Machine Drawing 
 

DIMENSIONING RADII

Alternative methods are shown where the position of the center of the arc need not be located.
Note that the dimension line is drawn through the arc center or lies in a line with it in the case of
short distances and the arrowhead touches the arc.

ANGULAR DIMENSIONS

Angular dimensions on engineering drawings are expressed as follows:

a. Degrees, e.g. 30°.

b. Degrees and minutes, e.g. 30° 40′.
c. Degrees, minutes and seconds e.g. 30° 40′ 20″.

For clarity a full space is left between the degree symbol and the minute figure also between
the minute symbol and the second
figure.

In the case of an angle less than one

degree it should be preceded by 0°, e.g.
0° 25′. The following figure shows
various methods of dimensioning angles.

TAPERS

As shown in Fig. the difference in magnitude between dimensions

X and Y (whether diameters or widths) divided by the length
between them defines a ratio known as a taper.

The ISO recommended symbol for taper is, and this symbol can be
shown on drawings accompanying the rate of taper, i.e.

Hairedin Ismael Page 11

 
Lecture Note On Machine Drawing 
 
The arrow indicates the direction of taper. When a taper is required as a datum, it is enclosed in a
box as follows:
0.25:1 0.25:1
DIMENSIONING TAPERS

The size, form, and position of a tapered feature can be defined by calling for a suitable
combination of the following:

1. the rate of taper, or the included angle;

2. the diameter or width at the larger end;
3. the diameter or width at the smaller end;
4. the length of the tapered feature;
5. the diameter or width at a particular cross-section, which may lie within or outside the
feature concerned;
6. The locating dimension from the datum to
the cross section referred to above.

DIMENSIONING CHAMFERS

Alternative methods of dimensioning internal and

external chamfers are shown in Fig.

DIMENSIONING HOLES

The depth of drilled holes, when stated in note form, refers to the depth of the cylindrical portion
and not to the point left by the drill. If no other indication is given they are assumed to go
through the material. Holes in flanges or bosses are generally positioned around a pitch circle
(PCD) and may be spaced on the main center lines of the component (on centers) or as shown
below equally spaced off centers. Holes are usually drilled off centers to provide for maximum
access to fixing bolts in the case of valves and pipeline fittings. Special flanges need to have each
hole positioned individually and an example is given with three tapped holes (see Fig.).

Hairedin Ismael Page 12

 
Lecture Note On Machine Drawing 
 
DIMENSIONING FOR MANUFACTURE

It should be emphasized that dimensioning must be performed with the user of the drawing very
much in mind. In the case of the finished bearing housing shown in Fig. two different production
processes are involved in its manufacture: namely casting and machining of the component. It is
sometimes preferable to produce two separate drawings, one to show the dimensions of the
finished casting and the other to show the dimensions which are applicable to the actual
machining operation. Figure shows a suitable drawing for the casting patternmaker. Allowances
are made for machining and also for the fact that the casting will shrink when it cools. The
machinist will take the rough casting and remove metal to produce the finished component, all
other surfaces having a rough finish. Figure shows the required dimensions for machining. Note
that the bore of the casting is required to be finished between the two sizes quoted for functional
purposes.

Hairedin Ismael Page 13

 
Lecture Note On Machine Drawing 
 
CHAPTER FOUR

SCREW THREADS AND CONVENTIONAL REPRESENTATIONS

SCREW THREADS

The most common application of the helix

is in a screw thread which follows the path
of the helix. Screw threads may be either
left or right hand and these are shown
pictorially in Fig.

The following terms are associated with screw threads:

1. The thread pitch is the distance

between corresponding points on
adjacent threads. Measurements
must be taken parallel to the
thread axis.
2. The major diameter or outside
diameter is the diameter over the
crests of the thread, measured at
right angles to the thread axis.
3. The crest is the most prominent
part of the thread, internal or
external.
4. The root lies at the bottom of the
groove between two adjacent
threads.
5. The flank of the thread is the
straight side of the thread between the crest and root.
6. The minor diameter, root diameter or core diameter is the smallest diameter of the thread
measured at right angles to the thread axis.
7. The effective diameter is measured at right angles to the thread axis and is the diameter
on which the width of the spaces is equal to the width of the threads.
8. The lead of a thread is the axial movement of the screw in one revolution.

DRAUGHTING CONVENTIONS ASSOCIATED WITH THREADS

Threads are so regularly used on engineering drawings

that recognizable conventions are required to save
draughting time. Figure shows the convention for a
male thread. The thread run out along the shank of the
stud is indicated by a line drawn at 30° to the thread
axis. The minor diameter of the thread is shown by
parallel lines and in the end elevation the projected

Hairedin Ismael Page 14

 
Lecture Note On Machine Drawing 
 
circle is not continuous. The break in the inside circle distinguishes the end elevation of a male
thread from a female thread. Line thicknesses are given for each part of the thread. The actual
dimensions of the minor diameter for any particular thread size can be approximated at 80% of
the major diameter for the purposes of conventional representation.

Figure shows the convention for a female

thread applied to a blind tapped hole in a
sectional view. Note that the minor diameter
is drawn as a complete circle in the end
elevation, the major diameter is broken and the
different line thicknesses also help to
distinguish the female from the male thread.
The effective length of the thread is again shown
by parallel lines and the run out by the taper at
30° to the thread axis. In the sectional elevation,
the section lines drawn at 45°, continue through
the major to the minor diameter. The included
angle left by the tapping drill is 120°. Line thicknesses are indicated in the circles.

Note:- the line at 30° indicating the run out was the practice
in BS 308:1972. However, in 1984 the revised standard
permitted the line to be omitted if there was no functional
need. The tapered lines for incomplete threads are shown here
for completeness of text.

A female thread through a collar is shown

in Fig. Note that the projection of the major
and minor diameters drawn as hidden detail
will be indicated by dashed narrow lines.

A section through the collar is given in Fig.

The projection of the major diameter is
drawn by a continuous narrow line and the
cross hatching extends to the minor diameter.

A section through a sealing cap in Fig. illustrates a typical application where an internal thread
terminates in an undercut.

Hairedin Ismael Page 15

 
Lecture Note On Machine Drawing 
 
APPROXIMATE CONSTRUCTION FOR NUTS AND BOLTS

Stage 1

1. Draw a circle in the plan position, 2D in diameter,

where D is equal to the thread size. In this
example let us assume that the thread size is M20.
2. Draw a hexagon inside the 40 mm diameter circle
and inside the hexagon draw another circle
tangential to the hexagon on the six sides. This
circle is the projection of the chamfer which can
be seen on the front elevation.
3. The nut thickness is 0.8D. Project the four corners
of the hexagon to the front elevation.
4. Project three corners of the hexagon in the end
elevation and note, that the width of the end
elevation is given by dimension W.
5. Line in the projected diameter of the chamfer circle and the base in the front elevation.
6. As an approximation, draw a radius to show the chamfer on the front elevation. The
radius should equal the thread size D.
7. Add the female convention to the plan view.

Stage 2

1. The projection of the curve on the chamfered faces of

the hexagon that lie at an angle would produce
ellipses in the front elevation. In their place we
usually show small circular arcs, their radii can be
found by trial, but are approximately 0.25D.
2. The end elevation of the nut has square corners and
the projection of the corner which coincides with the
center line terminates at the bottom of the chamfer
curve.
3. Complete the view by drawing circular arcs on the two chamfered faces. Find by trial, the
radius of an arc which will touch the top of the nut and the projection lines from the
corner in the front elevation.

TAPER PINS AND PARALLEL PINS

Taper pins, with a taper of 1 in 50, and parallel pins

are used on both solid and tubular sections to secure,
for example, levers to torque shafts and control rods to
fork ends. Some taper pins are bifurcated, or split, and
the legs can be opened out for locking. Plain taper pins
and parallel pins may also be locked by peening. To
prevent slackness, these pins are assembled in accurate

Hairedin Ismael Page 16

 
Lecture Note On Machine Drawing 
 
reamed holes. Undue force should not be used during the
peening process or the security of the fittings may be impaired
if the pin is bent. Figure shows part of a lever which is fixed
to a hollow operating shaft by a bifurcated taper pin. On
assembly, a hole is drilled which is slightly smaller than the
diameter at the small end of the taper pin and this is enlarged
by a taper pin reamer so that the small end of the taper pin,
when pushed through the assembly, is flush with the surface.
The pin is then driven into position. If the pin is of the
bifurcated type, then the legs are spread to form an included
angle of about 60°. Figure shows the same operating lever
assembled, but using a parallel pin, which has been peened
over after ensuring that the component is adequately supported.

Figure shows the general shape of a taper pin. Parallel sides are substituted for tapered sides in
parallel pins.

KEY AND KEY WAY

A key is usually made from steel and is inserted between the joint of two parts to prevent relative
movement; it is also inserted between a shaft and a hub in an axial direction, to prevent relative
rotation. A keyway, Figs, is a recess in a shaft or hub to receive a key, and these recesses are
commonly cut on key-seating machines or by broaching, milling, planning, shaping and slotting.
The proportions of cross-sections of keys vary with the shaft size, and reference should be made
to BS 4235 for the exact dimensions. The length of the key controls the area of the cross-section
subject to shear, and will need to be calculated from knowledge of the forces being transmitted
or, in the case of feather keys, the additional information of the length of axial movement
required.

SUNK KEYS

Examples of sunk keys are shown in Fig. where

the key is sunk into the shaft for half its thickness.
This measurement is taken at the side of the key,
and not along the center line through the shaft

Hairedin Ismael Page 17

 
Lecture Note On Machine Drawing 
 
axis. Figure shows useful proportions used for assembly
drawings.

Square and rectangular keys may be made with a taper of 1

in 100 along the length of the key; Fig. shows such an
application. Note that, when dimensioning the mating hub, the
dimension into the keyway is taken across the maximum
bore diameter.

A gib head may be added to a key to facilitate removal,

and its proportions and position when assembled are
given in Fig.

A feather key is attached to either the shaft or the hub, and permits relative axial movement while
at the same time enabling a twisting moment to be transmitted between shaft and hub or vice
versa. Both pairs of opposite faces of the key are parallel.

A double-headed feather key is shown in Fig. and allows a relatively large degree of sliding
motion between shaft and hub. The key is inserted into the bore of the hub, and the assembly is
then fed on to the shaft, thus locking the key in position.

A peg feather key is shown in Fig. where a peg attached to the key is located in a hole through
the hub.

WOODRUFF KEYS

A Woodruff key, Fig. is a segment of a circular disc and fits into a circular recess in the shaft
which is machined by a Woodruff keyway cutter. The shaft may be parallel or tapered, Figs
showing the method of dimensioning shafts for Woodruff keys where the depth of the recess
from the outside of the shaft is given, in addition to the diameter of the recess. A Woodruff key
has the advantage that it will turn itself in its circular recess to accommodate any taper in the
mating hub on assembly; for this reason it cannot be used as a feather key, since it would jam.
Woodruff keys are commonly used in machine tools and, for example, between the flywheel and
the crankshaft of a small internal-combustion engine where the drive depends largely on the fit
between the shaft and the conically bored flywheel hub. The deep recess for a Woodruff key
weakens the shaft, but there is little tendency for the key to turn over when in use. Where lighter
loads are transmitted and the cost of cutting a keyway is not justified, round keys and flat or
hollow saddle keys as shown in Fig. can be used.

Hairedin Ismael Page 18

 
Lecture Note On Machine Drawing 
 
Saddle keys are essentially for light duty only, overloading tending to make them rock and work
loose on the shaft. Both flat and hollow saddle keys may have a taper of 1 in 100 on the face in
contact with the hub. The round key may either be tapered or, on assembly, the end of the shaft
and hub may be tapped after drilling and a special threaded key be screwed in to secure the
components.

DIMENSIONING KEYWAYS (PARALLEL KEYS)

The method of dimensioning a parallel shaft is shown in Fig. and a parallel hub in Fig. Note that
in each case it is essential to show the dimension to the bottom of the keyway measured across
the diameter of the shaft and the bore of the hub. This practice cannot be used where either the
shaft or hub is tapered, and Fig. shows the method of dimensioning a keyway for a square or
rectangular parallel key in a tapered shaft, where the keyway depth is shown from the outside
edge of the shaft and is measured vertically into the bottom of the slot. Figure shows a tapered
hub with a parallel keyway where the dimension to the bottom of the slot is taken across the
major diameter. A parallel hub utilizing a tapered key is also dimensioned across the major
diameter, as indicated in Fig.

Hairedin Ismael Page 19

 
Lecture Note On Machine Drawing 
 
CHAPTER FIVE

GENERAL CONVENTION AND SIMPLIFIED REPRESENTATION

When surfaces rotate or slide the rotational or sliding motion results in friction and heat. Energy
is used, the surfaces wear, and this reduces component life and product efficiency. Friction may
be reduced by lubrication which keeps the surfaces apart. At the same time, lubricants dissipate
heat and maintain clean contact surfaces. Materials are carefully selected with appropriate
mechanical and physical properties for bearings and their housings, to minimize the effects of
friction, and particular care is taken with the accuracy of machining, surface finish and
maintenance of all component parts associated with bearings. In a plain bearing the relative
motion is by sliding in contrast with the rolling motion of ball and roller bearings.

Both types are illustrated in Fig. Simplified representations for both types are the same. The
simplification shown here with crossed diagonal lines was the practice used by industry in the
past. Current practice introduces a free standing upright cross referred to in ISO 8826-1.

Hairedin Ismael Page 20

 
Lecture Note On Machine Drawing 
 
CHAPTER SIX

SPUR GEARS

The characteristics feature of spur

gears is that their axes are parallel.
The gear teeth are positioned
around the circumference of the
pitch circles which are equivalent
to the circumferences of the
friction rollers in Fig. The teeth are
of involute form, the involute
being described as the locus traced
by a point on a taut string as it
unwinds from a circle, known as
the base circle. For an involute rack, the base-circle radius is of infinite length, and the tooth
flank is therefore straight.

The construction for the involute profile is shown in Fig. The application of this profile to an
engineering drawing of a gear tooth can be rather a tedious exercise, and approximate methods
are used, as described later.

SPUR-GEAR TERMS

 The gear ratio is the ratio of the

number of teeth in the gear to the
number of teeth in the pinion, the
pinion being the smaller of the two
gears in mesh.
 The pitch-circle diameters of a pair
of gears are the diameters of
cylinders co-axial with the gears
which will roll together without slip.
The pitch circles are imaginary
friction discs, and they touch at the
pitch point.
 The base circle is the circle from which the involute is generated.
 The root diameter is the diameter at the base of the tooth.
 The centre distance is the sum of the pitch-circle radii of the two gears in mesh.
 The addendum is the radial depth of the tooth from the pitch circle to the tooth tip.
 The dedendum is the radial depth of the tooth from the pitch circle to the root of the tooth.
 The clearance is the algebraic difference between the addendum and the dedendum.
 The whole depth of the tooth is the sum of the addendum and the dedendum.
 The circular pitch is the distance from a point on one tooth to the corresponding point on
the next tooth, measured round the pitch-circle circumference.

Hairedin Ismael Page 21

 
Lecture Note On Machine Drawing 
 
 The tooth width is the length of arc from one side of the tooth to the other, measured
round the pitch-circle circumference.
 The module is the pitch-circle diameter divided by the number of teeth.
 The diametral pitch is the reciprocal of the module, i.e. the number of teeth divided by
the pitch-circle diameter.
 The line of action is the common tangent to the base circles, and the path of contact is
that part of the line of action where contact takes place between the teeth.
 The pressure angle is the angle formed between the common
tangent and the line of action.
 The fillet is the rounded portion at the bottom of the tooth
space.

The conventional representation of gears shown in Fig. is limited to

drawing the pitch circles and outside diameters in each case. In the
sectional end elevation, a section through a tooth space is taken as
indicated. This convention is common practice with other types of
gears and worms.

TYPICAL EXAMPLE USING PROFESSOR UNWIN’S APPROXIMATE

CONSTRUCTION

Gear data:

Pressure angle = 20°. Module =12 mm: Number of teeth = 25.

Gear calculations:

Pitch-circle diameter = module × no. of teeth= 12 × 25 = 300 mm

Addendum = module = 12 mm
Clearance = 0.25 × module= 0.25 × 12 = 3 mm
Dedendum = addendum + clearance = 12 + 3 = 15 mm
Circular pitch = π × module = π × 12 = 37.68 mm
Tooth thickness = 1/2× circular pitch = 18.84 mm

Stage 1

a) Draw the pitch circle and the common tangent.

b) Mark out the pressure angle and the normal to the
line of action.
c) Draw the base circle. Note that the length of the
normal is the base-circle radius.

Stage 2

a) Draw the addendum and dedendum circles. Both addendum and dedendum are measured
radially from the pitch circle.

Hairedin Ismael Page 22

 
Lecture Note On Machine Drawing 
 
b) Mark out point A on the addendum circle and point B on the
dedendum circles. Divide AB into three
c) parts so that CB = 2AC.
d) Draw the tangent CD to the base circle. D is the point of
tangency. Divide CD into four parts so that CE = 3DE.
e) Draw a circle with center O and radius OE. Use this circle for
centers of arcs of radius EC for the flanks of the teeth after
marking out the tooth widths and spaces around the pitch-
circle circumference.

Hairedin Ismael Page 23

 
Lecture Note On Machine Drawing 
 
CHAPTER SEVEN

SPRING

Mechanical springs may be defined as elastic bodies the primary function of which is to deform
under a load and return to their original shape when the load is removed. In practice, the vast
majority of springs are made of metal, and of these the greatest proportion are of plain-carbon
steel.

COMPRESSION SPRINGS

Figure shows two alternative types of compression springs

for which drawing conventions are used. Note that the
convention in each case is to draw the first and last two
turns of the spring and to then link the space in between
with a thin-chain line. The simplified representation shows
the coils of the springs drawn as single lines.

Note. If a rectangular section compression spring is

required to be drawn then the appropriate shape will appear
in view (e), view (d) will be modified with square corners
and the ∅ symbol in view (f) replaced by _.

A schematic drawing of a helical spring is shown in Fig.

This type of illustration can be used as a working drawing
in order to save draughting time, with the appropriate
dimensions and details added.

Figure shows four of the most popular end formations

used on compression springs. When possible, grinding
should be avoided, as it considerably increases spring
costs.

Hairedin Ismael Page 24

 
Lecture Note On Machine Drawing 
 
HELICAL EXTENSION SPRINGS

A helical extension spring is a spring which offers resistance to extension. Almost invariably
they are made from circular-section wire.

The conventional representations of tension springs are shown in Fig. a. and a schematic
drawing for detailing is shown in Fig. b.

Coils of extension springs differ from those of compression springs in so far as they are wound
so close together that a force is required to pull them

SPRING SPECIFICATIONS

A method of spring specification which has worked well in practice is to insert a table of design
data, such as that shown below, on the drawing. All design data is entered, and the items needed
for the correct functioning of the spring are marked with an asterisk. With this method the
manufacturer is permitted to vary any unmarked items, as only the asterisked data is checked by
the spring user’s inspector. The following are specifications typical for compression, tension, and
torsion springs.

Compression spring

Total turns - 7
Active turns - 5
Wire diameter - 1 mm
*Free length - 12.7± 0.4 mm
*Solid length - 7 mm max.
*Outside coil diameter - 7.6 mm max.
*Inside coil diameter - 5 mm
Rate - 7850 N/m
*Load at 9 mm - 31± 4.5 N
Solid stress - 881 N/mm2
*Ends Closed and ground
Wound Right-hand or left-hand
*Material - S202

Hairedin Ismael Page 25

 
Lecture Note On Machine Drawing 
 
*Protective treatment - Cadmium-plate

Tension spring

Mean diameter - 11.5 mm

*O.D. max. - 13.5 mm
*Free length - 54 ± 0.5 mm
Total coils on barrel - 1612
Wire diameter - 1.62 mm
*Loops Full eye, in line with each other and central with barrel of spring
Initial tension - None
Rate 2697 N/m
*Load - 53±4.5 N
*At loaded length - 73 mm
Stress at - 53 N 438 N/mm2
Wound Right-hand or left-hand
*Material - BS 1408 B
*Protective treatment - Lanolin

Torsion spring

Total turns on barrel - 4

Wire diameter - 2.6 mm
*Wound Left-hand close coils
Mean diameter - 12.7 mm
*To work on - 9.5 mm diameter bar
*Length of legs - 28 mm
*Load applied at 25.4 mm from center of spring
*Load - 41± 2 N
*Deflection - 20°
Stress at - 41 N 595 N/mm2
*Both legs straight and tangential to barrel
*Material - BS 5216
*Protective treatment Grease

Hairedin Ismael Page 26

 
Lecture Note On Machine Drawing 
 
CHAPTER NINE

WELDING AND WELDING SYMBOLS

In general, welding may be described as a process of uniting two pieces of metal or alloy by
raising the temperature of the surfaces to be joined so that they become plastic or molten. This
may be done with or without the application of pressure and with or without the use of added
metal. This definition excludes the more recently developed method of cold-welding, in which
pressure alone is used. Cold-welding, however, has a limited application, and is used principally
for aluminum and its alloys, and not for steel.

THE APPLICATION OF WELDING SYMBOLS TO WORKING DRAWINGS

Each type of weld is characterized by a symbol given in Table 26.1 Note that the symbol is
representative of the shape of the weld, or the edge preparation, but does not indicate any
particular welding process and does not specify either the number of runs to be deposited or
whether or not a root gap or backing material is to be used. These details would be provided on a
welding procedure schedule for the particular job.

Hairedin Ismael Page 27

 
Lecture Note On Machine Drawing 
 
A welding symbol is applied to a drawing by using a reference
line and an arrow line as shown in Fig. The reference line
should be drawn parallel to the bottom edge of the drawing
sheet and the arrow line forms an angle with the reference line.
The side of the joint nearer the arrow head is known as the
‘arrow side’ and the remote side as the ‘other side’.

Hairedin Ismael Page 28