Preface

This module is intended as a reference guide for students, technicians, and professionals in NDT.
An overview of each discontinuity provides the following information:

l Description
l Location in Part
l Characteristics/Appearance
l Metallurgical Analysis

Depending on the availability of information, one or more of the following items are
subsequently presented in terms of visual testing per discontinuity:

l Rationale – explaining why the method is preferred

l Advantage(s) – highlighting the strong points of the method
l Limitation(s) – detailing any drawbacks associated with the application of the method
l Recommendation(s) – providing procedural tips for a successful outcome
l Precaution(s) – advising what safeguards to take when conducting a test

Please note that this module is intended as a supplement only. It should not take the place of
specific codes, procedures, or standards applicable to a specific test.
 Table of Contents
Acknowledgments.............................. iii Incomplete Penetration.....................27 Service Discontinuities.................62
Preface............................................... iv Excessive Oxidation...........................29 General Oxidation and Corrosion......63
Welding Porosity...............................31 Pitting...............................................65
Advantages of VT................................1
Weld Spatter.....................................33 Intergranular Corrosion Cracking.......68
Limitations of VT.................................1
Underfill............................................35 Erosive Wear......................................65
Precautions with VT.............................2
Inadequate Fillet................................37 Mechanical Stress Fatigue Cracks.......75
Relevant Discontinuities................3 Blowholes..........................................39 Permanent Deformation....................77
Sand Casting Porosity........................41 Thermal Stress Fatigue Cracks............79
Inherent Discontinuities (Ingot)...5 Cold Shuts.........................................43 Tool Strikes........................................81
Internal Nonmetallic Inclusions............6 Hot Tears...........................................45 Service-induced Wear........................84
Pipe and Porosity.................................8 Shrinkage Cavities.............................47
Primary Processing Scars and Scabs.................................49 Surface Comparators.........................86
Discontinuities...............................10 Draw Lines.........................................51 Direct VT Versus Remote VT..............89
Arc Strikes..........................................12 Edge Cracking...................................53
Laminations.......................................55 References.........................................91
Undercut...........................................14
Figure Sources...................................92
Welding Cracks..................................16 Secondary Processing
Rollover.............................................19 Discontinuities...............................57 SI Derived Units.................................93
Misalignment....................................21 Grinding Cracks.................................58 Conversions to SI Units......................95
Excessive Reinforcement....................23 Discoloration.....................................60
Root Concavity..................................25
 l RVT may utilize light beyond the normal
Advantages of VT human range of visible light, including
l Direct visual testing (DVT) is generally a basic infrared and ultraviolet light waves detectible
observation of the surface to be inspected. by photoelectric sensor arrays.
l Minimal visual aids required, for example, l Done at an early enough stage, VT can
external light sources, scales, magnifiers, and prevent over- and underwelding.
image recording devices.
l Cost of inspection is low compared to the
Limitations of VT
more expensive equipment costs of more l The human eye and physiological condition
sophisticated NDT methods and techniques. make VT subject to certain reliability factors,
The primary cost is the use of qualified such as fatigue, visual acuity shortcomings,
personnel. distortion of views, and inadequate lighting.
l Dimensional tests can be precise if adequate l Use of aids may distort views and images.
tooling is utilized. l RVT may require the use of delicate and
l Remote visual testing (RVT) can give access expensive devices.
to otherwise inaccessible surfaces utilizing l Inadequately trained and experienced
modern technology, such as fiber optics, lens inspectors may make inaccurate evaluations,
optics, and video borescopes. especially on subjective calls.
l Can be applied to an extremely wide range of l There is a limit to the size of the discontinuity
applications, industries, and special needs. that can be detected with conventional
equipment or the unaided eye.
 Precautions with VT
l Be aware of eye fatigue and health of the l Conventional electrical safety precautions are
inspector, which may impact inspection to be followed with all electrically powered
quality. lighting devices.
l Inadequate scanning patterns may allow l Light sources that are heat generating devices
relevant indications of discontinuities to be are especially prone to dangers in unsafe or
missed. flammable environments.
l Careful attention must be paid to the areas of l Where more than one layer of metal filler
interest, determining areas that may or may is being deposited, it may be desirable to
not be accessible. visually inspect each layer before depositing
l Avoid glare or other auxiliary lighting the next.
problems that may prevent adequate surface l Surface to be tested should be clean and free
tests. of slag.
l Proper angle of light incidence is important to
maximize visibility. Direct light parallel with
the line of sight should be avoided.
 Relevant Discontinuities
Title
A discontinuity is any intentional or unintentional interruption in the physical structure or
configuration of a part. Nondestructive testing (NDT) is the process by which discontinuities
are located. As part of the NDT process, evaluation criteria are applied to determine whether the
discontinuities that are discovered may or may not affect the usefulness of the part. Indications
(responses to a nondestructive test) are classified as false, nonrelevant, or relevant.
l A false indication is an indication produced by something other than a discontinuity; many
times a false indication arises from improper handling procedures.
l A nonrelevant indication is an indication that is caused by a condition or type of discontinuity
that is not due to an actual discontinuity. A nonrelevant indication may also result from a
misapplied test or may be an indication that is too small to be considered relevant per the
specification. Nonrelevant indications usually result from intentional interruptions in a part
such as a change in section geometry, thickness or hardness, or by a physical condition that is
not a discontinuity.
l A relevant indication is the result of an actual discontinuity and must be evaluated by a
qualified inspector to determine the severity of the discontinuity. Finding and evaluating
relevant indications at an early stage is a critical step in preventing discontinuities from
becoming more serious, causing system or catastrophic failure, while the intended part or
component is in service.
 Relevant Discontinuities (continued)
This module summarizes the characteristics of various types of relevant indications, which result
from discontinuities that may be detected by VT. Capabilities and limitations of VT when applied
for the detection of a specific discontinuity are shown. The discontinuities in this module are
divided into four categories: inherent, primary processing, secondary processing, and service-
induced.
l Inherent discontinuities originate from the solidification of cast or molten metal, such
as pouring an ingot. Inherent discontinuities may also have their origin in other bulk
consolidation methods, such as forming blooms, billets, or slabs.
l Primary processing discontinuities arise from the hot or cold working of an ingot into forgings,
rod and bar, pipe and tube, and from welding. As with inherent discontinuities, primary
processing discontinuities may be found in composite materials as well.
l Secondary processing discontinuities stem from secondary processes and finishing operations
such as machining, grinding, heat treatment, and plating.
l Service-induced discontinuities are caused during the use of the part.

The discontinuities discussed in the following sections are only some of the many hundreds that
are associated with various industrial products.
 Inherent Discontinuities
Title (Ingot)
This group of discontinuities occurs during the initial melting and refining processes (ingots)
and during solidification from the molten state (castings). Such discontinuities are present before
rolling or forging is performed to produce intermediate shapes. The following discontinuities
are normally internal. They change shape during processing. They are listed here to identify the
origin of the subsequent reshaped and renamed discontinuities. Note: this list includes additional
VT discontinuities that may be found during testing but are not included in this book.
l Inclusions, nonmetallic (normally internal)
l Pipe (normally cropped off of ingot)
l Porosity (normally internal)
l Fissures (normally internal)
 TextInternal Nonmetallic
Title InclusionsText
Description: Found in ferrous and nonferrous Characteristics/Appearance: During refining,
ingots (macro-casting) and in rolled material. additives to the molten metal may collect to
Commonly known as “stringers” when the form large clumps as the ingot solidifies. After
subsequent billet or slab is rolled from the ingot working, nonmetallic inclusions appear as
into bar stock for further processing. Typically, short, straight, thin indications that may be
inclusions are mechanically worked, causing numerous, intermittent, well dispersed, or
them to deform into elongated shapes and to found in heavily concentrated bands.
appear in longitudinal sections as stringers or Metallurgical Analysis: Caused by oxides,
streaks. sulfides, or other refractory materials and
Location in Part: Stringers are typically impurities that are entrapped in the molten
subsurface, semicontinuous straight lines metal as it solidifies in the ingot mold. They
parallel to the length of the bar stock. Hence, are normally lighter than the metal and the
they are open to the surface for VT only when majority of inclusions and slag rise to the top
machined, ground, or worked to expose what while the metal is still in the liquid state. Most
was once subsurface (see figure on page 7). of this material is removed during cropping
When visible they may be located on the edge operations. Nonmetallic inclusions, when
of plate steel. further processed, can produce laminations,
seams, and cracks in finished material.
 UsingText
VT to Detect Internal Text
Title Nonmetallic Inclusions
Rationale: Surface preparation is critically
important for detection.
Advantages: VT is only advantageous when
inclusions are exposed to the surface after
machining, shaping, or working techniques are
applied.
Limitations: VT will not detect near-surface
inclusions and subsequent stringers in
ferromagnetic materials.
Precautions: NDT should be performed prior
to and after further processing. Nonmetallic
inclusions may be worked into laminations in Inclusions in bar stock exposed during machining are
subsequent processing after originating in the visible following machining. (Siderius)
inherent stage. When laminations processed
from nonmetallic inclusions are identified at
the edge of the rolled stock (plate), ultrasonic
testing should be utilized to outline them for
removal.
 Pipe and Porosity
Title
Description: Found mostly in steel and other l Oxidizedporosity in the interior of plates or
metals poured into ingot molds. Forms during pipe products will only appear as laminations
liquid stage and solidifies after cooling. when cross sectioned for weld preparations
Location in Part: Surface and internal. before welding.
Characteristics/Appearance: Metallurgical Analysis: In pipe, this portion is
l Pipe appears as conical shrinkage at the top cropped and not normally visible in post-cast
of an ingot. ingot. For porosity, as molten steel is poured
l Gas porosity takes the form of more or less into an ingot and solidification commences,
spherical voids or bubbles that form within there is an accumulation of gases. These gases
the cast metal. Surface-connected porosity rise through the liquid in the form of bubbles
produces rounded cavities (flattened, and many escape or migrate to the top or
elongated, or spherical) that are normally cropped portion of the ingot. However, some
less than three times as long as wide. Visual gases can be trapped in the ingot, forming
indications of gas holes are rounded voids on porosity. Porosity is free from inclusions
the surface. and normally oxidized. When subsequently
l Blowholes are small holes similar to porosity. processed by rolling or forging, the result is
l Large porosity may appear as seams after an unbonded flattened condition. It is then
rolling, forging, or extrusion if exposed to the classified as a lamination.
surface.
 Using VT to Detect Pipe and Porosity
Advantages: May provide a means to eliminate Pipe
product that has a critical size or surface Porosity
Pipe
condition. Porosity

Limitations: Surface inspection may not give

exact depth measurements without excavation.
Not seen by VT inspector after cropping.
Recommendations: Utilize an auxiliary light
source at an angle to the surface and magnifier,
Bar rolled Pipe Bar rolled
as needed. from ingot from ingot
Precautions: Sizing of discontinuities is critical above above

for future applications. Porosity Porosity

(a) (b)

Longitudinal section of two ingots, showing typical pipe

and porosity: (a) detectable; (b) severe.
 Primary Processing
Title Discontinuities

This group of discontinuities is found or produced by forming or fabrication operations

including rolling, forging, and welding. VT is recommended for the following primary
processing discontinuities. Note: this list includes additional VT discontinuities that may be
found during testing but are not included in this book.

Joining Processes Casting Wrought Processes

l Welding l Sand casting l Forging

Arc strikes Blowholes Flash line cracks/tears
Undercut Porosity Laps
Cracks Cold shuts Bursts
Rollover Hot tears Flakes
Misalignment Nonmetallic inclusions Burning
Excessive reinforcement Shrinkage cavities l Extrusion
Root concavity (microshrinkage) Tears
Incomplete penetration Cope shift, mold shift Die lines
Excessive oxidation Scars and scabs Draw lines
 Primary Processing Discontinuities
Title (continued)
Joining Processes Casting Wrought Processes

l Welding (continued) l Sand casting (continued) l Rolling

Porosity (conditions and how Unfused chaplets Edge cracking
created; spherical, elongated, l Lost wax/investment casting Hydrogen flake
worm-hole) dross Stringers
Weld spatter Rolled seams in threads
Tungsten inclusion Scabs
Cold lap/rollover (lack of fusion) Laminations (weld end
Inadequate weld throat preparation only)
Underfill
l Brazing
Lack of bond
Inadequate fillet
Porosity (gas)
l Soldering
Excessive solder
Porosity (gas)
Cold joint
Disturbed joint
Balling or bulbous joints
 Arc Strikes
Description: Found in ferrous and nonferrous Characteristics/Appearance: May appear as a
welded material. localized molten puddle and/or discoloration if
Location in Part: Surface. Situated on the no metal deposited. It may appear as a wide or
surface of the base metal or weld face where rounded deposit of metal or mini weld if filler
a welder has momentarily touched an arc- material deposited.
welding electrode to start the arc, resulting in a Metallurgical Analysis: Arc strikes can cause
localized weld or surface melting at the point of failure of the affected material. These failures
contact. initiate at abnormal structural conditions or
soundness produced in the arc strike. Arc
strikes often harbor minute cracks, porosity,
hard zones, and chemical heterogeneity. The
extreme local momentary heat input may cause
case hardening at the site of the arc strike. This
may cause the metal to become brittle at the
surface. This makes the material more subject to
cracking when exposed to stress.

Arc strike. (Vona)

 Using VT to Detect Arc Strikes
Advantages: Precautions: Arc strikes are generally not
l VT is advantageous prior to paint processes allowed because the localized heating and
and subsequent NDT techniques in order to resulting pit(s) can become a stress riser and
eliminate problems with finish. crack initiation site. Arc strikes are indicative
l It is also advantageous to the inspection of
of poor workmanship, and are normally
surface-critical applications that might be detectable by VT.
susceptible to service-induced discontinuities.
l This is a workmanship discontinuity and is
usually easy to detect by VT.
Limitations: Visibility is limited after
grinding. Residual deposits of filler material or
metallurgical variances may remain, but not
visible without acid etching or magnification.
Recommendations: Use of various lighting
applications may prove beneficial in detection. Arc strikes on work pieces and portions
of multipass weld.
 Undercut
Title
Description: Found in ferrous and nonferrous Metallurgical Analysis: Undercutting is
welded material. generally regarded as a serious discontinuity
Location in Part: Found at any point where because the result is a reduction in the cross-
weld metal and base metal meet. Linear sectional area of the weld zone and therefore
indication adjacent to and following the toe a reduction in its load-carrying capacity. It is
of the weld, whether it is a base metal or therefore a stress riser.
previously deposited weld metal. It has some
depth below the surface of the base material
where the melting occurred. It is noted to not
have any straight edge line. Rather, it has a
fluid disposition and shaped edge at the base
material intersection.
Characteristics/Appearance: Undercut is a
groove that is melted into the base metal along
the edge of the weld and left unfilled by the
weld filler metal.
Undercut.
 Using VT to Detect Undercut
Rationale: Inspection is important to reduce
effects from stress risers and loss of through-
wall thickness.
Advantages: VT is a quick detection method for
undercut on available surfaces.
Limitations: VT may not be beneficial for
internal undercut detection when the surface is
not accessible.
(a)
Recommendations: Adequate lighting is a
requirement, with a possible need to vary the
angle of the light source.
Precautions: As a stress riser it may become
the initiation point for a crack and subsequent
failure of the part.
(b)

Presence of undercut: (a) in fillet weld joint; (b) in butt

weld joint.
 Welding
TitleCracks
Description: A rupture of metal under stress Metallurgical Analysis: Cracks are the
with a crack-like or linear appearance. release of internal stresses within a weld that
Location in Part: May be located in the base have relieved themselves by rupturing the
metal, at the toe of a weld, in the weld, along metallurgical bonds.
the weld, across the weld, or diagonally in any
orientation in the weld.
Characteristics/Appearance: Generally
multifaceted and linear in shape with its long
axis three or more times its short axis. Jagged
and irregular in appearance, representing the
rupture of the metal. By definition, a tail coming
off a rounded indication is interpreted as
“crack-like” and also rejected as a crack. Cracks
frequently appear at the intersection of changes
in section or thickness such as the toe of welds.

Visual appearance of heat-affected zone crack.

 Using VT to Detect Welding Cracks
Rationale: Crack depths are normally not
measurable with most VT applications. This
leads to the necessity for rejection of cracks or
crack-like indications.
Advantages: VT can be used as an early
elimination tool for cracked products.
Limitations: Due to some surface conditions,
cracks may often be misidentified or missed. A
crack’s width may be extremely small, leading
Close-up of a crack in ground
to possible non-detection. flush weld behind cover plate.
Recommendations: With the exception of (Siderius)
in-service components, all manufactured parts,
components, or systems reject crack or crack- Multiple cracks on a
like indications. multipass fillet weld
that has been
Precautions: Existing cracks generally lead to sandblasted and
further cracking and subsequent failure if the checked with MT for
better resolution.
part is exposed to further stresses. (Freeman)
 Using VT to Detect Welding Cracks (continued)

In-service toe crack. (Allgaier) Outside diameter delayed toe crack. Inside diameter root crack.
(Freeman) (Sabolik)
 Rollover
Description: Another term for it is insufficient
reentrant angle, where the reentrant corner
formed by the toe of the weld is less than 90°.
Location in Part: Toe of the weld.
Characteristics/Appearance: Rounded in (a)
appearance or bulging over like a “muffin top.”
Rounded edge of the weld meeting the flat face
of the base metal.
Metallurgical Analysis: The acute angle formed
at the intersection of the weld face and the base
material creates a stress riser that may result
in cracking and joint failure when exposed to
sufficient stresses.
(b)

Rollover of a weld groove: (a) schematic; (b) actual weld.

 Using VT to Detect Rollover
Rationale: Rollover also becomes a form of lack Recommendations: In order to eliminate the
of fusion, where the bulging weld metal is not stress riser it is recommended that the toe
fused to the base metal. of the weld area be ground to give a radius
Advantages: Rather easy to detect if VT is sufficient to transfer stresses through a radial
performed properly and may be assisted with plane without a sharp intersection.
auxiliary lighting. Precautions: Grinding the face only of such a
Limitations: Poor lighting and/or a limited weld profile will not reduce the stress riser at
angle of inspection in relation to the weld the weld toe.
surface may restrict detection.
 Misalignment
Description: When two members (plate or Characteristics/Appearance: The two
pipe or other) are to be metallurgically joined members form two surfaces on different planes
by welding, they may be misaligned at the or, if initially on the same plane, no longer
onset or become warped due to uneven remain oriented on the same plane.
heating during welding. Metallurgical Analysis: Offset planes can
Location in Part: cause a stress riser, which can yield in failure
l The condition always exists at the intersection over time with cyclic loads applied repeatedly.
of two joints and is measured as distortion In the case of distortion and resultant angular
or offset of one member relative the other alignment it may be evidence of residual
member. stresses. These stresses may relieve themselves
l The joined member surfaces are not in the
at a later time and result in cracking.
same plane. Alternatively, misalignment may result in
improper fit-up for subsequent manufacturing
or fabrication steps.
 Using VT to Detect Misalignment
Rationale: VT is a valuable tool to eliminate Recommendations: Evaluate the misalignment
future fabrication/erection problems. or distortion in comparison to the fabrication
Advantages: Combined with mechanical aids, criteria.
it can be beneficial in determining compliance Precautions: Ensure the proper limits are
to fabrication limits. obtained for disposition of the part.
Limitations: VT is often performed after weld
completion and not in conjunction with in-
process welding techniques.

(a)

(a)

(b) (b)

Weld alignment: (a) incorrect angular alignment; Weld misalignment: (a) linear; (b) angular.
(b) correct alignment using proper control methods.
 Excessive Reinforcement
Description: Excessive reinforcement is convex Metallurgical Analysis: Significant variances in
in shape and can exist on the outside diameter cross-sectional thickness can cause stress risers
(OD) or inside diameter (ID) of a pipe-to-pipe that can result in failure of the metal under
weld or plate-to-plate weld. By definition it is stress or cracking at those locations.
reinforcement that exceeds the dimensional
limits specified.
Location in Part: Commonly occurs on the
surface from which welding and filler material
deposit occurs. Can occur on either side of the
welded surfaces.
Characteristics/Appearance: Excessive
reinforcement, also called excessive convexity, is
generally rounded in appearance.

Excessive ID penetration. (Wright)

 Using VT to Detect Excessive Reinforcement
Rationale: More times than not VT is used for Limitations: OD access to the welded surface
appearance qualities. It may eliminate future is most common. Access to ID surfaces might
problems with joint failure, possible stress be difficult to perform measurements. The
risers. ID of a pipe-to-pipe weld may be accessed
Advantages: Use of weld gauges along by mirror or other remote VT device (for
with quantitative visual aids can determine example, borescope). More commonly the
whether excess reinforcement exists. VT can ID reinforcement can indirectly be observed
easily determine whether weld reinforcement through volumetric examination such as
is in excess of engineering requirement radiography or possibly ultrasonic testing.
specifications. Recommendations: As a minimum it is a waste
of time and effort to deposit more metal than
necessary to bear the designed load of the
metallurgical joint. Additionally, it could lead to
joint failure.
 Root Concavity
Description: The weld cross section is less than
the base metal cross section and has a concave
or rounded depression shape. Excessive
concavity violates the minimum wall thickness
design.
Location in Part: Root surface concavity
is observed on the inside diameter of a
pipe-to-pipe weld joint.
Characteristics/Appearance: Compared to the
adjacent material or weld the concave area has
a sunken or depressed appearance.
Metallurgical Analysis: The resultant reduced Concave weld at inside diameter of pipe-to-pipe weld.
wall thickness may violate minimum wall
dimensions and not meet design criteria for
load bearing.
 Using VT to Detect Root Concavity
Rationale: Assurance for through-wall weld Recommendations: Some concavity within
thickness. an otherwise convex weld may be acceptable.
Limitations: VT may only provide dimensional But generally, concavity on the outside
data. Volumetric (ultrasonic testing) data diameter, inside diameter, or opposite side of a
may be required to ascertain the actual wall plate-to-plate weld would be rejectable when
thickness. The standard solution to concavity is minimum wall dimensions are observed.
to add more weld material. Precautions: Attention should be paid so as
not to confuse concavity with incomplete
penetration.
 Incomplete Penetration
Description: Found in ferrous and nonferrous
weldments.
Location in Part: External and on the inside
diameter or opposite side of welding for
plate-to-plate welds. Normally found where the
backside of the weld is accessible and visible.
Characteristics/Appearance: The mandatory
characteristic is the straight edge or ruler
straight edge on one or both sides of the weld
joint. It is not irregular and only occurs at the
root and runs parallel with the weld.
Metallurgical Analysis: Can be caused when Incomplete penetration = root slit is not fused.
insufficient root gap is provided during fit-up
operations. This condition is always rejectable
due to residual welding stresses that may cause
the joint to fail in service.
 Using VT to Detect Incomplete Penetration
Advantages: When surface access is accessible,
VT can be less expensive than other methods
like radiographic testing (RT).
Limitations: It is only detectable when the
surface is accessible. It is sometimes confirmed
by remote VT by means of a dental mirror or
borescope (rigid, flexible, or video borescope).
By far it is most frequently found by RT.
Recommendations: Grinding down to the root
and re-welding may be a repair option.

Incomplete penetration.
 Excessive Oxidation
Description: Excessive oxidation is the Characteristics/Appearance: Crystalline
“burning” of the metal and the residual appearance is the trademark look. On a
crystalline appearing surface left after excessive radiograph the sharp protrusions and abrupt
heat, combined with enough oxygen to cause edges give the appearance of sugar crystals.
the metal to burn. Hence, its slang term is “sugaring.”
Location in Part: Excessive oxidation may Metallurgical Analysis: The abrupt nature
occur on the weld or opposite side of the joint of the weld profile represents extreme stress
to be welded. Generally the weld procedure risers that may result in subsequent cracking
assumes a protective shielding gas in the in service. More importantly, the strength
welded side to prevent oxidation. That leaves attributes of the metal may have been
the opposite side or inside diameter (ID) of compromised by the extreme heat.
the weld joint to be oxidized during welding if
precautions are not taken, such as purging the
opposite or ID side.
 Using VT to Detect Excessive Oxidation
Recommendations: The weld is rejectable and Precautions: Prior to VT, ensure proper
may need to be scrapped upon engineering purging or gas flow to protect the molten metal
analysis. from burning.

Excessive oxidation. (Allgaier)

 Welding Porosity
Description: Found in ferrous and nonferrous spherical voids, pockets or elongated tubular
weldments. voids called “piping porosity” or “wormholes”
Location in Part: Surface or subsurface. between weld passes. The length of the
(Subsurface porosity may only be visible wormhole is not normally visible to the visual
if surfaces are made accessible through inspector. Rather, it is detected by radiographic
machining or grinding.) The start and stop of testing.
welds is a high-risk area for finding porosity. Metallurgical Analysis: Porosity in welds is
Characteristics/Appearance: Porosity may be: caused by gas entrapment in the molten metal.
These gases may be released by the cooling
l rounded, weld metal because of reduced solubility as
l elongated, or the temperature drops, or from gases formed
l teardrop shaped. by chemical reactions in the weld. Porosity is
also caused by too much moisture on the base
It may or may not have a sharp discontinuity at or filler metal resulting in gas during heating.
the point. Porosity can appear alone, scattered Additionally, improper cleaning or preheating
uniformly throughout a weld, or isolated in procedures may produce porosity during
small groups. May also be concentrated at welding.
the root or weld toe. Pores may also occur as
 Using VT to Detect Welding Porosity
Rationale: While porosity might be thought
of as a surface discontinuity, it could be a
through-wall discontinuity. Detection should
lead to elimination.
Advantages: Detection is relatively simple and (a)
categorized per code requirements.
Limitations: Normally confined to in-process
control of ferrous and nonferrous weldments.
In addition, true depth measurement may be
unobtainable. (b)
Precautions: Caution must be exercised to
completely remove porosity prior to repair
welding to prevent the entrapped gases from
extending into the re-welded weld beads and
propagating from one weld pass into the next.
(c)

Three types of weld porosity: (a) single pore;

(b) clustered; (c) aligned.
 Weld Spatter
Description: Globules of molten metal that Location in Part: Adjacent base metal or
spatter from an excited weld puddle during previously deposited welded metal near the
welding and adhere to the adjacent base metal primary welding site. Sight as well as feel can
or previously deposited weld metal. assist in weld spatter detection.
Characteristics: Spatter is variously sized,
spherical (“BBs”) in shape and attached
superficially to the metal on which it lands.
Metallurgical Analysis: The abrupt transition
from the spherical globule to the adhering base
or weld metal causes stress risers. These may
result in metallurgical changes in the properties
of the underlying metal into a more brittle
condition susceptible to cracking.

Weld spatter.
 Using VT to Detect Weld Spatter
Rationale: Appearance is often more important
than serviceability. Craftsmanship is important
as well as preventing any future service issues.
Advantages: Detection and elimination can
assist the use of other NDT methods.
Precautions: Concern for any surface
metallurgical changes must always be
considered.
Recommendations: Weld spatter will interfere
with subsequent NDT processes and cause
future discontinuity development. Therefore,
spatter should be removed as a matter of
course prior to further welding, testing, or
return to service. Weld spatter. (Allgaier)
 Underfill
Description: Underfill is a condition where
through-wall thickness is not adequate across
the width of the weld. It may be found in
ferrous and nonferrous welded material.
Location in Part: Found where weld metal
meets the base metal.
Characteristics/Appearance: To qualify as
underfill some portion of the base metal must
still be visible and not melted.
Metallurgical Analysis: The lack of weld
metal deposit up the entire face of the end
Underfill. (Wright)
preparation of the plate or pipe results in
insufficient metal to meet the design criteria
for the weld joint in question. This is true for
the middle of the weld area even if the weld
covers the entire weld end prep faces but does
not sufficiently meet cross-sectional thickness
requirements.
 Using VT to Detect Underfill
Advantages: Easily detected with adequate
lighting and augmented with weld gauges.
Limitations: On some weld configurations
measurement may be difficult.
Recommendations: Add additional filler metal.
Precautions: Caution must be made not to
trap nonmetallic inclusion or porosity, or allow
lack of fusion between irregular weld beads or
passes.

Underfill, porosity, and lack of fusion. (Wright)

 Inadequate Fillet
Description: A braze fillet is actually a casting Metallurgical Analysis: Brazing is a metal-
along the outside of a braze joint that shows joining process in which two or more metal
that the brazing filler metal has melted and items are joined together by melting and
flowed along the edge of a braze joint. flowing a filler metal into the joint, the filler
Location in Part: Braze fillets occur at the joint metal having a lower melting point than the
intersection between base materials. adjoining metal. Lack of fill in a braze joint is
undesirable as it may serve as a stress riser and
Characteristics/Appearance: Fillets should be may contribute to joint failure in service.
concave. The edges should blend or feather out
at each edge with the base material. No oxides
or contamination should be visible. Porosity
or cracks should not be apparent. The braze
material should flow completely around the
joint.
 Using VT to Detect Inadequate Fillet
Recommendations: Adequate flow of the
braze filler material indicates proper fit and flow
between the base materials. Do not evaluate
size for acceptability. The proper fillet should
be concave and blend smoothly into the base
materials on either side. No more than a 10×
magnifier is recommended if at all.
Precautions: Do not consider fillet size as an
indicator of strength. Fillet size is not a criterion
for acceptance. Rather, smooth continuous flow
is the objective.

Braze sample showing inadequate fillet. (Inspec Testing)

 Blowholes
Description: A blowhole in a casting or a Metallurgical Analysis: Blowholes are the
weld is caused by gas entrapped during result of liquid (water) coming into contact
solidification. It is on the surface of the casting with extreme (above boiling) temperature
and has an irregular shape with some depth of molten metal in a casting. Their source is
due to a steam explosion. frequently the moisture in a sand casting. After
Location in Part: Surface of casting part that solidifying in the casting body proper, the
would have been in contact with the casting irregular void reduces cross section strength
mold. and leaves abrupt edges that are stress risers.
Characteristics/Appearance: A blowhole has
the appearance of an irregular cavity exposed
to the surface of the casting or weld face. It
appears rough as an “explosion of steam”
would appear in the body of molten metal in a
casting. (Note: a weld is a micro-casting.)
 Using VT to Detect Blowholes
Advantages: Early detection may prevent Recommendations: Blowholes are not
laminations being created during further acceptable in a casting of consequence. They
processing. are normally rejected, gouged, or routed
Limitations: Only those that are open to the out and repair welded if salvageable at all.
surface are detectable. Otherwise, large blowholes will render the part
rejectable. As scrap it is suitable for re-melting
and recasting.
Precautions:
l Donot confuse porosity (smooth rounded
cavities exposed to the surface) with
blowholes.
l Microshrinkage is jagged and irregular but
without cavernous characteristics. Rather,
microshrinkage has fine crack-like patterns
connected in a small area.

Blowhole in a central impression cylinder. (Ravi)

 Sand Casting Porosity
Description: Round spherical voids exposed to
the surface of the casting.
Location in Part: Accessible surfaces of the
casting.
Characteristics/Appearance: The round
spherical voids or porosity may be single,
clustered, random or linearly aligned, or any
combination.
Metallurgical Analysis: Porosity is the creation,
or coalescence, of gas within a liquid that forms
during solidification from the liquid to the solid
state during cooling of a casting. Surface porosity in a casting. (MSS SP-55)
 Using VT to Detect Sand Casting Porosity
Recommendations: After comparison to Precautions: Grinding or machining casting
the acceptance standards, porosity may be surfaces to eliminate initial findings of
removed by grinding or machining to reach rejectable porosity may expose more porosity
acceptable levels. Liquid penetrant testing is requiring further evaluation. Note that some
frequently recommended as a complementary specifications or standards codify the minimum
NDT method to detect pores too fine to be size to be evaluated. Pores below a certain limit
detected by VT alone. For the same reason, may be ignored as nonrelevant by definition.
VT may be aided by magnifiers. Radiographic
testing may also be used as a complementary
method. Ultrasonic testing (UT) is not
recommended since round reflectors deflect
the sound, preventing adequate reflection for
detection. Large grain structure also diffuses the
sound, making UT unacceptable for castings.
 Cold Shuts
Description: Found in ferrous and nonferrous l the solidification of one surface before other
cast material. metal flows over it;
Location in Part: Surface (internal not visible). l the presence of interposing surface films on
Characteristics/Appearance: Generally appear cold, sluggish metal; or
as smooth circular indentations on the cast l any factor that prevents fusion where two
surface and may resemble a drop of metal surfaces meet.
entrapped in the casting. If interrupted pouring
occurs then the resulting surface appearance Cold shuts are more prevalent in castings
may resemble a seam. formed in a mold having several sprues
or gates. They are also more prevalent in
Metallurgical Analysis: Produced during the magnesium castings than aluminum because of
casting of molten metal. Cold shuts may result the speed with which magnesium sets.
from splashing, surging, interrupted pouring,
or the meeting of two streams of metal coming
from different directions. Cold shuts are also
caused by:
 Using VT to Detect Cold Shuts
Precautions: Cold shuts may have two different
appearances, circular or linear.
Limitations: Location can be determined but
often severity cannot.

Indication of cold shut in a casting, enhanced here with

magnetic particles.
 Hot Tears
Description: Found in ferrous and nonferrous Location in Part: Visible to the surface and
castings. normally found at abrupt change of thickness
intersections.
Light (small) sections solidify and shrink
Characteristics/Appearance: Hot tears appear
faster than the heavy sections as a ragged line of variable width with one or
Mold
more branches. May occur individually or in
groups. They occur at 90° to the longitudinal
direction of the stresses between the thick and
thin sections.
Metallurgical Analysis: Hot tears or cracks are
caused by nonuniform cooling, resulting in
stresses that rupture the surface of the metal
while its temperature is still in the brittle range.
Tears may originate where stresses are set up
Hot tears
by the more rapid cooling of thin sections
that adjoin heavier masses of metal, which are
Schematic of hot tears in a casting. (MSS SP-55) slower to cool.
 Using VT to Detect Hot Tears
Limitations: Surface roughness may mask a
tight hot tear.
Recommendations: Pay special attention to
areas where nonuniform cooling can occur
(usually at changes of thickness). Supplement
with magnetic particle or liquid penetrant
testing for confirmation.
Precautions: The accompanying photograph
shows a horizontal orientation. It is more likely
to be vertical or 45° in orientation given the
figure’s shape.

Visual appearance of hot tears in a casting.

 Shrinkage Cavities
Description: Found in cast materials, Metallurgical Analysis: Shrinkage
differences in cooling rates after pouring may discontinuities can occur when standard
cause localized microshrinkages. It appears as feed metal is not available to compensate for
torn gauze on the surface, that is, a series of shrinkage as the thick metal solidifies. Found in
micro-tears in the cast metal. cast materials, magnesium is especially prone
Location in Part: Microshrinkage usually to microshrinkage due to density. Shrinkage
appears at the gate of the casting, although it cavities are found in ferrous and nonferrous
also occurs when molten metal must flow from castings. Shrinkage occurs while the metal is in
a thin section into a thicker section of a casting, a semi-molten state. If sufficient molten metal
such as what may occur around slues or gates cannot flow into different areas, as it cools
in the casting. the shrinkage leaves a void. Microshrinkage is
caused by the withdrawal of the low melting
Characteristics/Appearance: Depends on the point constituent from the grain boundaries.
plane through which the microshrinkage has
been cut. Small filamentary voids in the grain
boundaries appear as concentrated micro-
cracking on the surface of the casting. The
appearance varies from a continuous hairline to
a massive porous indication.
 Using VT to Detect Shrinkage Cavities
Limitations: Microshrinkage is not normally
open to the surface. If machining brings
the microshrinkage to the surface, it can be
detected by VT.
Recommendations: Discontinuities like
microshrinkage that do not act as stress risers
are undesirable, but are judged on the basis of
the static test simulating the working loads on
the complete part. However, discontinuities
that are so aligned as to cause stress
concentration warrant immediate cause for
rejection.
Precautions: VT is useful for initial detection,
but it usually supplemented by other methods
such as radiographic testing.

Surface shrinkage in a casting. (MSS SP-55)

 Scars and Scabs
Description: The thin metallic projections with Characteristics/Appearance: Very rough
sharp edges are generally parallel to the surface surface. Appears to be “stuck on” the cast
of the casting and have very rough surfaces. surface and not integral even though not
They are usually attached to the casting at only removable by mechanical leverage.
a few points and are otherwise loose. Metallurgical Analysis: Caused by the
Location in Part: Cast surface only. Generally expansion of molding or core sand, expansion
occurs on horizontal or convex surfaces of thin scabs can occur in ferrous or copper-based
castings. castings.
 Using VT to Detect Scars and Scabs
Limitations: The depth of the scabs (rolled in Precautions: Sand is not the cause of this
material) is undetermined until excavated. discontinuity. Rather, it is metallurgical.
Recommendations: Likely a rejectable
condition that is not subject to repair.

(a) (b)

Scabs: (a) visual appearance of part; and (b) close-up view. (MSS SP-55)
 Draw Lines
Description: Draw lines are longitudinal to the
direction of the drawing tension direction.
Location in Part:
l Only on the surface of the part that had been
in contact with the die used for drawing.
l Parallel to the direction of rolling. (a)
Characteristics/Appearance: They have
superficial depth and tend to be elongated
narrow depressions or barely visible lines.
Metallurgical Analysis: Drawing is a
metalworking process that uses tensile forces
to stretch metal or glass. As the metal is drawn
(pulled), it stretches thinner into a desired
shape and thickness. (b) Rolling direction

Draw lines are lineal irregularities in surface that develop

in drawing. They are parallel to the direction of rolling:
(a) first example; (b) second example.
 Using VT to Detect Draw Lines
Rationale: VT is important when the Precautions: Substantial reduction of cross-
appearance of the specimen is important (parts sectional thickness would normally result in
to be plated, parts near final finish dimension, failure during the drawing process and not be
and so on). visible to the VT inspector.
Recommendations: Unless the draw lines
reduce the cross-sectional thickness of the
part substantially, that is, by 5% or more, it
is of no consequence. If in doubt, additional
measurement should be performed and
compared to the minimum material thickness
requirement for evaluation.
 Edge Cracking
Description: The cold edges of rolled steel
plate rupture under tensile stress during the
rolling process. This is likely due to improper
temperatures for adequate ductility to prevent
cracking.
Location in Part: The edges of the rolled plate.
Characteristics/Appearance: The edges of
the resulting plate after rolling may have short
check marks resulting from the ductile fractures
due to compression of the metal.
Metallurgical Analysis: Upsetting and rolling
a slab or billet into a plate or bar can cause
edge cracking perpendicular to the direction of
rolling. The tensile pressure at the edge of the Rolling direction
plate and at the corner is most likely to cause
micro-cracking at the edge.
Edge cracks (also known as edge breaks) are short
creases that extend in varying distances from side
edge of temper rolled sheet.
 Using VT to Detect Edge Cracking
Advantages: VT, either direct or remote, is an Recommendations: Edge cracking needs to
easy way to detect the surface condition of be removed by trimming. Detection prior to
parts at their edges. a welding process is important to prevent
Limitations: possible growth of crack. Ultrasonic testing
may be required for locating small dimensional
l Difficult to detect discontinuities with small cracks and discriminating between types of
crack opening dimensions using VT. imperfection.
l Difficult to discriminate between scratches, Precautions: Edge cracking can cause further
machining marks, and other surface rupture of the metal product and needs to be
imperfections. removed. Edge cracking could also create a
problem in the welding process.
 Laminations
Description: Laminations are flattened
impurities (nodules of nonmetallic material
or oxidized porosity) that are extremely thin.
Found in plate, sheet metal, and forgings.
Location in Part: Mostly internal. Occasionally
observed on edge of plate or end preparation (a) (b)
for welding edge of plate.
Characteristics/Appearance: Generally
aligned parallel to the work surface of the
material. May contain a thin film of oxide
between surfaces. Found in forged, extruded,
and rolled material.
(c)
Metallurgical Analysis: Laminations are
separations or weaknesses that may be the Lamination in rolled plates: (a) visible from end;
result of elongated pipe, blisters, seams, (b) visible in holes; (c) visible from side.
inclusions, or segregations that are made
directional by rolling. This results in weak
metal bonds.
 Using VT to Detect Laminations
Rationale: Important to detect in weld prep Precautions: Some specifications call for
areas, as the welding to be performed does not magnetic particle testing of end preparations
“cure” the problem of the lamination. prior to welding. When found, routing and
Advantages: Easy to access weld bevel areas removal may be required for up to a 0.5 in.
that have been prepared. Combined with (1.27 cm) into the base material. Subsequent
magnetic particle or liquid penetrant testing, repair welding is required. Only then can
detection of lamination is rather successful. the original weld activity begin, having thus
ensured the inherent discontinuity to the plate
Limitations: VT is not capable of detecting will not propagate into the fabrication process
laminations unless exposed on the surface of weld. Supplemental ultrasonic testing may be
plate or pipe after end preparation ahead of needed to determine the full depth or extent
welding. Prewelding fit-up examinations are of the lamination that is visible on the edge
an opportunity to visually observe laminations surfaces.
in the edge prep. Rarely are they present on a
side surface of the plate, as seen in part c of the
accompanying figure on page 55.
 Secondary Processing Discontinuities
This group of discontinuities is found or produced by forming or fabrication operations
including rolling, forging, and welding. VT is recommended for the following secondary
processing discontinuities. This list includes VT discontinuities that may be found during testing
but are not included in this book.

Machining Anodizing/Pickling/
Heat-treating Quenching Cracks
Processes Acid Etching

l Grinding cracks l Cracks (lattice l Excessive chemical attack l Intergranular

l Machining tears cracks, l Etching and pickling l Any orientation
checkerboard) cracks
l Discoloration l Plating cracks
 Grinding Cracks
Description: Found in ferrous and nonferrous Metallurgical Analysis: Localized heating of
material. the surface during the grinding of hardened
Location in Part: Surface. Typically surfaces frequently introduces cracks. The
perpendicular to the object surface with sharp overheating is usually caused by:
crack tips that propagate. l lack of, or poor, coolant;
Characteristics/Appearance: Very shallow l a dull or improperly ground wheel;
and often forked and sharp at the root.
l too rapid feed; or
Similar to heat-treat cracks and usually, but
not always, occur in groups. Grinding cracks l too heavy cut.
generally occur at right angles to the direction They are critical stress risers that form a
of grinding, although in extreme cases, a potential cause for failure.
complete network of cracks may appear. This
pattern is also known as a “checkerboard”
pattern. They are found in highly heat-treated Cracks
parts; chrome-plated, case-hardened, ceramic
materials; and weld beads that are subjected to
grinding.
 Using VT to Detect Grinding Cracks
Recommendations: Auxiliary lighting cast Precautions: Grinding cracks are a most
at an angle will produce a crack shadow difficult discontinuity to observe. Liquid
without glare. A magnifying glass as an aid to penetrant testing may be necessary to confirm
direct visual would be helpful. Knowing the presence and extent. After detection, the repair
grinding wheel direction can be beneficial area needs to be monitored closely so as not to
in differentiating grinding cracks from other create more grinding cracks in the process.
discontinuities.
Grinding cracks occur
at right angles (crosswise)
to wheel rotation

Direction of grinding
Grinding cracks wheel rotation
(a) (b) (c)

Grinding cracks: (a) photograph of grinding cracks in a weld whose crown has been removed; (b) illustration showing
the grinding process; (c) illustration showing the effect of excessive grinding.
 Discoloration
Description: Heat-treating (or heat Characteristics/Appearance: Discoloration
treatment) describes a group of industrial of the steel may occur at locations of heat
and metalworking processes used to alter the concentration or over all surfaces if uniform
physical, and sometimes chemical, properties overheating has occurred. Heat-treat
of a material. The most common application is discoloration is due to excessive heat-treating
metallurgical. Inadvertent overheating during of stainless steel. It may leave a telltale blue,
welding of stainless steel can also result in green, and black discoloration due to elevated
similar discoloration. temperatures. In many stainless steel welds the
Location in Part: Surface. excessive heat may offer a straw-colored band
and the blue hues as seen in the weld heat-
affected zone in the figure on page 61.
Metallurgical Analysis: Stainless steel parts
are often heat-treated to anneal (harden) the
metal and relieve stress in the parts. While most
stainless steels are resistant to oxidation at low
temperatures, the various metals in the steel
formulation (iron, chromium, molybdenum,
and so on) can form oxides at higher
temperatures.
 Using VT to Detect Discoloration
Rationale: Discoloration is not detrimental to
material, per se, but can be an indication of
other potential discontinuities.
Advantages: Early detection of affected areas
using VT can be rectified prior to further
processing. VT can be done in comparison with
a standard color chart to determine the cause
of the discoloration.
Limitations: Inspectors with color vision
deficiencies can often misidentify this
discontinuity.
Heat-treating discoloration. (Allgaier)
 Service Discontinuities
This group of discontinuities is related to the various service conditions such as stress corrosion,
fatigue, and wear. VT is recommended for the following service discontinuities. This list includes
VT discontinuities that may be found during testing but are not included in this book.

Corrosion Erosive wear Fatigue Mishandling

l General oxidation (rust) l Hydro/fluid l Mechanical stress l Tool strikes (chipping

l General corrosion/ l Steam cuts fatigue cracks hammer and so on)
uniform corrosion l Cavitation l Permanent l Service-induced wear
l Pitting deformation (necking (abrasive, erosive,
l Wormhole down, bolting) grinding, gouging,
l Intergranular corrosion l Thermal stress fatigue adhesive, fretting)
cracking cracks
(intergranular stress
corrosion cracking)
l Hydrogen embrittlement
l Galvanic corrosion
l Crevice corrosion
l Hydrogen cracking
 General Oxidation and Corrosion
Description: General oxidation appears when l Aluminum oxidation appears white; copper
uniform oxidation occurs at the same rate oxidation appears green.
on the entire surface of a metal. While rust Metallurgical Analysis: There are several forms
is limited to iron, other metals oxidize with of rust. Rust consists of hydrated iron oxides
different characteristics. Thinning of the metal or iron oxide-hydroxide. Rust is one type of
cross section reduces the strength and load oxidation process where iron metal and oxygen
bearing capabilities. result in ferric oxide. General oxidation is the
Location in Part: Any metal surface exposed taking away of electrons, thus reducing the
to moisture and oxygen may result in oxidation remaining material cross section or thickness.
and should be examined with care.
Characteristics/Appearance:
l Rust (iron) appears reddish to orange and
has a texture varying between semi-rough to
the dust-like coating of iron oxide.
l General oxidation has an overall presence
and is defined as wastage of the base
material, as opposed to pitting, which is
highly localized. General oxidation. (Allgaier)
 Using VT to Detect General Oxidation and Corrosion
Rationale: VT is often used to monitor
oxidation and/or corrosion. It is important to
precisely document findings.
Limitations: VT is often not performed due
to a part’s service, thereby in turn limiting the
service life of the part.
Recommendations: Pay attention to the
difference between rust on iron only and
oxidation of other materials (a)
(see Characteristics/Appearance on page 63).

(b)

General corrosion of a bolt. (Allgaier) General corrosion: (a) in a vessel wall; (b) inside surface
of boiler tube.
 Pitting
Description: Extremely localized corrosion Location in Part: Pitting corrosion occurs at a
leads to the creation of small holes or cavities in location where the protective coating has been
the metal. These holes may be shallow or deep eliminated. It is normally localized and can
depending on the duration of the corrosive penetrate the metal rapidly in one area while
activity. They may penetrate through walls and not affecting some areas adjacent that remain
result in leakage. free from corrosion.

5 mm
(a) (b)
Pitting: (a) area with pitting cluster; (b) a single through-wall pit.
 Pitting (continued)
Characteristics/Appearance: Pitting corrosion Metallurgical Analysis: Localized pitting is
can form small pits, holes, or cavities from the result of a chemical reaction and rapid
shallow to deep conditions. Pitting can be surface degradation after breaking down of
either hemispherical or cup-shaped. However, protective oxide films. Any metal that comes
it may assume different shapes or multiple pits into contact with the electrolyte could corrode.
may form together or in a localized area. The resulting loss of the protective layer may
allow local corrosion. High concentration of
chlorides such as found in seawater tend to
render the protective oxide film less stable,
thus opening the metal surface to chemical
attack. The location of such chemical attacks
can reduce the remaining material cross section
or part thickness to the point of through-wall
penetration and leakage.
 Using VT to Detect Pitting
Advantages: Pitting that has been cleaned Recommendations:
and is exposed to the surface can typically be l Cleaning with a stiff bristle brush is often
measured under normal lighting conditions sufficient to clean and enlarge pit openings
using low-power magnification or other optical for easier evaluation.
aids.
l Aplastic grid can be used to more easily
Limitations: determine pitting density.
l Pitting must be visible to the surface.
l ASTM G46-94: Standard Guide for Examination
l Where pitting covers a large surface area, and Evaluation of Pitting Corrosion includes a
identification of the worst-case pitting is visual chart for rating pitting.
often a lengthy process or ineffective.
Precautions: Prior to VT, avoid cleaning the
l Pittingmay be difficult to detect using VT surface with products that attack the base
because of narrow surface openings, which metal excessively.
are often covered with corrosion products.
 Intergranular Corrosion Cracking
Description: Intergranular cracking is a form of Characteristics/Appearance: Corrosion
corrosive attack that progresses preferentially between the grains of the metal will follow
along grain boundaries. Intergranular cracking the grain boundaries. The loss of material
is also known as intergranular corrosion, between the grains may give it the appearance
intergranular corrosion cracking, intergranular of splintering wood. Slivers of metal remain
stress corrosion cracking, intercrystalline while the material between the grains will have
corrosion, interdendritic corrosion, and corroded away.
intergranular attack. Metallurgical Analysis: The boundaries of
Location in Part: Intergranular corrosion crystallites of the material are more susceptible
cracking occurs at the surface where the grain to corrosion than the individual grains. In
boundaries in corrosion-resistant materials are nickel alloys and austenitic stainless steels,
exposed to corrosive materials. This would be where chromium is added for corrosion
the inside of a pipe joint especially in the heat- resistance, the mechanism involved is
affected zone, or the outside of a component or precipitation of chromium carbide at the
part exposed to the corrosive environment. grain boundaries, resulting in the formation
of chromium-depleted zones adjacent to the
grain boundaries, thus opening up additional
crystalline surface boundaries to chromium
depletion.
 Using VT to Detect Intergranular Corrosion Cracking
Recommendations: VT can detect the nature
but not necessarily the extent of damage.
Other NDT methods such as liquid penetrant,
magnetic particle, and ultrasonic testing are
utilized to enhance detection.
Limitations: Intergranular corrosion cracking
is difficult to observe with direct unaided VT
unless it is gross in nature. (a)

(b)

Intergranular corrosion cracking of a chlorinated water Visual appearance of intergranular corrosion cracking:
valve stem (swimming pool). (Allgaier) (a) cracking area enhanced by liquid penetrant testing;
and (b) magnetic particle testing indications.
 Erosive Wear
Description: Erosive wear (or erosion) occurs
when particles in a fluid or other carrier slide
and roll at relatively high velocity against a
surface. Each moving particle contacting the
surface cuts a minute particle from the surface.
The removal of many particles is called erosion.
Erosive wear via cavitation occurs when a
bubble implodes close to a fixed surface
generating a jet of surrounding liquid or an
implosion shock wave striking a solid surface.
This causes the solid surface to fragment due to
the impact of the shock wave and lose material
particles.
Evidence of erosion by droplets from the nozzle into the
tube (internal surface).
 Erosive Wear (continued)

Two examples of erosion. (Lewis)

 Erosive Wear (continued)
Location in Part: Any surface exposed to the
solids suspended in fluid flow containing the
erosive particles. Junctures where the fluid
changes direction are highly susceptible and
should be examined with care. Cavitation
can be found in any surface exposed to
liquids undergoing changes in pressure such
as to cause gas to come out of suspension,
form bubbles, and then implode back into
suspension due to sudden increase in fluid
pressure. This may affect the pump casing body
by loss of solid particles breaking away on the
inside diameter surface.

Cavitational wear in turbine blades.

 Erosive Wear (continued)
Characteristics/Appearance: A fluid cavity or Metallurgical Analysis: Minute particles
dishing out appearance is common. This is also suspended in fluid are driven by flow forces
known as scalloping. This condition can occur to impinge upon the surface of a material.
at several locations, typically: The combination of pushing force and sliding
l the heel of an elbow, force will cause abrasion and embrittlement.
Cavitation damage is caused by the removal of
l the impingement surface of a “T” joint, material due to cracking and pitting caused by
l onthe low pressure side of pump impellor high-energy implosions of vacuous cavities in a
vanes (see cavitated turbine blade), cavitating liquid.
l the
downstream side of an obstruction in a
pipe, or
l when there is an enlargement of an internal
dimensional cavity that allows the liquid to
form eddy currents.
These occasions of solid particles suspended
in fluid wear against the surfaces, causing
the cavity or dished out area on the part,
component, or system carrying fluid.
 Using VT to Detect Erosive Wear
Limitations: Impingement areas may not
always be easily accessible.
Recommendations: Knowing the environment
(product flow) helps identify suspect areas.
Pay particular attention to the areas of pumps,
impellors, fans, steam lines, and nozzles for
areas of likely suspended particles impinging (a)
upon the part surface. Remote VT by means
of borescopes, fiber borescopes, or video
borescopes is recommended.
Precautions: Direct VT, even aided with
a mirror, may not suffice to gain access to
affected areas of the component. This is
especially true if the pump impellor is left in
situ. (b)
Schematic of the flow pattern of a liquid causing
erosion: (a) liquid surface; (b) action of liquid on solid
component.
 Mechanical Stress Fatigue Cracks
Description: Found in ferrous and nonferrous Metallurgical Analysis: Mechanical stress is
material subjected to stress. Stress risers a stress mechanism induced by a cyclically
combined with cyclic stress can lead to stress applied stress that is lower in magnitude than
fatigue cracks. the ultimate tensile strength of the material but
Location in Part: Surface. Typical locations high enough to initiate a crack or to propagate
include cross-sectional change in thickness a preexisting crack.
areas where stress risers can concentrate.
Characteristics/Appearance: Cracks range
from shallow to very deep and usually follow
the grain flow of the material; however,
transverse cracks are also possible. Indications
of these cracks often appear in a pattern at
the area of maximum stress and are easily
identified.
 Using VT to Detect Mechanical Stress Fatigue Cracks
Advantages: VT is a quick, cost-effective
method for initial assessment, and can
complement other NDT methods for further
testing.
Limitations: Cannot determine whether
additional cracks are propagating below the
surface.
Recommendations: Magnification is
recommended prior to failure and ultimately
exceeding the yield point.

Photograph of cracks in a wind turbine gearbox.

 PermanentTitle
Deformation
Description: When a material is placed in Characteristics/Appearance: The cross section
tension and stretched past a certain plastic of the necked down area is reduced compared
elasticity point it then becomes permanently to the rest of the part (bolt).
deformed or necked down. Metallurgical Analysis: When bolt is tightened
Location in Part: Anywhere in the length of a past a certain point (the elastic strain limit), it
bolt or other elongated part. deforms by stretching, with the result that its
diameter is reduced.
 Using VT to Detect Permanent
Title Deformation
Limitations: Accessibility is required to
ascertain the state of the entire item.
Recommendations: This condition is rejectable
and requires the bolt to be replaced. Detection
is always best before the material exceeds its
tensile limits (failure).
Precautions: Necking down is most difficult to
observe when in situ, especially between two
flanges bolted together or between a closure
head and cylinder of a pressure vessel.

Bolt showing deformation (necking down).

 Thermal Stress Fatigue Cracks
Description: Found in ferrous and nonferrous Metallurgical Analysis: Three factors are
material subjected to stress. Stress combined necessary for the phenomenon of stress
with a corrosive environment and temperature corrosion to occur: a sustained static tensile
can create an environment for stress fatigue stress, the presence of a corrosive environment,
cracking to occur. and the use of a material susceptible to this
Location in Part: Surface. Stress fatigue cracks type of failure. Stress corrosion fatigue is much
are not found on parts that have never been more likely to occur at high levels of stress than
placed in service. Stress corrosion cracking at low levels. Stresses include residual (internal)
(SCC) does not necessarily start from an edge as well as those from applied (external)
or stress riser. loading. SCC is the growth of crack formation
in a corrosive environment. It can lead to
Characteristics/Appearance: Cracks range unexpected sudden failure of normally ductile
from shallow to very deep and usually follow metals subjected to a tensile stress, especially at
the grain flow of the material; however, elevated temperature.
transverse cracks are also possible. Indications
of these cracks often appear in a pattern at
the area of maximum stress and are easily
identified.
 Using VT to Detect Thermal Stress Fatigue Cracks
Advantages: VT is a quick, cost-effective
method for initial assessment, and can
complement other NDT methods for further
testing.
Limitations: Cannot determine whether
additional cracks are propagating subsurface.
Recommendations: Targeting parts or
components that have been exposed to high
levels of stress at elevated temperature for
long periods of time is recommended for the
detection of stress fatigue cracking.
Precautions: Need to know the history of the Sample pipeline stress corrosion cracking. (Schraan)
part to adequately identify this discontinuity.
 Tool Strikes
Description: Various mechanical tools are Location in Part: Mishandling marks can
utilized to assist in shaping and finishing be found anywhere the surface of the part is
parts or components. Often tool strikes are a exposed to working processes.
personnel-induced discontinuity through poor Characteristics/Appearance: Permanent
workmanship. Misuse of tools can result in deformation of the part will likely appear as a
deformed surfaces taking the shape of the tool negative impression of the tool utilized to make
used to mark the surface of the part. it, for example: vee-shaped indentations from
the chisel end of a weld chipping hammer,
the rounded pit for the pointed radius end of
the weld chipping hammer, or the rounded
indentation from a ball peen hammer. On
welded surfaces, tool strikes occur close to the
weld.
Metallurgical Analysis: Permanently deformed
surfaces can create stress risers from which
cracks can emanate or create deformed surfaces
that disallow the function of the part (threads
on a bolt).
Weld chipping hammer. (Allgaier)
 Using VT to Detect Tool Strikes
Advantages: Identification of the damaged Recommendations: Workmanship criteria
area may be fairly easy. should be utilized to evaluate the surface
Limitations: The exact tool used to create the condition of parts or products.
discontinuity is not as easy to detect.

Hammer marks. Mishandling tool strike from a hammer in bolt threads

(round edge or ball end of hammer strike could prevent
nut travel). (Allgaier)
 Using VT to Detect Tool Strikes (continued)

Tool marks from the pointed end of a weld chipping Excess needle gun marks. (Vona)
hammer. (Allgaier)
 Service-induced Wear
Description: Wear is the undesired removal Metallurgical Analysis: The softer of two
of material from contacting surfaces by materials rubbing together will lose the greater
mechanical action. Wear is usually from the material. Wear may be abrasive, erosive,
interaction of other components and materials, grinding, gouging, adhesive, or fretting in
such as when metal-to-metal contact has nature. In all cases, loss of material on one or
repeatedly occurred. Lack of lubrication or poor both material surfaces will occur. Other terms
handling during product movement are the for adhesive wear include scoring, scuffing,
two most often mechanisms to create wear. galling, and seizing. Adhesive wear is the
Location in Part: Wear can occur at any point preferred term.
where contact between two materials may
happen.
Characteristics/Appearance: Any deterioration
of a surface will result in appearances different
from the adjacent area not subject to wear.
Phonographic grooves may result from circular
or radial rubbing or contact. Marring or
discoloration may result from limited frictional
Part of a rotating machine showing wear (phonographic
rubbing of two surfaces. groove in appearance).
 Using VT to Detect Service-induced Wear
Advantages: VT is a simple and straightforward Recommendations: Post-wear conditions
method for detecting wear, often without the must be evaluated on a dimensional and
need for equipment. functionality basis. Rejection and replacement
Limitations: Noise levels, inadequate lighting, are typical when repairs are impractical.
and an improperly cleaned surface can all affect Addition of materials through welding,
the inspector’s ability to detect wear. cladding, sintering, or the addition of sleeves
may be adequate corrective action when
excessive wear is detected.
Sheared asperity
Bonded junction

Sheared asperity Wear debris particle

(a) (b) (c)
Illustration of one process by which particle of debris is detached during adhesive wear: (a) bonded junction forms;
(b) junction is torn from one peak or asperity; (c) asperity then is sheared off by impact with larger, adjacent peak.
 Surface Comparators
Surface comparators are used for surface finish recognition by comparing surfaces to be
evaluated against known standards. Regardless of the mechanical means to remove material, the
resultant pattern on the surface is unique to the method of material removal. In any case, the
depth of the groove is represented by a root mean average of deviation from the mean line. This
standard deviation is squared and then the square root yields a positive number. This number
represents the average distance from the mean line. The smaller the value, the smoother the
surface. This value measures (in micro-inches) the average peak and valley variances over the
surface of a part. The work piece is then compared to the known sample, that is, the surface
comparator, to determine the approximate roughness of the work piece.

Description:
L – Lapping G – Ground
Lapping is a machining process in which two Grinding is an abrasive machining process
surfaces are rubbed together with an abrasive in which a spinning wheel covered in rough
between them, by hand movement, or using a particles cuts chips of metallic or nonmetallic
machine. Parallel scratches may exist within the substance from a work piece, making a face of
width of the lapping tool. it flat or smooth. A circular pattern relative to
the diameter of the grinding disc will result.
 Surface Comparators (continued)
BL – Blanchard M – Milled
The blanchard technique of machining Milling is a form of machining used to remove
results in especially smooth texture or surface material and create a variety of features on a
roughness. It is usually achieved by rotary part. Features such as holes, slots, pockets, and
surface grinding which efficiently removes 3D contours may result. The cutting tool may
large amounts of stock. Excellent tolerances for cut from the end face or long axis of the tool.
flatness and parallelism can be achieved with The grind pattern depends on the size and
smoothness up to 63 µm rms. This value is contour of the cutter.
higher for certain materials.
P – Profiled
ST – Shape Turned Profiling is an effective technique of eliminating
Turning is a machining process in which a burrs, folds, inclusions, and other abnormalities
cutting tool, typically a non-rotary tool bit, through electropolishing. This electrolytic
describes a helix tool path by moving more or process, the opposite of the plating process, is
less linearly while the work piece rotates. This designed to remove metal without smearing or
process is known as lathing or turn shaping. folding. This action produces a smoothing and
rounding of the surface profile. The pattern is
extremely smooth and not easily detectable.
 How to Use a Surface Roughness (Finish) Comparator
1. Determine the material removal
(machining) process that was utilized to
give the surface finish under testing.
2. Place the comparator next to the surface
to be compared with emphasis on the
machining process most likely used.
3. Move the comparator up and down until
estimated surface roughness similarity
observed. (The larger the number, the
rougher the surface in micro-inches.)
4. It is common practice for technicians to
drag their fingernail across the standard’s
surface and the test specimen’s surface to
detect similar resistance by feel.
5. Record the surface roughness thought to Surface comparators.
be most similar to the appropriate standard
rating. Clarify in report document as
smoother than “X” or rougher than “X.”
 Direct VT Versus Remote VT
Direct Visual Testing (DVT): a VT technique Remote Visual Testing (RVT): VT where
where there is an uninterrupted optical path there is an interrupted optical path from the
from the observer’s eye to the test area. This observer’s eye to the test area. RVT covers the
technique can be performed either unaided use of photography, video systems, automated
or aided via mirror, lens, endoscope, or fiber systems, and robots. Usually this is defined as
optics. Usually this is defined as less than more than 61 cm (24 in.) and/or less than 30°
24 in. (61 cm) and more than 30° offset from offset from the surface under test.
the surface under test.

Magnifying glasses and loupes. Mirrors used in VT.

 Direct VT Versus Remote VT (continued)

Video borescope in use.

Rigid borescope in use. Fiber optic borescope in use.

 References
ASNT, 1983, Programmed Instruction Book: Introduction to NDT (PI-4-1), General Dynamics Convair Division.
ASNT, 2010, Nondestructive Testing Handbook, third edition: Vol. 9: Visual Testing, American Society for Nondestructive Testing,
Columbus, OH.
ASTM, 2018, ASTM E1316: Standard Terminology for Nondestructive Examinations, ASTM International, West Conshohocken,
Pennsylvania.‡
AWS, 2015, AWS D1.1/D1.1M:2015, Structural Welding Code – Steel, American Welding Society, Miami, Florida.†
Henning, Dietmar, Visual Testing Classroom Training Book, first edition, 2017, American Society for Nondestructive Testing,
Columbus, OH.
Magnaflux, C.E. Betz, Principles of Magnetic Particle Testing, Chapter 3 Sources of Defects, 1967.

† AWS should be referred to as the common source for welding discontinuity terminology.
‡ ASTM should be referred to as the common source for terminology for indication (relevant, nonrelevant, recordable, reportable), discontinuity,
and defect.
 Figure Sources
Allgaier: Michael Allgaier
Freeman: Robert Bradley Freeman
Inspec Testing: Inspec Testing Inc.
Lewis: Oscar Lewis
MSS SP-55: Manufacturers Standardization Society ANSI/MSS SP-55-2011
Ravi: B. Ravi, IIT Bombay
Sabolik: Mark Sabolik
Schraan: Joel Schraan, Coast to Coast NDE
Siderius: S. Siderius, S+S NDT LLC
Wright: J.M. Wright
Vona: Paul Vona

Note: All images are used with permission. Images without citations are either from the Visual Testing Classroom Training Book (2017) or the
Nondestructive Testing Handbook: third edition: Vol. 9: Visual Testing (2010).
 SI Derived Units
Relation to
Quantity Unit Symbol
Other SI Units
Capacitance farad F C/V
Conductance siemens S A/V
Energy joule J N⋅m
Frequency (periodic) hertz Hz 1/s
Force newton N kg⋅m/s2
Inductance henry H Wb/A
Electric charge coulomb C A⋅s
Electric potential (electromotive) volt V W/A
Electric resistance ohm W V/A
Magnetic flux weber Wb V⋅s
Magnetic flux density tesla T Wb/m2
 SI Derived Units (continued)
Relation to
Quantity Unit Symbol
Other SI Units
Plane angle radian rad 1
Power watt W J/s
Pressure (stress) pascal Pa N/m2
Solid angle steradian sr 1
Temperature degree celsius °C K
Volume liter L dm3
 Conversion to SI Units

Quantity Non-SI Unit Multiply by To Get SI Unit

Angle minute (min) 2.908 882 × 10–4 radian (rad)

degree (deg) 1.745 329 × 10–2 radian (rad)
Area square inch (in.2) 645 square millimeter
(mm2)
Distance angstrom (Å) 0.1 nanometer (nm)
inch (in.) 25.4 millimeter (mm)
Energy British thermal unit (BTU) 1.055 kilojoule (kJ)
calorie (cal), thermochemical 4.184 joule (J)
Power British thermal unit per hour (BTU/h) 0.293 watt (W)
Force pound force 4.448 newton (N)
Torque (couple) foot-pound (ft-lbf) 1.36 newton meter (N⋅m)
 Conversion to SI Units (continued)

Quantity Non-SI Unit Multiply by To Get SI Unit

Pressure pound force per square inch 6.89 kilopascal (kPa)

(lbf/in.2)
Frequency (cycle) cycle per minute 60–1 hertz (Hz)
Mass pound (lbm) 0.454 kilogram (kg)
Temperature degree fahrenheit (°F) 0.556 kelvin (K) or degree
(increment) celsius (°C)
Temperature degree fahrenheit (°F) (°F – 32) ÷ 1.8 degree celsius (°C)
(scale)
Temperature degree fahrenheit (°F) (°F – 32) ÷ 1.8 + 273.15 kelvin (K)
(scale)