Hannah Patricia A.

Lumanglas
G12- STEM
#SEVEN DAY CHALLENGE

1. Philosophy begins in a sense of wonder. It begins when we wonder about what

otherwise is taken for granted or assumed to be true. In this course I shall
demonstrate how Philosophy arises in the West when a number of Greeks begin
to wonder about the nature of the universe and about the nature of reality and the
gods.

2. Philosophy is a study that seeks to understand the mysteries of existence and
reality. It tries to discover the nature of truth and knowledge and to find what is of
basic value and importance in life. The term philosophy itself comes from the
Greek philosophia, which means love of wisdom.

3. Western Philosophy
 Very broadly speaking, according to some commentators, Western society
strives to find and prove "the truth", while Eastern society accepts the truth as
given and is more interested in finding the balance. Westerners put more stock in
individual rights; Easterners in social responsibility.
 Philosophy as an Intellectual Speculation. From the beginning, western
philosophy characterizes as an intellectually enterprises in understanding the
social reality.
 The modern western philosophy flourished with philosophical traditions
of Rationalism of Descartes, Leibniz and Spinoza, and Empiricism of Locke,
Berkeley and Hume. The modern western philosophy has further carried by
transcendentalism of Immanuel Kant and of Hegel's Absolute.
 The two great themes of western philosophy are the study of the cosmos and the
study of the human condition.
 Socrates of Athens (l. c. 470/469-399 BCE) is among the most famous figures in
world history for his contributions to the development of ancient Greek
philosophy which provided the foundation for all of Western Philosophy. He is, in
fact, known as the "Father of Western Philosophy" for this reason.
 The ensuing article on the history of Western philosophy is divided into five
sections ancient, medieval, Renaissance, modern, and contemporary. A
threefold distinction between ancient, medieval, and modern philosophy was
prevalent until recent times and is only as old as the end of the 17th century.
Developments
 Western Philosophy began in 585 BC with the first philosopher: Thales of
Miletus in Greece. From there it continued to spread throughout Greece. The
great thinkers Plato and Aristotle created an entire system to explain all that
existed in the world.
 All Western philosophers prior to Socrates are known as the Presocratic
Western philosophy was born during the Archaic age of Greece (ca. 800-500
BC), when Greek thinkers broke with purely mythological explanations of the
world by attempting to explain nature logically.
 Socratic Technique. Socrates' most important contribution to Western
philosophy was his technique for arguing a point, known as the Socratic
technique, which he applied to many things such as truth and justice.
 The modern western philosophy has not only critical about orthodox religion
but also came with ideals of secularism, humanism, scientific temperament,
progress and development. Skepticism, rationality, individualism and scientific
methods are influenced the human conception in understanding the world.
CHARACTERISTICS
 Philosophy as an Intellectual Speculation. From the beginning, western
philosophy characterizes as an Intellectual Enterprises in understanding the
social reality.
 From Nature Centric to Ethical and Human Centric.
 Theories of Truth.
 Political Philosophy.

4. Stoicism- Stoicism is a philosophy of personal ethics informed by its

system of logic and its views on the natural world. The Stoics also held that
certain destructive emotions resulted from errors of judgment, and they believed
people should aim to maintain a will that is "in accordance with nature".
Scholasticism- Scholasticism, the philosophical systems and speculative
tendencies of various medieval Christian thinkers, who, working against a
background of fixed religious dogma, sought to solve anew general philosophical
problems (as of faith and reason, will and intellect, realism and nominalism, and
the provability of the existence of God), initially under the influence of the
mystical and intuitional tradition of patristic philosophy, especially
Augustinianism, and later under that of Aristotle.
Humanism- Religious humanism is an integration of humanist ethical philosophy
with congregational rites and community activity which center on human needs,
interests, and abilities.
Rationalism- Rationalism, in Western philosophy, the view that regards reason
as the chief source and test of knowledge. Holding that reality itself has an
inherently logical structure, the rationalist asserts that a class of truths exists that
the intellect can grasp directly.
 Empiricism- Empiricism, in philosophy, the view that all concepts originate in
experience, that all concepts are about or applicable to things that can be
experienced, or that all rationally acceptable beliefs or propositions are justifiable
or knowable only through experience.
Social and Political philosophy- Social and Political Philosophy is a normative
pursuit, related to Ethics. Where Ethics focuses on moral value of an individual's
actions, Social and Political Philosophy is interested in values related to groups
of individuals, a community, society, or nation.
Existentialism Pragmatism- Pragmatism believes that reality is a process and
therefore that goodness is found by trying things out and finding out what works.
Existentialism believes that reality must be defined by each autonomous
individual.
Phenomenology- The phenomenology of religion concerns the experiential
aspect of religion, describing religious phenomena in terms consistent with the
orientation of worshippers. It views religion as made up of different components,
and studies these components across religious traditions in order to gain some
understanding of them. 
Absurdism- Absurdism as a philosophy refers to the fundamental nature of
conflict in human tendency to find meaning and inherent value in life and inability
in the same in a purposeless existence in an irrational universe. The discipline of
absurdism varies a great deal on a theoretical template of conclusions.
Post Structuralism- Post-structuralism rejects the structuralist notion that the
dominant word in a pair is dependent on its subservient counterpart and instead
argues that founding knowledge either on pure experience (phenomenology) or
on systematic structures (structuralism) is impossible, because history and
culture condition the study.

5. Pythagoras- Pythagoras of Samos (c. 570 – c. 495 BC) was an ancient Ionian
Greek philosopher and the eponymous founder of Pythagoreanism. His political
and religious teachings were well known in Magna Graecia and influenced the
philosophies of Plato, Aristotle, and, through them, Western philosophy.
Heraclitus- Heraclitus, also spelled Heraclitus, (born c. 540 BCE, Ephesus,
Anatolia [now Selçuk, Turkey]—died c. 480), Greek philosopher remembered
for his cosmology, in which fire forms the basic material principle of an orderly
universe. Little is known about his life, and the one book he apparently wrote is
lost.
Democritus- Democritus, (born c. 460 BCE died c. 370), ancient Greek
philosopher, a central figure in the development of philosophical atomism and of
the atomic theory of the universe. Knowledge of Democritus's life is largely
limited to untrustworthy tradition.
Diogenes of Sinope- was a Greek philosopher and one of the founders of Cynic
philosophy. He was born in Sinope, an Ionian colony on the Black Sea coast of
Anatolia (Turkey) in 412 or 404 BC and died at Corinth in 323 BC.
 Epicurus- Epicurus, (born 341 BC, Samos, Greece—died 270, Athens), Greek
philosopher, author of an ethical philosophy of simple pleasure, friendship, and
retirement. He founded schools of philosophy that survived directly from the 4th
century BC until the 4th century ad.
Socrates- Socrates was an ancient Greek philosopher, one of the three greatest
figures of the ancient period of Western philosophy (the others were Plato and
Aristotle), who lived in Athens in the 5th century BCE. He was the first Greek
philosopher to seriously explore questions of ethics.
Plato- Plato, (born 428/427, BCE Thens, Greece—died 348/347, Athens),
ancient Greek philosopher, student of Socrates (c. 470–399 BCE), teacher of
Aristotle (384–322 BCE), and founder of the Academy, best known as the
author of philosophical works of unparalleled influence.
Aristotle- Aristotle (c. 384 B.C. to 322 B.C.) was an Ancient Greek philosopher
and scientist who is still considered one of the greatest thinkers in politics,
psychology and ethics. When Aristotle turned 17, he enrolled in Plato's Academy.
In 338, he began tutoring Alexander the Great.
Archimedes- Archimedes, (born c. 287 BCE, Syracuse, Sicily [Italy]—died
212/211 BCE, Syracuse), the most famous mathematician and inventor in
ancient Greece. Archimedes is especially important for his discovery of the
relation between the surface and volume of a sphere and its circumscribing
cylinder.

6. Judaism - Judaism is the world’s oldest monotheistic religion, dating back

nearly 4,000 years. Followers of Judaism believe in one God who
revealed himself through ancient prophets. The origins of Jewish faith
are explained throughout the Torah. According to the text, God first
revealed himself to a Hebrew man named Abraham, who became known
as the founder of Judaism. The history of Judaism is essential to
understanding the Jewish faith, which has a rich heritage of law, culture
and tradition. Jewish people believe there’s only one God who has
established a covenant—or special agreement—with them. Their God
communicates to believers through prophets and rewards good deeds
while also punishing evil. Most Jews believe that their Messiah hasn’t yet
come but will one day. Jewish people worship in holy places known as
synagogues, and their spiritual leaders are called rabbis. The six-pointed
Star of David is the symbol of Judaism.
Hinduism - Hinduism is the world’s oldest religion, according to many
scholars, with roots and customs dating back more than 4,000 years.
Today, with about 900 million followers, Hinduism is the third-largest
religion behind Christianity and Islam. Roughly 95 percent of the world’s
Hindus live in India. Because the religion has no specific founder, it’s
difficult to trace its origins and history. Hinduism is unique in that it’s not
a single religion but a compilation of many traditions and philosophies.
Hinduism embraces many religious ideas. For this reason, it’s sometimes
referred to as a “way of life” or a “family of religions,” as opposed to a
single, organized religion. Most forms of Hinduism are henotheistic,
which means they worship a single deity, known as “Brahman,” but still
recognize other gods and goddesses. Followers believe there are
multiple paths to reaching their god. Hindus believe in the doctrines of
samsara (the continuous cycle of life, death, and reincarnation) and
karma (the universal law of cause and effect). One of the key thoughts of
Hinduism is “atman,” or the belief in soul. This philosophy holds that
living creatures have a soul, and they’re all part of the supreme soul. The
goal is to achieve “moksha,” or salvation, which ends the cycle of
rebirths to become part of the absolute soul. One fundamental principle
of the religion is the idea that people’s actions and thoughts directly
determine their current life and future lives. Hindus strive to achieve
dharma, which is a code of living that emphasizes good conduct and
morality. Hindus revere all living creatures and consider the cow a
sacred animal. Food is an important part of life for Hindus. Most don’t eat
beef or pork, and many are vegetarians. Hinduism is closely related to
other Indian religions, including, Sikhism and Jainism. Most scholars
believe Hinduism started somewhere between 2300 B.C. and 1500 B.C.
in the Indus Valley, near modern-day Pakistan. But many Hindus argue
that their faith is timeless and has always existed. Unlike other religions,
Hinduism has no one founder but is instead a fusion of various beliefs.
Around 1500 B.C., the Indo-Aryan people migrated to the Indus Valley,
and their language and culture blended with that of the indigenous
people living in the region. There’s some debate over who influenced
who more during this time. The period when the Vedas were composed
became known as the “Vedic Period” and lasted from about 1500 B.C. to
500 B.C. Rituals, such as sacrifices and chanting, were common in the
Vedic Period. The Epic, Puranic and Classic Periods took place between
500 B.C. and 500 A.D. Hindus began to emphasize the worship of
deities, especially Vishnu, Shiva and Devi.
Shinto - Shinto, indigenous religious beliefs and practices of Japan. The word
Shinto, which literally means “the way of kami” (generally sacred or divine power,
specifically the various gods or deities), came into use in order to distinguish
indigenous Japanese beliefs from Buddhism, which had been introduced into
Japan in the 6th century CE. Much remains unknown about religion in Japan
during the Paleolithic and Neolithic ages. It is unlikely, however, that the religion
of these ages has any direct connection with Shinto. Yayoi culture, which
originated in the northern area of the island of Kyushu in about the 3rd or 2nd
century BCE, is directly related to later Japanese culture and hence to Shinto.
Among the primary Yayoi religious phenomena were agricultural rites
and shamanism. Shinto has no founder, no official sacred scriptures in the strict
sense, and no fixed dogmas, but it has preserved its guiding beliefs throughout
the ages. Shinto consists of the traditional Japanese religious practices as well
as the beliefs and life attitudes that are in accord with these practices. Shinto is
more readily observed in the social life of the Japanese people and in their
personal motivations than in a pattern of formal belief or philosophy. It remains
closely connected with the Japanese value system and the Japanese people’s
ways of thinking and acting.
Jainism - Jainism was born in India about the same period as Buddhism. It was
established by Mahavira (c. 599 - 527 BC) in about 500 B. C. He was born near
Patna in what is now Bihar state. Mahavira like Buddha belonged to the warrior
caste. Mahavira was called ‘Jina’ meaning the big winner and from this name
was derived the name of the religion. In many senses Jainism is similar to
Buddhism. Both developed as a dissension to the Brahmanic philosophy that
was dominant during that period in north-east India. Both share a belief in
reincarnation which eventually leads to liberation. Jainism is different to
Buddhism in its ascetic beliefs. Both these religions emphasize non-violence, but
non-violence is the main core in Jainism. Mahavira just like Buddha isn’t the first
prophet of his religion. In Jainism like Buddhism there is a belief in reincarnation
which eventually leads to liberation.  Neither of these religions their religious
philosophy around worship. But Jainism is different than Buddhism in its ascetic
beliefs. Both these religions emphasis on non-violence, but in Jainism non-
violence is its main core. Jains believe that everything has life and this also
includes stones, sand, trees and every other thing. The fact that trees breath
came to be known to the science world only from the 20th century. Mahavira who
believed that everything has life and also believed in non-violence practically
didn’t eat anything causing his self- starvation to death. Mahavira was also
extremely ascetic and walked around completely naked because of his
renouncement of life.  After years of hardship and meditation he attained
enlightenment; thereafter he preached Jainism for about 30 years and died at
Pava (also in Bihar) in 527 BC. Mahavira’s religion followers are less extreme
than him in diets. They are vegetarians. But the religious Jains will do everything
possible to prevent hurting any being. They won’t walk in fields where there are
insects to prevent the possibility of stepping on them. They also cover their
mouth to prevent the possibility of swallowing small invisible microbes. They
mostly do not work in professions where there is a possibility of killing any living
being like in agriculture instead professions like banking and business. But it is
not clear what came first, businessmen who adopted Jain philosophy because it
was easy for them to follow or Jainish philosophy which convinced the Jains to
adopt non-violent professions. There are two Jain philosophies. Shvetember and
Digamber. Digamber monks like Mahavira don’t wear any clothes, but normally
they don’t walk like that outside their temples. The Digambers include among
them only men. The Shvetembers monks wear white clothes and they include
women.
Buddhism - Buddhism is one of the world’s largest religions and originated
2,500 years ago in India. Buddhists believe that the human life is one of
suffering, and that meditation, spiritual and physical labor, and good behavior are
the ways to achieve enlightenment, or nirvana. Buddhism is one of the world’s
major religions. It originated in India in 563–483 B.C.E. with Siddhartha
Gautama, and over the next millennia it spread across Asia and the rest of the
world. Buddhists believe that human life is a cycle of suffering and rebirth, but
that if one achieves a state of enlightenment (nirvana), it is possible to escape
this cycle forever. Siddhartha Gautama was the first person to reach this state of
enlightenment and was, and is still today, known as the Buddha. Buddhists do
not believe in any kind of deity or god, although there are supernatural figures
who can help or hinder people on the path towards enlightenment. Siddhartha
Gautama was an Indian prince in the fifth century B.C.E. who, upon seeing
people poor and dying, realized that human life is suffering. He renounced his
wealth and spent time as a poor beggar, meditating and travelling but ultimately,
remaining unsatisfied, settling on something called “the Middle Way.” This idea
meant that neither extreme asceticism or extreme wealth were the path to
enlightenment, but rather, a way of life between the two extremes. Eventually, in
a state of deep meditation, he achieved enlightenment, or nirvana underneath
the Bodhi tree (the tree of awakening). The Mahabodhi Temple in Bihar, India—
the site of his enlightenment—is now a major Buddhist pilgrimage site. Buddhists
believe in a wheel of rebirth, where souls are born again into different bodies
depending on how they conducted themselves in their previous lives. This is
connected to “karma,” which refers to how a person’s good or bad actions in the
past or in their past lives can impact them in the future. Buddhism has been a
controversial religion. The head of the Tibetan school of Buddhism and traditional
leader of Tibet, the Dalai Lama, fled from China-controlled Tibet in 1959 to India
in fear of his life. Many Tibetan Buddhists actively resist Chinese control of the
region. Recently, the current Dalai Lama, who is understood to be the
fourteenth reincarnation of the first Dalai Lama, has raised questions over
whether and where he will choose to reincarnate.
Confucianism - Confucianism is one of the most influential religious philosophies in
the history of China, and it has existed for over 2,500 years. It is concerned with inner
virtue, morality, and respect for the community and its values. Confucianism is an
ancient Chinese belief system, which focuses on the importance of personal ethics and
morality. Whether it is only or a philosophy or also a religion is debated. Mencius (or
Meng Ke who lived from 372 to 289 B.C.E.) is the best-known Confucian philosopher
after Confucius himself. Confucianism is a philosophy and belief system from ancient
China, which laid the foundation for much of Chinese culture. Confucius was
a philosopher and teacher who lived from 551 to 479 B.C.E. His thoughts on ethics,
good behavior, and moral character were written down by his disciples in several books,
the most important being the Lunyu. Confucianism believes in ancestor worship and
human-centered virtues for living a peaceful life. The golden rule of Confucianism is “Do
not do unto others what you would not want others to do unto you.” The main idea of
Confucianism is the importance of having a good moral character, which can then affect
the world around that person through the idea of “cosmic harmony.” If the emperor has
moral perfection, his rule will be peaceful and benevolent. Natural disasters and conflict
are the result of straying from the ancient teachings. This moral character is achieved
through the virtue of ren, or “humanity,” which leads to more virtuous behaviours, such
as respect, altruism, and humility. Confucius believed in the importance of education in
order to create this virtuous character. He thought that people are essentially good yet
may have strayed from the appropriate forms of conduct. Rituals in Confucianism were
designed to bring about this respectful attitude and create a sense of community within a
group. The idea of “filial piety,” or devotion to family, is key to Confucius thought. This
devotion can take the form of ancestor worship, submission to parental authority, or the
use of family metaphors, such as “son of heaven,” to describe the emperor and his
government. The family was the most important group for Confucian ethics, and
devotion to family could only strengthen the society surrounding it. While Confucius gave
his name to Confucianism, he was not the first person to discuss many of the important
concepts in Confucianism. Rather, he can be understood as someone concerned with
the preservation of traditional Chinese knowledge from earlier thinkers. After Confucius’
death, several of his disciples compiled his wisdom and carried on his work. The most
famous of these disciples were Mencius and Xunzi, both of whom developed Confucian
thought further. Confucianism remains one of the most influential philosophies in China.
During the Han Dynasty, emperor Wu Di (reigned 141–87 B.C.E.) made Confucianism
the official state ideology. During this time, Confucius schools were established to teach
Confucian ethics. Confucianism existed alongside Buddhism and Taoism for several
centuries as one of the most important Chinese religions. In the Song Dynasty (960–
1279 C.E.) the influence from Buddhism and Taoism brought about “Neo-Confucianism,”
which combined ideas from all three religions. However, in the Qing dynasty (1644–1912
C.E.), many scholars looked for a return to the older ideas of Confucianism, prompting a
Confucian revival.
Taoism - Taoism is an ancient Chinese philosophy and religion that instructs believers
on how to exist in harmony with the universe. Taoism (also spelled Daoism) is
a religion and a philosophy from ancient China that has influenced folk and national
belief. Taoism has been connected to the philosopher Lao Tzu, who around 500 B.C.E.
wrote the main book of Taoism, the Tao Te Ching. Taoism holds that humans and
animals should live in balance with the Tao, or the universe. Taoists believe in spiritual
immortality, where the spirit of the body joins the universe after death. The Tao Te
Ching, or “The Way and Its Power,” is a collection of poetry and sayings from around the
third and fourth centuries B.C.E. that guides Taoist thought and actions. While the author
is traditionally believed to be the philosopher Lao Tzu, there is little evidence that Lao
Tzu existed at all. Rather, the Tao Te Ching is a gathering of earlier sayings from many
authors. This book was given an origin with the philosopher Lao Tzu for cultural and
political reasons. Lao Tzu is sometimes understood as the image of the Tao, or a god,
and given legendary status. The Tao (or Dao) is hard to define but is sometimes
understood as the way of the universe. Taoism teaches that all living creatures ought to
live in a state of harmony with the universe, and the energy found in it. Ch’i, or qi, is the
energy present in and guiding everything in the universe. The Tao Te Ching and other
Taoist books provide guides for behavior and spiritual ways of living in harmony with this
energy. However, Taoists do not believe in this energy as a god. Rather, there are gods
as part of the Taoist beliefs, often introduced from the various cultures found in the
region known now as China. These gods are part of the Tao, like all living things. Taoism
has temples, monasteries, and priests who make offerings, meditate, and perform other
rituals for their communities. One of the main ideas of Taoism is the belief in balancing
forces, or yin and yang. These ideas represent matching pairs, such as light and dark,
hot and cold, action and inaction, which work together toward a universal whole. Yin and
yang show that everything in the universe is connected and that nothing makes sense by
itself. Taoism became well-known in the eighth century C.E. as the religion of the Tang
dynasty. In the following centuries, it existed alongside Buddhism
and Confucianism (another philosophical religion). However, during
the Communist takeover in 1959, Taoism, Confucianism, and other religions were
banned. This caused a decline in the practice of Taoism in China. Many modern Taoists
live in Taiwan, although recent reforms in China have increased the number of Chinese
Taoists.
Islam – Islam, major world religion promulgated by the Prophet Muhammad in
Arabia in the 7th century CE. The Arabic term islām, literally
“surrender,” illuminates the fundamental religious idea of Islam—that the believer
(called a Muslim, from the active particle of islām) accepts surrender to the will
of Allah (in Arabic, Allāh: God). Allah is viewed as the sole God creator, sustainer,
and restorer of the world. The will of Allah, to which human beings must submit,
is made known through the sacred scriptures, the Qurʾān (often spelled Koran in
English), which Allah revealed to his messenger, Muhammad. In Islam
Muhammad is considered the last of a series of prophets
(including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Solomon, and Jesus), and his
message simultaneously consummates and completes the “revelations”
attributed to earlier prophets. Retaining its emphasis on an
uncompromising monotheism and a strict adherence to certain essential religious
practices, the religion taught by Muhammad to a small group of followers spread
rapidly through the Middle East to Africa, Europe, the Indian subcontinent,
the Malay Peninsula, and China. By the early 21st century there were more than
1.5 billion Muslims worldwide. Although many sectarian movements have arisen
within Islam, all Muslims are bound by a common faith and a sense of belonging
to a single community. From the very beginning of Islam, Muhammad had
inculcated a sense of brotherhood and a bond of faith among his followers, both
of which helped to develop among them a feeling of close relationship that was
accentuated by their experiences of persecution as a nascent community
in Mecca. The strong attachment to the tenets of the Qurʾānic revelation and
the conspicuous socioeconomic content of Islamic religious practices cemented
this bond of faith. In 622 CE, when the Prophet migrated to Medina, his
preaching was soon accepted, and the community-state of Islam emerged.
During this early period, Islam acquired its characteristic ethos as a religion
uniting in itself both the spiritual and temporal aspects of life and seeking to
regulate not only the individual’s relationship to God (through conscience) but
human relationships in a social setting as well. Thus, there is not only an Islamic
 religious institution but also an Islamic law, state, and other institutions governing
society. Not until the 20th century were the religious (private) and
the secular (public) distinguished by some Muslim thinkers and separated
formally in certain places such as Turkey.
Sikhism - Sikhism, religion and philosophy founded in the Punjab region of the
Indian subcontinent in the late 15th century. Its members are known as Sikhs.
The Sikhs call their faith Gurmat (Punjabi: “the Way of the Guru”). According to
Sikh tradition, Sikhism was established by Guru Nanak (1469–1539) and
subsequently led by a succession of nine other Gurus. All 10 human Gurus,
Sikhs believe, were inhabited by a single spirit. Upon the death of the 10th, Guru
Gobind Singh (1666–1708), the spirit of the eternal Guru transferred itself to
the sacred scripture of Sikhism, Guru Granth Sahib (“The Granth as the Guru”),
also known as the Adi Granth (“First Volume”), which thereafter was regarded as
the sole Guru. In the early 21st century there were nearly 25 million Sikhs
worldwide, the great majority of them living in the Indian state of Punjab. The
following discussion of the lives of the 10 Gurus relies on the traditional Sikh
account, most elements of which are derived from hagiographic legend and lore
and cannot be verified historically. This point should be borne in mind throughout,
especially in the sections on the early Gurus. Sikh in Punjabi means “learner,”
and those who joined the Sikh community, or Panth (“Path”), were people who
sought spiritual guidance. Sikhs claim that their tradition has always been
separate from Hinduism. Nevertheless, many Western scholars argue that in its
earliest stage Sikhism was a movement within the Hindu tradition; Nanak, they
point out, was raised a Hindu and eventually belonged to the Sant tradition of
northern India, a movement associated with the great poet and
mystic Kabir (1440–1518). The Sants, most of whom were poor, dispossessed,
and illiterate, composed hymns of great beauty expressing their experience of
the divine, which they saw in all things. Their tradition drew heavily on the
Vaishnava bhakti (the devotional movement within the Hindu tradition that
worships the god Vishnu), though there were important differences between the
two. Like the followers of bhakti, the Sants believed that devotion to God is
essential to liberation from the cycle of rebirth in which all human beings are
trapped; unlike the followers of bhakti, however, the Sants maintained that God
is nirgun (“without form”) and not sagun (“with form”). For the Sants, God can be
neither incarnated nor represented in concrete terms.

7. Systematic Doubt - Cartesian doubt is a systematic process of being skeptical

about (or doubting) the truth of one's beliefs, which has become a characteristic
method in philosophy. Additionally, Descartes's method has been seen by many
as the root of the modern scientific method. Cartesian doubt is a form of
methodological skepticism associated with the writings and methodology of René
Descartes. Cartesian doubt is also known as Cartesian skepticism, methodic
doubt, methodological skepticism, universal doubt, systematic doubt, or
hyperbolic doubt. Methodic doubt, in Cartesian philosophy, a way of searching
for certainty by systematically though tentatively doubting everything. ... The
hope is that, by eliminating all statements and types of knowledge the truth of
which can be doubted in any way, one will find some indubitable certainties.
Argument - In philosophy, an argument is a connected series of statements,
including at least one premise, intended to demonstrate that another statement,
the conclusion, is true. Quite often the arguments have two or more premises
and require multiple inferential steps to reach the conclusion .
Dialectic -  is a term used to describe a method of philosophical argument that
involves some sort of contradictory process between opposing sides. ... Hegel
(see entry on Hegel), which, like other “dialectical” methods, relies on a
contradictory process between opposing sides originally a form of logical
argumentation but now a philosophical concept of evolution applied
to diverse fields including thought, nature, and history.
Socratic Method - is a form of cooperative argumentative dialogue between
individuals, based on asking and answering questions to stimulate critical
thinking and to draw out ideas and underlying presuppositions. the Socratic
Method is a dialogue between teacher and students, instigated by the continual
probing questions of the teacher, in a concerted effort to explore the underlying
beliefs that shape the student’s views and opinions.
Axioms - As defined in classic philosophy, an axiom is a statement that is so
evident or well-established, that it is accepted without controversy or question. ...
Logical axioms are usually statements that are taken to be true within the system
of logic they define and are often shown in symbolic form. Axioms are important
to get right, because all of mathematics rests on them. If there are too few
axioms, you can prove very little and mathematics would not be very interesting.
If there are too many axioms, you can prove almost anything, and mathematics
would also not be interesting. The common notions are evidently the same as
what were termed “axioms” by Aristotle, who deemed axioms the first principles
from which all demonstrative sciences must start; indeed Proclus, the last
important Greek philosopher (“On the First Book of Euclid”), stated explicitly that
the notion and axiom are synonymous.
Occam’s Razor - Occam's razor (also known as the “law of parsimony”) is a
problem-solving principle which serves as a useful mental model. A philosophical
razor is a tool used to eliminate improbable options in a given situation. Occam's
is the best-known example. Occam's razor is a principle of theory construction or
evaluation according to which, other things equal, explanations that posit fewer
entities, or fewer kinds of entities, are to be preferred to explanations that posit
more.
Formal Logic - Formal logic, the abstract study of propositions, statements, or
assertively used sentences and of deductive arguments. The discipline abstracts
from the content of these elements the structures or logical forms that they
embody. Logic is generally considered formal when it analyzes and represents
 the form of any valid argument type. The form of an argument is displayed by
representing its sentences in the formal grammar and symbolism of a logical
language to make its content usable in formal inference.
Thought Experiment and Allegory - A thought experiment is an imagined
scenario that is designed to help you think through a problem or idea. Philosophy
is not the only discipline that uses them. ... Thought experiments can be found in
writings dated all the way back to the origin of philosophy in Ancient Greece.
Philosophers love thought experiments. Many of us deploy them as our version
of the scientific method. They isolate some feature of our experience and evoke
intuitions about it, and these revealed verdicts enable us to adjust relevant
theories in light of what we find.

8. The study of philosophy enhances, in a way no other activity does, one’s

problem-solving capacities. It helps one to analyze concepts, definitions,
arguments and problems. It contributes to one’s capacity to organize ideas and
issues, to deal with questions of value, and to extract what is essential from
masses of information. It helps one both to distinguish fine differences between
views and to discover common ground between opposing positions. And it helps
one to synthesize a variety of views or perspectives into a unified whole. In
communication skills aspect, Philosophy also contributes uniquely to the
development of expressive and communicative powers. It provides some of the
basic tools of self-expression for instance, skills in presenting ideas through well-
constructed, systematic arguments that other fields either do not use, or use less
extensively. It helps one to express what is distinctive of one’s view; enhances
one’s ability to explain difficult material; and helps one to eliminate ambiguities
and vagueness from one’s writing and speech. It helps us solve our problems
-mundane or abstract, and it helps us make better decisions by developing our
critical thinking (very important in the age of disinformation). But it’s boring, you
say. It’s hard to understand, you say. As it turns out, philosophy does not have to
be a big snooze-fest.
The life given by god has a very special meaning a value in which people sometimes
forget to thank or either regret. Many students/adults believe that they are going to be
popular if they have money and a good job buy forget that people are influenced by
those who have learned something. Also a lot fail to remember, to earn value you must
earn it.In today’s economy the government creates a value on the person by looking at
the position they are held for. If you look at it from the society’s point of view they
believe people should be given value according to what they do and what position they
are. From an individual's perspective they judge themselves on what they accomplish
and achieve.When raising a child one is taught values by their families that they feel are
important for their child to have. I believe that family values consist of certain actions
and qualities that are important to a family to uphold. Values that are important in my
family are honesty, trust and to have respect for others. Each of these values is equally
important in my family. They played a big role into making me the person I am now.