2–2 C (CS/IT-Sem-3) Algebraic Structures

PART-1
Algebraic Structures : Definition, Groups, Subgroups and Order.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 2.1. What is algebraic structure ? List properties of algebraic

system.

Answer
Algebraic structure : An algebraic structure is a non-empty set G equipped
with one or more binary operations. Suppose * is a binary operation on G.
Then (G, *) is an algebraic structure.
Properties of algebraic system : Let {S, *, +} be an algebraic structure
where * and + binary operation on S :
1. Closure property : (a * b)  S  a, b,  S
2. Associative property : (a * b) * c = a * (b * c)  a, b, c  S
3. Commutative property : (a * b) = (b * a)  a, b  S
4. Identity element :  e  S such that a * e = a (right identity)  a  S,
e is called identity element of S with respect to operation *.
5. Inverse element : For every a  S,  a–1 S such that
a * a–1 = e = a– 1 * a
here a–1 is called inverse of ‘a’ under operation *.
6. Cancellation property :
a * b = a * c  b = c and b * a = c * a  b = c  a, b, c  S and a  0
7. Distributive property :  a, b, c  S
a * (b + c) = (a * b) + (a * c) (right distributive)
(b + c) * a = (b * a) + (c * a) (left distributive)
8. Idempotent property : An element a  S is called idempotent element
with respect to operation * if a * a = a.

Que 2.2. Write short notes on :

i. Group ii. Abelian group
iii. Finite and infinite group iv. Order of group
v. Groupoid

Answer
i. Group : Let (G, *) be an algebraic structure where * is binary operation
then (G, *) is called a group if following properties are satisfied :
Discrete Structures & Theory of Logic 2–3 C (CS/IT-Sem-3)

1. a * b  G  a, b  G [closure property]
2. a * (b * c) = (a * b) * c  a, b, c  G [associative property]
3. There exist an element e  G such that for any a  G
a * e = e * a = e [existence of identity]
4. For every a  G,  element a–1  G
such that a * a–1 = a–1 * a = e
For example : (Z, +), (R, +), and (Q, +) are all groups.
ii. Abelian group : A group (G, *) is called abelian group or commutative
group if binary operation * is commutative i.e., a * b = b * a  a, b  G
For example : (Z, +) is an abelian group.
iii. Finite group : A group {G, *} is called a finite group if number of
elements in G are finite. For example G = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} under  6 is a
finite group.
Infinite group : A group {G, *} is called infinite group if number of
element in G are infinite.
For example, (Z, +) is infinite group.
iv. Order of group : Order of group G is the number of elements in group
G. It is denoted by o (G) or |G|. A group of order 1 has only the identity
element.
v. Groupoid : Let (S, *) be an algebraic structure in which S is a non-
empty set and * is a binary operation on S. Thus, S is closed with the
operation *. Such a structure consisting of a non-empty set S and a
binary operation defined in S is called a groupoid.

Que 2.3. Describe subgroup with example.

Answer
If (G, *) is a group and H  G. The (H, *) is said to subgroup of G if
(H, *) is also a group by itself. i.e.,
(1) a * b  H  a, b  H (Closure property)
(2)  e  H such that a * e = a = e * a  a  H
Where e is called identity of G.
(3) a – 1  H such that a * a – 1 = e = a– 1 * a  a  H
For example : The set Q+ of all non-zero +ve rational number is subgroup
of Q – {0}.

Que 2.4. Show that the set G = {x + y 2 |x, y  Q} is a group with

respect to addition.

Answer
i. Closure :
Let X = x1 + 2 y1
Y = x2 + 2 y2
where x1, x2, y1, y2 Q and X, Y  G
2–4 C (CS/IT-Sem-3) Algebraic Structures

Then X + Y = (x1 + 2 y1) + (x2 + 2 y2)

= (x1 + x2) + (y1 + y2) 2
= X1 + 2Y1  G where X1, Y1  Q
Therefore, G is closed under addition [ Sum of two rational numbers is
rational].
ii. Associativity :
Let X, Y and Z  G
 X = x1 + 2 y1 Y = x2 + 2 y2 Z = x3 + 2 y3
where x1, x2, x3, y1, y2, y3  Q
Consider (X + Y) + Z = (x1 + 2 y1 + x2 + 2 y2) + (x3 + 2 y 3)
= ((x1 + x2) + (y1 + y2) 2 ) + (x3 + 2 y 1)
= (x1 + x2 + x3) + (y1 + y2 + y3) 2 ...(2.4.1)
Also X + (Y + Z) = (x1 + 2 y1) + ((x2 + 2 y2) + (x3 + 2 y3))
= (x1 + 2 y1) + ((x2 + x3) + (y2 + y3) 2 )
= (x1 + x2 + x3) + (y1 + y2 + y3) 2 ...(2.4.2)
From eq. (2.4.1) and (2.4.2)
(X + Y) + Z = X + (Y + Z)
Therefore, G is associative under addition.
iii. Identity element :
Let e  G be identity elements of G under addition then
(x + y 2 ) + (e1 + e2 2 ) = x + y 2

where e = e1 + e2 2 and e1, e2, x, y  Q

e1 + e2 2 = 0 + 0 2
e1 = 0 and e2 = 0
Therefore, 0  G is identity element.
iv. Inverse element :
– x – y 2  G is inverse of x + y 2  G.
Therefore, inverse exist for every element x + y 2  G such that, y  Q.
Hence, G is a group under addition.

Que 2.5. Let H be a subgroup of a finite group G. Prove that order

of H is a divisor of order of G. AKTU 2018-19, Marks 07

Answer
1. Let H be any sub-group of order m of a finite group G of order n. Let us
consider the left coset decomposition of G relative to H.
2. We will show that each coset aH consists of m different elements.
Let H = {h1, h2, ....., hm}
Discrete Structures & Theory of Logic 2–5 C (CS/IT-Sem-3)

3. Then ah1, ah2, ...., ahm, are the members of aH, all distinct.
For, we have
ahi = ahj  hi = hj
by cancellation law in G.
4. Since G is a finite group, the number of distinct left cosets will also be
finite, say k. Hence the total number of elements of all cosets is km
which is equal to the total number of elements of G.
Hence
n = mk
This show that m, the order of H, is a divisor of n, the order of the
group G.
We also find that the index k is also a divisor of the order of the group.

Que 2.6. Define identity and zero elements of a set under a binary
operation *. What do you mean by an inverse element ?

Answer
Identity element : An element e in a set S is called an identity element with
respect to the binary operation * if, for any element a in S
a*e= e*a=a
If a * e = a, then e is called the right identity element for the operation * and
if e * a = a, then e is called the left identity element for the operation *.
Zero element : Let R be an abelian group with respect to addition. The
element 0 R will be the additive identity. It is called the zero element of R.
Inverse element : Consider a set S having the identity element e with
respects to the binary operation *. If corresponding to each element
a  S there exists an element b  S such that
a*b= b*a=e
Then b is said to be the inverse of a and is usually denoted by a – 1. We say a
is invertible.

Que 2.7. Prove that (Z6, (+6)) is an abelian group of order 6, where

Z6 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}. AKTU 2014-15, Marks 05

Answer
The composition table is :
+6 0 1 2 3 4 5
0 0 1 2 3 4 5
1 1 2 3 4 5 0
2 2 3 4 5 0 1
3 3 4 5 0 1 2
4 4 5 0 1 2 3
5 5 0 1 2 3 4
Since 2 +6 1 = 3
2–6 C (CS/IT-Sem-3) Algebraic Structures

4 +6 5 = 3
From the table we get the following observations :
Closure : Since all the entries in the table belong to the given set Z6. Therefore,
Z6 is closed with respect to addition modulo 6.
Associativity : The composition ‘+6’ is associative. If a, b, c are any three
elements of Z6,
a +6 (b +6 c) = a +6 (b + c) [ b +6 c = b + c (mod 6)]
= least non-negative remainder when a + (b + c) is divided by 6.
= least non-negative remainder when (a + b) + c is divided by 6.
= (a + b) +6 c = (a +6 b) +6 c.
Identity : We have 0  Z6. If a is any element of Z6, then from the composition
table we see that
0 +6 a = a = a +6 0
Therefore, 0 is the identity element.
Inverse : From the table we see that the inverse of 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 are 0, 5, 4,
3, 2, 1 respectively. For example 4 +6 2 = 0 = 2 +6 4 implies 4 is the inverse
of 2.
Commutative : The composition is commutative as the elements are
symmetrically arranged about the main diagonal. The number of elements
in the set Z6 is 6.
 (Z6, +6) is a finite abelian group of order 6.

Que 2.8. Let G = {1, – 1, i, – i} with the binary operation

multiplication be an algebraic structure, where i =  1 . Determine

whether G is an abelian or not. AKTU 2018-19, Marks 07

Answer
The composition table of G is

* 1 –1 i –i
1 1 –1 i –i
–1 –1 1 –i i
i i –i –1 1
–i –i i –1 1

1. Closure property : Since all the entries of the composition table are
the elements of the given set, the set G is closed under multiplication.
2. Associativity : The elements of G are complex numbers, and we know
that multiplication of complex numbers is associative.
3. Identity : Here, 1 is the identity element.
4. Inverse : From the composition table, we see that the inverse elements
of 1, – 1, i, – i are 1, – 1, – i, i respectively.
Discrete Structures & Theory of Logic 2–7 C (CS/IT-Sem-3)

5. Commutativity : The corresponding rows and columns of the table

are identical. Therefore the binary operation is commutative. Hence,
(G, *) is an abelian group.

Que 2.9. Write the properties of group. Show that the set (1, 2, 3,
4, 5) is not group under addition and multiplication modulo 6.

AKTU 2017-18, Marks 07

Answer
Properties of group : Refer Q. 2.2(i), Page 2–2C, Unit-2.
Numerical :
Addition modulo 6 (+6) : Composition table of S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} under
operation +6 is given as :
+6 1 2 3 4 5

1 2 3 4 5 0
2 3 4 5 0 1
3 4 5 0 1 2
4 5 0 1 2 3
5 0 1 2 3 4
Since, 1 +6 5 = 0 but 0  S i.e., S is not closed under addition modulo 6.
So, S is not a group.
Multiplication modulo 6 (*6) :
Composition table of S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} under operation *6 is given as
*6 1 2 3 4 5

1 1 2 3 4 5
2 2 4 0 2 4
3 3 0 3 0 3
4 4 2 0 4 2
5 5 4 3 2 1
Since, 2 *6 3 = 0 but 0  S i.e., S is not closed under multiplication modulo 6.
So, S is not a group.

Que 2.10. Let G = {a, a2, a3, a4, a5, a6 = e}. Find the order of every
element.

Answer
o(a) : a6 = e  o(a) = 6
o(a2) : (a2)3 = a6 = e  o (a2) = 3
o(a3) : (a3)2 = a6 = e  o(a3) = 2
2–8 C (CS/IT-Sem-3) Algebraic Structures

o(a4) : (a4)3 = a12 = (a6)2 = e2 = e  o(a4) = 3

o(a5) : (a5)6 = a30 = (a6)5 = e5 = e  o(a5) = 6
o(a6) : (a6)1 = a6 = e  o(a6) = 1

Que 2.11. Let G be a group and let a, b  G be any elements.

Then
i. (a–1)–1 = a
ii. (a * b)–1 = b–1 * a–1. AKTU 2014-15, Marks 05

Answer
i. Let e be the identity element for * in G.
Then we have a * a – 1 = e, where a – 1  G.
Also (a – 1) – 1 * a – 1 = e
Therefore, (a – 1) – 1 * a – 1 = a * a – 1.
Thus, by right cancellation law, we have (a – 1) – 1 = a.
ii. Let a and b  G and G is a group for *, then a * b G (closure)
Therefore, (a * b) – 1 * (a * b) = e. ....(2.11.1)
Let a – 1 and b – 1 be the inverses of a and b respectively, then a – 1,
b – 1  G.
Therefore, (b – 1 * a – 1) * (a * b) = b – 1 * (a – 1 * a) * b (associativity)
= b–1 * e * b = b–1 * b = e ...(2.11.2)
From (2.11.1) and (2.11.2) we have,
(a * b) – 1 * (a * b) = (b – 1 * a – 1)* (a * b)
(a * b) – 1 = b – 1 * a –1 (by right cancellation law)

Que 2.12. Prove that the intersection of two subgroups of a group

is also subgroup. AKTU 2014-15, Marks 05

Answer
Let H1 and H2 be any two subgroups of G. Since at least the identity element
e is common to both H1 and H2.
 H1  H2  
In order to prove that H1  H2 is a subgroup, it is sufficient to prove that
a  H1  H2, b H1  H2 ab–1 H1  H2
Now a H1  H2  a H1 and a H2
b H1  H2 b H1 and b  H2
But H1, H2 are subgroups. Therefore,
a  H1, b  H1 ab–1  H1
a H2 , bH2 ab–1  H2
Finally, ab–1  H1, ab–1  H2  ab–1  H1  H2
Thus, we have shown that
a  H1 H2, b  H1  H2  ab–1  H1  H2.
Hence, H1  H2 is a subgroup of G.
Discrete Structures & Theory of Logic 2–9 C (CS/IT-Sem-3)

Que 2.13. Let G be the set of all non-zero real number and let
a * b = ab/2. Show that (G *) be an abelian group.
AKTU 2015-16, Marks 10

Answer
i. Closure property : Let a, b  G.
ab
a*b=  G as ab  0
2
 * is closure in G.
ii. Associativity : Let a, b, c  G
 bc  a(bc) abc
Consider a * (b * c) = a *    
2 4 4
 ab (ab) c abc
(a * b) * c =   * c = 
 2 4 4
 * is associative in G.
iii. Existence of the identity : Let a  G and  e such that
ae
a*e= =a
2
 ae = 2a
 e=2
 2 is the identity element in G.
iv. Existence of the inverse : Let a  G and b  G such that a * b = e = 2
ab
 =2
2
 ab = 4
4
 b=
a
4
 The inverse of a is ,  a  G.
a
v. Commutative : Let a, b  G
ab
a*b=
2
ba ab
and b*a= 
2 2
 * is commutative.
Thus, (G, *) is an abelian group.

Que 2.14. Prove that inverse of each element in a group is unique.

AKTU 2015-16, Marks 10

2–10 C (CS/IT-Sem-3) Algebraic Structures

Answer
Let (if possible) b and c be two inverses of element a  G.
Then by definition of group :
b*a= a*b=e
and a*c= c*a=e
where e is the identity element of G
Now b = e * b = (c * a) * b
= c * (a * b)
= c*c
=c
b=c
Therefore, inverse of an element is unique in (G, *).

PART-2
Cyclic Group, Cosets, Lagrange’s Theorem.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 2.15. Define cyclic group with suitable example.

Answer
Cyclic group : A group G is called a cyclic group if  at least one element a
in G such that every element x  G is of the form an, where n is some integer.
The element a  G is called the generator of G.
For example :
Show that the multiplicative group G = {1, – 1, i, – i} is cyclic. Also find its
generators.
We have, i1 = i, i2 = – 1, i3 = – i, i4 = 1.
and (– i)1 = – i, (– i)2 = – 1, (– i)3 = i, (– i)4 = 1
Thus, every element in G be expressed as in or (– i)n
 G is cyclic group and its generators are i and – i.
Que 2.16. Prove that every group of prime order is cyclic.

AKTU 2018-19, Marks 07

Answer
1. Let G be a group whose order is a prime p.
2. Since P > 1, there is an element a G such that a  e.
Discrete Structures & Theory of Logic 2–11 C (CS/IT-Sem-3)

3. The group <a> generated by ‘a’ is a subgroup of G.

4. By Lagrange’s theorem, the order of ‘a’ divides |G|.
5. But the only divisors of |G|= p are 1 and p. Since a  e we have |<a>|> 1,
so |<a>| = p.
6. Hence, <a> = G and G is cyclic.

Que 2.17. Show that every group of order 3 is cyclic.

AKTU 2014-15, Marks 05

Answer
1. Suppose G is a finite group whose order is a prime number p, then to
prove that G is a cyclic group.
2. An integer p is said to be a prime number if p  0, p  1, and if the only
divisors of p are ± 1, ± p.
3. Some G is a group of prime order, therefore G must contain at least 2
element. Note that 2 is the least positive prime integer.
4. Therefore, there must exist an element a  G such that a  the identity
element e.
5. Since a is not the identity element, therefore o(a) is definitely  2. Let
o(a) = m. If H is the cyclic subgroup of G generated by a then
o (H = o (a) = m).
6. By Lagrange’s theorem m must be a divisor of p. But p is prime and
m  2. Hence, m = p.
7.  H = G. Since H is cyclic therefore G is cyclic and a is a generator of G.

Que 2.18. Show that group (G, +5) is a cyclic group where G = {0, 1,
2, 3, 4}. What are its generators ?

Answer
Composition table of G under operation +5 is shown in Table 2.18.1.
Table 2.18.1.
+5 0 1 2 3 4
0 0 1 2 3 4
1 1 2 3 4 0
2 2 3 4 0 1
3 3 4 0 1 2
4 4 0 1 2 3
0 is the identity element of G under +5.
11 = 1  1 mod 5
12 = 1 + 1  2 mod 5
13 = 1 + 1 + 1  3 mod 5
14 = 1 + 1 + 1 + 1  4 mod 5
15 = 1 = 1 + 1 + 1 + 1  0 mod 5
2–12 C (CS/IT-Sem-3) Algebraic Structures

where 1n means 1 is added n times

Therefore, 1 is generator of G.
Similarly, 2, 3, 4 are also generators of G.
Therefore, G is a cyclic group with generator 1, 2, 3, 4.

Que 2.19. Show that G = [(1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8), X9] is cyclic. How many

generators are there ? What are they ? AKTU 2015-16, Marks 7.5

Answer
Composition table for X9 is
X9 1 2 4 5 7 8
1 2 3 4 5 7 8
2 2 4 8 1 5 7
4 4 8 7 2 1 5
5 5 1 2 7 8 4
7 7 5 1 8 4 2
8 8 7 5 4 2 1
1 is identity element of group G
21 = 2  2 mod 9
22 = 4  4 mod 9
23 = 8  8 mod 9
24 = 16  7 mod 9
25 = 32  5 mod 9
26 = 64  1 mod 9
Therefore, 2 is generator of G. Hence G is cyclic.
Similarly, 5 is also generator of G.
Hence there are two generators 2 and 5.

Que 2.20. Define cosets. Write and prove properties of cosets.

Answer
Let H be a subgro up o f gro up G and le t a  G the n the se t
Ha = {ha : h  H} is called right coset generated by H and a.
Also the set aH = {ah : h  H} is called left coset generated by a and H.
Properties of cosets : Let H be a subgroup of G and let a and b belong to
G. Then
1. a  a H
Proof : a = a e  a H
Since e is identity element of G.
2. aH = H iff a  H.
Proof : Let aH = H.
Then a = ae  aH = H (e is identity in G and so is in H)
aH
3. aH = bH or aH  bH = 
Discrete Structures & Theory of Logic 2–13 C (CS/IT-Sem-3)

Proof : Let aH = bH or aH  bH = 
and to prove that aH = bH.
Let aH  bH
Then there exists h1, h2  H such that
x = ah1 and x = bh2
a = xh1–1 = bh2 h1–1
Since H is a subgroup, we have h2 h1–1  H
let h2 h1–1 = h H
Now, aH = bh2h1–1 H = (bh) H = b (hH) = bh (  hH = H by property 2)
 aH = bH if a H  bH  
Thus, either a H  bH =  or aH = bH.
4. aH = bH iff a–1 b  H.
Proof : Let aH = bH.
a–1 aH = a–1 bH
eH = a–1 bH (e is identity in G)
H = (a–1 b) H
Therefore by property (2); a–1 b  H.
Conversely, now if a–1 b  H.
Then consider bH = e (bH) = (a a–1) (bH)
= a (1–1 b) H
= aH
Thus aH = bH iff a–1 b  H.
5. aH is a subgroup of G iff a  H.
Proof : Let aH is a subgroup of G then it contains the identity e of G.
Thus, aH  eH  
then by property (3) ; aH = eH = H
aH =   a  H
Conversely, if a  H then by property (2); aH = H.

Que 2.21. State and prove Lagrange’s theorem for group. Is the

converse true ? AKTU 2016-17, Marks 10

Answer
Lagrange’s theorem :
Statement : The order of each subgroup of a finite group is a divisor of the
order of the group.
Proof : Let G be a group of finite order n. Let H be a subgroup of G and let
O(H) = m. Suppose h1, h2.... ..., hm are the m members of H.
Let a  G, then Ha is the right coset of H in G and we have
Ha = {h1 a, h2 a,....hm a}
Ha has m distinct members, since = hi a = hj a  hi = hj
Therefore, each right coset of H in G has m distinct members. Any two
distinct right cosets of H in G are disjoint i.e., they have no element in
2–14 C (CS/IT-Sem-3) Algebraic Structures

common. Since G is a finite group, the number of distinct right cosets of H in

G will be finite, say, equal to k. The union of these k distinct right cosets of H
in G is equal to G.
Thus, if Ha1, Ha2,...., Hak are the k distinct right cosets of H in G. Then
G = Ha1  Ha2  Ha3  ....  Hak
 the numbe r of elements in G = the numbe r of e lements in
Ha1 + ...... + the number of elements in Ha2 +......+ the number of elements in
Hak
 O(G) = km
 n = km
n
 k=
m
 m is a divisor of n.
 O(H) is a divisor of O(G).
Proof of converse : If G be a finite group of order n and n  G, then
an = e
Let o (a) = m which implies am = e.
Now, the subset H of G consisting of all the integral power of a is a subgroup
of G and the order of H is m.
Then, by the Lagrange’s theorem, m is divisor of n.
Let n = mk, then
an = amk = (am)k = ek = e
 Yes, the converse is true.

Que 2.22. State and explain Lagrange’s theorem.

Answer
Lagrange’s theorem :
If G is a finite group and H is a subgroup of G then o(H) divides o(G).
Moreover, the number of distinct left (right) cosets of H in G is o(G)/o(H).
Proof : Let H be subgroup of order m of a finite group G of order n.
Let H {h1, h2, ..., hm}
Let a  G. Then aH is a left coset of H in G and aH = {ah1, ah2, ..., ahm} has m
distinct elements as ahi = ahj  hi = hj by cancellation law in G.
Thus, every left coset of H in G has m distinct elements.
Since G is a finite group, the number of distinct left cosets will also be finite.
Let it be k. Then the union of these k-left cosets of H in G is equal to G.
i.e., if a1H, a2H, ..., akH are right cosets of H in G then
G = a1H a2H  ... akH.
 o(G) = o(a1H) + o(a2H) + ... + o(akH)
(Since two distinct left cosets are mutually disjoint.)
 n = m + m + ... + m (k times)
n
 n = mk  k =
m
o(G )
 k= .
o( H )
Discrete Structures & Theory of Logic 2–15 C (CS/IT-Sem-3)

Thus order of each subgroup of a finite group G is a divisor of the order of the
group.
Cor 1 : If H has m different cosets in G then by Lagrange’s theorem :
o(G) = m o(H)
o(G )
 m=
o( H )
o(G )
 [G : H] =
o( H )
Cor 2 : If |G| = n and a  G then an = e
Let |a| = m  am = e
Now, the subset H of G consisting of all integral powers of a is a subgroup of
G and the order of H is m.
Then by Lagrange’s theorem, m is divisor of n.
Let n = mk, then
an = amk = (am)k = ek = e

Que 2.23.
a. Prove that every cyclic group is an abelian group.
b. Obtain all distinct left cosets of {(0), (3)} in the group
(Z6, +6) and find their union.
c. Find the left cosets of {[0], [3]} in the group (Z6, +6).
AKTU 2016-17, Marks 10

Answer
a. Let G be a cyclic group and let a be a generator of G so that
G = <a> = {an : n  Z}
If g1 and g2 are any two elements of G, there exist integers r and s such
that g1 = ar and g2 = as. Then
g1 g2 = ar as = ar+s = as+r = as . ar = g2g1
So, G is abelian.
b.  [0] + H = [3] + H, [1] + [4] + H and [2] + H = [5] + H are the three
distinct left cosets of H in (Z6 , + 6 ).
We would have the following left cosets :
g1H = {g1 h, h  H}
g2H = {g2 h, h  H}
gnH = {gn h, h  H}
The union of all these sets will include all the g s, since for each set
gk = {gk h, h  H}
we have ge gk = {gk h, h  H}
where e is the identity.
Then if we make the union of all these sets we will have at least all the
elements of g. The other elements are merely gh for some h. But since ghG
they would be repeated elements in the union. So, the union of all left cosets
of H in G is G, i.e.,
Z6 = {[0], [1], [2], [3], [4], [5]}
2–16 C (CS/IT-Sem-3) Algebraic Structures

c. Let Z6 = {[0], [1], [2], [3], [4], [5]} be a group.

H = {[0], [3]} be a subgroup of (Z6, +6).
The left cosets of H are,
[0] + H = {[0], [3]}
[1] + H = {[1], [4]}
[2] + H = {[2], [5]}
[3] + H = {[3], [0]}
[4] + H = {[4], [1]}
[5] + H = {[5], [2]}

Que 2.24. Write and prove the Lagrange’s theorem. If a group

G = {...., – 3, 2, – 1, 0, 1, 2, 3,.....} having the addition as binary operation.
If H is a subgroup of group G where x2  H such that x  G. What is
H and its left coset w.r.t 1 ? AKTU 2014-15, Marks 05

Answer
Lagrange’s theorem : Refer Q. 2.22, Page 2–14C, Unit-2.
Numerical :
H = {x2 : x  G} = {0, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25 ....}
Left coset of H will be 1 + H = {1, 2, 5, 10, 17, 26, ....}

Que 2.25. What do you mean by cosets of subgroup ? Consider the

group Z of integers under addition and the s ubgroup
H = {..., –10, –5, 0, 5, 10, ....} considering the multiple of 5.
i. Find the cosets of H in Z.
ii. What is index of H in Z ?

Answer
Coset : Refer Q. 2.20, Page 2–12C, Unit-2.
Numerical :
i. We have Z = {– 7, – 6, – 5, – 4, – 3, – 2, – 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, ....}
and H = {...., – 10, – 5, 0, 5, 10, ....}
Let 0 Z and the right cosets are given as
H = H + 0 = {...., – 10, – 5, 0, 5, 10, ....}
H + 1 = {...., – 9, – 4, 1, 6, 11, ....}
H + 2 = {...., – 8, – 3, 2, 7, 12, ....}
H + 3 = {...., – 7, – 2, 3, 8, 13, ....}
H + 4 = {....., – 6, – 1, 4, 9, 14, ....}
H + 5 = {...., – 10, – 5, 0, 5, 10, ....] = H
Now, its repetition starts. Now, we see that the right cosets,
H, H + 1, H + 2, H + 3, H + 4 are all distinct and more over they are
disjoint. Similarly the left cosets will be same as right cosets.
ii. Index of H in G is the number of distinct right/left cosets.
Therefore, index is 5.
Discrete Structures & Theory of Logic 2–17 C (CS/IT-Sem-3)

PART-3
Normal Subgroups, Permutation and Symmetric of Groups.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 2.26. Write short notes on :

a. Normal subgroup
b. Permutation group

Answer
a. Normal subgroup : A subgroup H of G is said to be normal subgroup
of G if Ha = aH  a G i.e., the right coset and left coset of H is G
generated by a are the same.
i. Clearly, every subgroup H of an abelian group G is a normal
subgroup of G. For a  G and h  H, ah = ha.
ii. Since a cyclic group is abelian, every subgroup of a cyclic group is
normal.
b. Permutation group : A set G of all permutation on a non-empty
set A under the binary operation * is called permutation group.
If A = {1, 2, 3, ...., n}, the given permutation group formed by A is also
called symmetric group of degree n denoted by Sn. Number of elements
of Sn will be n!.
Cyclic permutation : Let A = {x1, x2, ..., xn}. Then let t1, t2,..., tk be
elements of set A and permutation P : A  defined by
P(t1) = t2
P(t2) = t3
...........
...........
P(tk–1) = tk
P(tk) = t1
is called a cyclic permutation of length k.
a b c d e
For example : Consider A = {a, b, c, d, e}. Then let P =  .
c b d a e
Then P has a cycle of length 3 given by (a, c, d).
Que 2.27. Define the subgroup of a group. Let (G, ) be a group.
Let H = {a | a  G and a  b = b  a for all b  G}. Show that H is a
normal subgroup.
2–18 C (CS/IT-Sem-3) Algebraic Structures

Answer
Subgroup : If (G, *) is a group and H  G. Then (H, *) is said to subgroup of
G if (H, *) is also a group by itself.
i.e.,
1. a * b  H  a, b  H (Closure property)
2.  e  H such that a * e = a = e * a  a  H
where e is called identity of G.
3.  a–1 H such that a * a–1 = e = a–1 * a  a  H
Numerical : Let (G, x) be a group. A non-empty subset H of a group G is said
to be a subgroup of G if (H, *) itself is a group.
Given that, H = {a|a G and a  b = b a;  b G}
Let a, b  H  a  x = x  a and b  x = x  b,  x G
 (b  x) – 1 = (x b) – 1
 x – 1  b – 1 = b – 1  x1
 b – 1H.
Now, (a  b – 1)  x = a  (b – 1  x) [  is associative]
= a  (x  b – 1) [ use b – 1 H]
= (a  x)  b – 1 [ a H]
= (x  a)  b – 1
= x  (a  b – 1)
 ab H – 1

Therefore, H is a subgroup of group G.

Let h  H and g  G and any x in G.
Consider
(g  h  g – 1)  x = (g  g – 1  h)  x [ h  H]
= (e  h)  x = h  x
= xh [ h  H]
= x  (h  g  g – 1)
= x  (g  h  g – 1) [ h  H]
– 1
 g  h  g  H for any g  G
 H is a normal subgroup of G.
Que 2.28. If N and M are normal subgroup of G then N  M is a
normal subgroup of G.

Answer

As N and M are subgroups of G then N  M is a subgroup of G. Let g  G

and a  N  M
a  N and a  M.
Since N is normal subgroup of G, gag–1  N
Since M is normal subgroup of G, gag–1  M
 gag–1  N  M is a normal subgroup of G.
Hence N  M is a normal subgroup of G.
Discrete Structures & Theory of Logic 2–19 C (CS/IT-Sem-3)

PART-4
Group Homomorphism, Definition and Elementary Properties of
Ring and Fields.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 2.29. Discuss homomorphism and isomorphic group.

Answer
Homomorphism : Let (G1, •) and (G2, *) be two groups then a mapping
f : G1  G2 is called a homomorphism if f(a • b) = f(a) * f(b) for all a, b  G1.
Thus f is homomorphism from G1 to G2 then f preserves the composition in
G1 and G2 i.e., image of composition is equal to composition of images.
The group G2 is said to be homomorphic image of group G1 if there exist a
homomorphism of G1 onto G2.
Isomorphism : Let (G1, •) and (G2, *) be two groups then a mapping
f : G1  G2 is an isomorphism if
i. f is homomorphism.
ii. f is one to one i.e., f(x) = f(y)  x = y  x, y  G1.
iii. f is onto.

Que 2.30. Give the definitions of rings, integral domains and fields.

Answer
Ring : A ring is an algebraic system (R, +, •) where R is a non-empty set and
+ and • are two binary operations (which can be different from addition and
multiplication) and if the following conditions are satisfied :
1. (R, +) is an abelian group.
2. (R, •) is semigroup i.e., (a • b) • c = a • (b • c)  a, b, c  R.
3. The operation • is distributive over +.
i.e., for any a, b, c  R
a • (b + c) = (a • b) + (a • c) or (b + c) • a = (b • a) + (c • a)
Integral domain : A ring is called an integral domain if :
i. It is commutative
ii. It has unit element
iii. It is without zero divisors
2–20 C (CS/IT-Sem-3) Algebraic Structures

Field : A ring R with at least two elements is called a field if it has following
properties :
i. R is commutative
ii. R has unity
iii. R is such that each non-zero element possesses multiplicative inverse.
For example, the rings of real numbers and complex numbers are also fields.

Que 2.31. Consider a ring (R, +, ) defined by a • a = a, determine

whether the ring is commutative or not.
AKTU 2014-15, Marks 05

Answer
Let a, b R (a + b)2 = (a + b)
 (a + b) (a + b) = (a + b)
(a + b)a + (a + b)b = (a + b)
(a2 + ba) + (ab + b2) = (a + b)
(a + ba) + (ab + b) = (a + b) (  a2 = a and b2 = b)
(a + b) + (ba + ab) = (a + b) + 0
 ba + ab = 0
a + b = 0 a + b = a + a [being every element of its own additive inverse]
 b=a
 ab = ba
 R is commutative ring.

Que 2.32. Write out the operation table for [Z2, +2, * 2]. Is Z2 a
ring ? Is an integral domain ? Is a field ? Explain.

Answer
The operation tables are as follows :
we have Z2 = {0, 1}
+2 0 1 *2 0 1

0 0 1 0 0 0
1 1 0 1 0 1
Since (Z2, +2, *2) satisfies the following properties :
i. Closure axiom : All the entries in both the tables belong to Z2. Hence,
closure is satisfied.
ii. Commutative : In both the tables all the entries about the main diagonal
are same therefore commutativity is satisfied.
iii. Associative law : The associative law for addition and multiplication
are also satisfied.
Discrete Structures & Theory of Logic 2–21 C (CS/IT-Sem-3)

iv. Here 0 is the additive identity and 1 is the multiplicative identity. Identity
property is satisfied.
v. Inverse exists in both the tables. The additive inverse of 0, 1 are 1, 0
respectively and the multiplicative inverse of non-zero element of Z2
is 1.
vi. Multiplication is distributive over addition.
Hence (Z2, +2, *2) is a ring as well as field. Since, we know that every field is
an integral domain therefore it is also an integral domain.

Que 2.33. If the permutation of the elements of {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} are

given by a = (1 2 3) (4 5), b = (1) (2) (3) (4 5), c = (1 5 2 4) (3). Find the value
of x, if ax = b. And also prove that the set Z4 = (0, 1, 2, 3) is a commutative
ring with respect to the binary modulo operation +4 and *4.
AKTU 2015-16, Marks 10

Answer
ax = b  (123) (45) x = (1) (2) (3) (4, 5)
 1 2 3 4 5  1 2 3 4 5  1 2 3 4 5
  2 3 1 4 5  1 2 3 5 4 x   1 2 3 5 4

 1 2 3 4 5  1 2 3 4 5
x= 
 2 3 1 5 4  1 2 3 5 4
1
 1 2 3 4 5  1 2 3 4 5
x= 
 2 3 1 5 4  1 2 3 5 4

 2 3 1 5 4  1 2 3 4 5
= 
 1 2 3 4 5  1 2 3 5 4

 1 2 3 4 5  1 2 3 4 5
= 
 3 1 2 5 4  1 2 3 5 4

 1 2 3 4 5
x=
 3 1 2 4 5

4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3
0 0 1 2 3 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 2 3 0 1 0 1 2 3
2 2 3 0 1 2 0 2 0 2
3 3 0 1 2 3 0 3 2 1
We find from these tables :
i. All the entries in both the tables belong to Z4. Hence, Z4 is closed with
respect to both operations.
2–22 C (CS/IT-Sem-3) Algebraic Structures

ii. Commutative law : The entries of 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th rows are identical
with the corresponding elements of the 1 st , 2nd, 3rd, 4th columns
respectively in both the tables. Hence, Z4 is commutative with respect to
both operations.
iii. Associative law : The associative law for addition and multiplication
a +4 (b +4 c) = (a +4 b) +4 c for all a, b, c Z4
a ×4 (b ×4 c) = (a ×4 b) ×4 c, for all a, b, c Z4
can easily be verified.
iv. Existence of identity : 0 is the additive identity and 1 is multiplicative
identity for Z4.
v. Existence of inverse : The additive inverses of 0, 1, 2, 3 are 0, 3, 2, 1
respectively.
Multiplicative inverse of non-zero element 1, 2, 3 are 1, 2, 3 respectively.
vi. Distributive law : Multiplication is distributive over addition i.e.,
a ×4(b +4c) = a ×4b + a ×4c
(b +4c) ×4a = b ×4a + c ×4a
For, a ×4(b +4c) = a ×4(b + c) for b +4 c = b + c (mod 4)
= least positive remainder when a × (b + c) is
divided by 4
= least positive remainder when ab + ac is divided
by 4
= ab +4ac
= a ×4b +4a ×4c
For a ×4b = a × b (mod 4)
Since (Z4, +4) is an abelian group, (Z4, ×4) is a semigroup and the operation is
distributive over addition. The (Z4, +4, ×4) is a ring. Now (Z4, ×4) is commutative
with respect to ×4. Therefore, it is a commutative ring.

Que 2.34. What is meant by ring ? Give examples of both

commutative and non-commutative rings.
AKTU 2018-19, Marks 07

Answer
Ring : Refer Q. 2.30, Page 2–19C, Unit-2.
Example of commutative ring : Refer Q. 2.31, Page 2–20C, Unit-2.
Example of non-commutative ring : Consider the set R of 2 × 2 matrix
with real element. For A, B, C  R
A * (B + C) = (A * B) + (A * C)
also, (A + B) * C = (A * C) + (B * C)
 * is distributive over +.
 (R, +, *) is a ring.
We know that AB  BA, Hence (R, +, *) is non-commutative ring.
Discrete Structures & Theory of Logic 2–23 C (CS/IT-Sem-3)

VERY IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

Following questions are very important. These questions
may be asked in your SESSIONALS as well as
UNIVERSITY EXAMINATION.

Q. 1. Let H be a subgroup of a finite group G. Prove that order of

H is a divisor of order of G.
Ans. Refer Q. 2.5.

Q. 2. Prove that (Z6, (+6)) is an abelian group of order 6, where

Z6 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}.
Ans. Refer Q. 2.7.

Q. 3. Let G = {1, – 1, i, – i} with the binary operation multiplication

be an algebraic structure, where i =  1 . Determine

whether G is an abelian or not.
Ans. Refer Q. 2.8.

Q. 4. Write the properties of group. Show that the set (1, 2, 3, 4, 5)

is not group under addition and multiplication modulo 6.
Ans. Refer Q. 2.9.

Q. 5. Let G be a group and let a, b  G be any elements.

Then
i. (a–1)–1 = a
ii. (a * b)–1 = b–1 * a–1.
Ans. Refer Q. 2.11.

Q. 6. Prove that the intersection of two subgroups of a group is

also subgroup.
Ans. Refer Q. 2.12.

Q. 7. Let G be the set of all non-zero real number and let

a * b = ab/2. Show that (G *) be an abelian group.
Ans. Refer Q. 2.13.

Q. 8. Prove that inverse of each element in a group is unique.

Ans. Refer Q. 2.14.

Q. 9. Prove that every group of prime order is cyclic.

Ans. Refer Q. 2.16.
2–24 C (CS/IT-Sem-3) Algebraic Structures

Q. 10. Show that every group of order 3 is cyclic.

Ans. Refer Q. 2.17.

Q. 11. Show that G = [(1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8), X9] is cyclic. How many

generators are there ? What are they ?
Ans. Refer Q. 2.19.

Q. 12. State and prove Lagrange’s theorem for group. Is the

converse true ?
Ans. Refer Q. 2.21.

Q. 13.
a. Prove that every cyclic group is an abelian group.
b. Obtain all distinct left cosets of {(0), (3)} in the group
(Z6, +6) and find their union.
c. Find the left cosets of {[0], [3]} in the group (Z6, +6).
Ans. Refer Q. 2.23.

Q. 14. Write and prove the Lagrange’s theorem. If a group

G = {...., – 3, 2, – 1, 0, 1, 2, 3,.....} having the addition as binary
operation. If H is a subgroup of group G where x2  H such
that x  G. What is H and its left coset w.r.t 1 ?
Ans. Refer Q. 2.24.

Q. 15. Consider a ring (R, +, ) defined by a • a = a, determine

whether the ring is commutative or not.
Ans. Refer Q. 2.31.

Q. 16. If the permutation of the elements of {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} are given

by a = (1 2 3) (4 5), b = (1) (2) (3) (4 5), c = (1 5 2 4) (3). Find the
value of x, if ax = b. And also prove that the set Z4 = (0, 1, 2, 3)
is a commutative ring with respect to the binary modulo
operation +4 and *4.
Ans. Refer Q. 2.33.

Q. 17. What is meant by ring ? Give examples of both commutative

and non-commutative rings.
Ans. Refer Q. 2.34.

