How to Write Chapter 3 The questionnaires, as research instrument, require the respondent

either to write answers to questions about the topic or to answer orally. The
Methods of Research and Procedures
answer form is usually structured. There are fixed choices or the form may be
open. The key word in questionnaire construction is relevance. The word
The chapter of the research process contains a comprehensive
relevance has three different facets and these are: 1) relevance of the study’s
description of the research designs, research locales, samples and the sampling
goals 2) relevance of questions to the goals of the study and 3) relevance of
techniques, the subjects, research instruments, validation of the instruments,
the questions to the questions to the individual respondent.
data gathering procedures, data processing methods and the statistical tools
and treatments.
Interview
The interviews as research instrument is when the respondent answers
I. Research Designs
orally and the researcher records the answers. In interviews, the researcher
The plans or research designs, in effect, form the structure and the
may obtain responses to structured or open ended questions. Interviews differ
researcher’s method of answering his questions and conducting studies.
from questionnaires in the sense that the researcher can modify the data
Research design in research is categorized according to the procedure the
collection situation to fit the respondents replies.
researcher collects and analyzes data and his research purpose. Research
design is the specific format and procedures for data collection and data
Quantitative Research
analysis and interpretation, the blueprint research where logical model of
Quantitative research is characterized by the use of statistical analysis.
proof guides the investigator in the various stages of research, the manner of
The three basic quantitative research objectives are to describe, to compare
drawing inferences about the causal relations among the variables under
and to attribute casuality.
investigation, the scheme for obtaining interpretations and formulating
Descriptive research seeks to provide information about one or more
generalizations that can be applied to other situations. The two basic research
variables. It is used to answer the question “what exists?” This question can
designs based on the way information is collected, synthesized and analyzed
be answered on one or two ways: using quantitative methods or qualitative
are quantitative and qualitative research.
methods.
In comparative research, the researcher examines carefully the
Data Collections
relationships – similarities or differences among several variables. These
The data for quantitative and qualitative research are collected from
variables might represent characteristics of the same group of subjects or
direct observation, tests and survey are collected from direct observation, tests
those of separate groups.
and survey questionnaires and interviews. Researchers refer to these data
collection devices and procedures as instruments.
Questionnaires
 Experimental research is a type of research that seeks to answer 8. Correlational design It is used to determine the relationship between
questions about causation. Researchers attribute the change in one variable to two dependent variables on how they are manipulated by the
the effect of one or more variables. independent variable.

Types of Experimental Design Qualitative research

1. Single group design This involves a single treatment with two or Qualitative research is a term used for a range of research strategies
more levels. that has roots in the research of the social sciences. It involves collecting data
2. Two group design The comparable groups are employed as within natural settings, and the key data collecting instruments are the
experimental and control groups. researchers themselves. In a qualitative research, data are verbal and not
3. Two pair group design This design is an elaboration of the two numerical. It is to be noted that since qualitative researchers are concerned
group design wherein there are two experimental groups and two with the process of activities and events as they are with results from those
control groups. activities or events, they analyze data through inductive reasoning rather than
4. Parallel group design This is a design in which two or more groups by statistical procedures.
are used at the same time with only one single variable manipulated or
changed. Methodology refers to the overall process of formulating the theoretical and
5. Pretest – posttest design This design involves the experimental the conceptual framework, the operationalization of variables, methods of data
group and the control group which are carefully selected through collection and data analysis and interpretation.
randomization procedures. Both groups are given pretest at the
beginning and posttest at the end. Research design is the specific format and procedures for data collection and
6. Counterbalanced or Latin square design This design is also called data analysis and interpretation, the blueprint of the research.
rotation design. It involves an exchange of two or more treatments
taken by the subjects during the experiments. Determining the Research Design
7. Randomized complete block design This is designed in which To choose the suitable research design:
a group of test plants or animals is studied only once but subsequent 1. Compare the objectives, expected outcomes and procedures of the
treatment is applied to determine the cause of change. There is no different types of research designs.
control in this design but the subjects will undergo randomization 2. Look into the problem statement, hypotheses and objectives of the
procedures. research and available resources of time, money and access to
information.
3. Evaluate the research concerns on the type of research.
Descriptive Research Method 7. Descriptive Comparative This considers two entities and
In descriptive design, the study focuses at the present conditions. The establishes a formal procedure for obtaining criterion data on the basis
purpose is to find the new truth. of which it can compare and which it can conclude which of the two is
better
Types of Descriptive Research Method 8. Correlational survey This is designed to determine the relationship of
1. Case Study This captures the information about human behavior two variables, whether the relationship is perfect, very high, marked or
through distinctive in-depth collection and analysis of data from moderate, slight or negligible.
relatively few examples of phenomena. 9. Longitudinal Survey This involves much time allotted for
2. Survey Research This investigate a universe of phenomena – investigation of the same subject at two or more points in time.
population by selecting samples from the population to discover the
relative incidence, distribution and interrelation of variables. II Research Locale
A brief description of the place where the participants or respondents
Classes of Descriptive Research Method are to be obtained.
1. Descriptive Survey This approach is appropriate wherever the
object of any class vary among themselves and one is interested in III Samples and Sampling Techniques Used
knowing the extent to which different conditions obtain among these Samples- are persons, events, places or things used as sources of data.
objects. Population refers to group of people, objects or events. Sampling is the
2. Descriptive Normative Survey used to ascertain the normal or process of selecting a representative portion of the population that can be the
typical condition, to practice or to compare results with a state or source of data to test the hypothesis.
national norm or standard.
3. Descriptive status This approach to problem solving seeks to Essential Concepts and Steps in Sampling
answer questions to real facts relating to existing conditions. 1. Determine the population of individual or items or cases where to find
4. Descriptive Analysis This method determines or describes the nature the data needed.
of an object by separating it into parts. Its purpose is to discover the 2. Determine the kind of sample you want to have
nature of things. 3. Find out what is the appropriate size of the sample
5. Descriptive Classification this method employs collections 4. Having the desired sample size, get the samples from the sampling
identification and classification frame based on the sampling method that you want to use
6. Descriptive Evaluative This design is to appraise carefully the
worthiness of the current study.
Two General Types of Sampling Designs/Methods 4. The type or technique of sampling used whether pure random
1. Probability Sampling sampling, systematic, stratified, cluster or combination of two or
2. Non Probability more techniques
5. The actual computations of the sample and
Types of Probability Sampling 6. The sample subjects
1. Simple random sampling
2. Systematic sampling Guidelines for Determining Adequate Sampling
3. Stratified sampling The size of a sample is usually determined before the conduct of any
4. Cluster sampling study. There are no fixed rules in determining the size of a sample needed.
5. Multi-stage sampling However there are broad guidelines that should be observed in determining
the size of a sample. Among these are:
Types of Non Probability Sampling 1. When the universe or population is more or less homogeneous and
1. Accidental or Convenience sampling typical, normal or average is desired to be known, a smaller sample is
2. Purposive sampling enough.
3. Quota sampling 2. When the population is more or less heterogeneous and only the
4. Snowball sampling typical, normal or average is desired to be known, a larger sample is
5. Networking sampling needed.
3. The size of a sample varies inversely as the size of the population.
4. For greater accuracy and reliability of results, a greater sample is
IV The Subject desirable.
The proponent has to explain how and where the subjects are taken.
The agency and frequency of subjects must be mentioned. Among the things V Research Instruments
that should be explained are: Questionnaires, test, interview, observation, checklist, rating scale may
1. Size of the population be described by the researcher. Each part of the research instrument is
2. The study population explicitly explained.
3. The margin of error and the proportion of the study population 1. Questionnaire Is a set of orderly arranged questions, carefully
used prepared to answer the specific problems of the study. It is a list of
questions to be answered by a group of people especially designed to
get facts or information.
Content of Questions questions depend on the respondent’s answer to the previous
The questions must: selection.
a. pertain to the hypothesized relation of variables
b. provide answers to the stated research question Question Format
c. attain the research objectives We can arrange the questions in different ways.
d. relate to the theoretical conceptual framework 1. General Format It is a format to give the open ended questions
e. be stated in words whose meaning is understood in the same way and leave blanks for the answer; or in close ended questions, give the
by the respondent and the researcher answers and provide for boxes or blanks to check or put the answer by
drawing a circle.
Categories of Questions 2. Rating This is a format where the answers to the question are
1. Factual Questions These are questions about the in the form of a scale meaning, a hierarchy of a gradation of the
respondent’s background. intensity of response, according to sets of ordered categories.
2. Opinion Questions These are questions to draw out attitudes 3. Matrix Questions This is a method for organizing a large set of
3. Probe Questions These are questions that elicit further pertinent rating questions that have the same response categories.
information from the respondent to clarify answers to previous 4. The Semantic Differential This is another type of rating scale. It
questions. measures the respondent’s reaction to some objects or concepts in
terms of rating on bipolar scales defined with contrasting adjectives at
Types of Questions each end.
The structure of the question is another important consideration in the 5. Ranking The question asked the respondents to choose the
construction of the questionnaire. There are generally three types of degree of priority or place the importance to the answers. Ranking
question structures. takes the form of numbering, starting from 1 as the first/highest or not
1. Open-ended questions The questionnaire does not provide important.
possible answers to choose from. The respondents answer freely. 6. Card Sort The respondent is handed a set of cards with a
The answers are recorded as they are given by the respondents. statement on each card. The respondent is asked to sort these and
2. Close ended questions Respondents are offered a set of answers place the chosen answer into one of several boxes – which are degrees
from which they can choose. of agreement with the statement.
3. Contingency questions These questions are asked after a
particular question is answered in a certain way. Contingency
 Questionnaire Administration instrument, testing the validity and reliability of the instrument may be done.
1. Face to Face For validity, experts in line with the field of the study may be requested to go
2. Mailed Questionnaire over the research instrument. Criteria for validation may be recommended
and given to experts as their bases.
Interview For reliability, the researcher may use either of the four methods.
This is a form of data gathering by talking to people who are sources These are 1) test-retest, 2) split half, 3) parallel form and 4) internal
of information. Persons who are expected to be very knowledgeable in consistency. For test-retest , Spearman rank difference correlation coefficient
providing answers are called key informants. is used to determine the reliability of the responses. For split-half, the result is
The interview schedule is the term used for the set of questions to be a reliability coefficient for the half test. Spearman-Brown formula can be
asked. used. The method of obtaining reliability coefficient in internal-consistency
method is determined by Kuder-Richardson formula 20.
Types of Interview
1. The Personal Interview This is a face to face interpersonal VII Data Gathering Procedure
communication between the researcher and the sample respondent. Having found the research instrument valid and reliable, the
2. Group Interview Focus Group Discussion investigator proceeds in the administration of the research instrument to the
3. Telephone Interview subjects. The date of administration of the questionnaire, the retrieval of the
4. Intercept Interview This is a type of quick interview by randomly research instrument and the percentage return of the questionnaire must be
approaching the people walking or standing in the area and asking stated.
them questions.
VIII Data Processing
Observation Once the measuring instruments have been retrieved the next activity
This involves the researcher watching the research situation. The of the researcher is to process the raw data into qualitative and quantitative
researcher is concerned with the direct description of the research situation forms. Data processing involves input, throughput and output mechanisms.
and the best way to achieve this objective is to watch it. Input involves the responses to the measuring instrument of the subjects of the
study, throughput includes the statistical procedures and techniques and output
VI Validation of the Instruments the results of the study which are presented in data matrix form is based or
Suggestions, corrections and refinement of the draft may be explained dummy tables may be used to organize, summarize and analyze the data on
thoroughly. The different persons involved in the correction and refinement how the variables differ with each other
of the research instrument may be mentioned. After the refinement of the
Data processing is a means of converting information either manually or by Statistical Tables
machines into quantitative and qualitative forms for use in research analysis. It This is a systematic arrangement of data which may be seen briefly,
consists of the three basic steps, namely: easy to comprehend and more convenient for many readers than another
1. Categorization of data It refers to the grouping of subjects presentation.
under study according to the objectives or purposes of the study.
2. Coding of data Information from the questionnaires, interviews Parts of a Statistical Table
and rating scales must be transformed into coded items. The codes 1. Table heading consisting of a table number and a title. The title
may be either numerical or alphabetical. should briefly explain the contents of the table.
3. Tabulation of data This means tallying and counting the raw data to 2. Stubs are classification or categories found at the left side of the body
arrive at a frequency distribution and to facilitate in organizing them in on the table.
a systematic order in a table or several tables. This can be done either 3. Box head is found at the top of the column and identifies what are
manually or by machine. contained in the column. Included in the box head are the stub head,
master caption and column captions.
Data Matrix 4. Body is the main part of the table which contains the substance or the
This refers to the presentation of data in tabular form. They are useful figures of one’s data
in analysis and interpretation because they give a clear picture of the results of
the study. It has three types namely: Types of Tables
1. Univariate matrix It involves only one variable. 1. General or reference table is used mainly as a repository of
2. Bivariate matrix It involves two variables information. It is very extensive and the primary purpose of this table
3. Multivariate matrix It involves three or more variables in the table is to present data in such a way that individual items may be easily be
found by the reader. These tables are usually placed in an appendix.
Dummy tables
They are helpful in preparing for the data matrix because they are used 2. Summary or text table is usually small in size and designed to guide
in planning, organizing and summarizing the data on how the different the reader in analyzing the data. It usually accompanies a text
variables differ from one another. Dummy tables are almost similar to real discussion and thus, is normally referred to as a text table. This should
tables except that only total number of variables, total number of cases and be simple and easy to understand since many readers have the
percentages are presented. tendency to skip long and complicated tables.
Statistical Table

Table Number
Title

Box Head

Stub Master Caption Total

Head Column Column Column Column

Row caption

Row caption

Row caption

Total