L2 FUNCTIONAL UNITS A computer consists of five functionally independent main parts: input, memory, arith- metic and logic, output, and control units, as shown in Figure 1.1. The input unit accepts coded information from human operators, from mechanical devices such as key- boards. or from other ‘computers over digital communication lines. (The information re- ceived is either stored in the computer's memory for later reference or immediately used by the arithmetic and logic circuitry to steps are determined by a program stored in the memory.jFinally, the results are sent back to the outside world through the output unit, All of these actions are coordinated by the control unit. Figure 1.1 does not show the connections among the functional ‘units, These connections, which can several ways, are discussed throughout iS book. We refer to ‘the arithmetic and logic circuits, in conjunction with the main control circuits, as the processor, and ii input and output equipment is often collectively referred to as the input-output (I/O) uniti . We now take a closer look at the information handled by a computer. Itis convenient to categorize this information as either instructions or data. Instructions, or machine instructions, are explicit commands that * Govern the transfer of information within a computer as well as between the com- puter and its 1/0 devices OO ro? Speci fy the arithmetic and logic operations to be performed Arithmetic Memory - Figure 1.1 Basic functional units of a computer.1+ Basic STRUCTURE OF COMPUTERS cMaPT \A list of instructions that performs a task is called a program. Usually the js stored in the memory; The processor then fetches the instructions that make: program from the memory, one after another, and performs the desired operatio computer is completely controlled by the stored program, except for p interruption by an operator or by I/O devices connected to the machine, \ Data are numbers and encoded characters that are used as operands by the in tions| The term data, however, is often used to mean any digital information. Wi definition of data, an entire program (that is, a list of instructions) may as data if it is to be processed by another program. An example of thi ta compiling a high-level language source program into a list of machine instructions stituting a machine language program, called the object program/ The source is the input data to the compiler program which translates the source program into machine language program, \ Information handled by a computer must be encoded in a suitable format. Most present-day hardware employs digital circuits that have only two stable states, ON at OFF (see Appendix A). Each number, character, or instruction is encoded as a string binary digits called birs, each having one of two possible values, 0 or 1. Numbers are: usually represented in positional binary notation, as discussed in detail in Chapters and 6. Occasionally, the binary-coded decimal (BCD) format is employed, in which cach decimal digit is encoded by four bits. Alphanumeric characters are also expressed in terms of binary codes. Several cod- ing schemes have been developed. Two of the most widely used schemes are ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange), in which each character is resented as a 7-bit code, and EBCDIC (Extended Binary-Coded Decimal Interchange Code), in which eight bits are used to denote a character. A more detailed descripti of binary notation and coding schemes is given in Appendix E. Jal ‘Computers accept coded information through input units, which read the d most well-known input device is the keyboard. Whenever a key is pressed, the sponding letter or digit is automatically translated into its corresponding bi and transmitted over a cable to either the memory or the processo1 " \Many-other kinds of input devices are available, including joysticks, track mouses. These are often used as graphic input devices in conjunction with dis Micro baie in ts used to captare audio input which is then sampled and co into digital codes for storage and processi iled discussion of input de tng ail ats fr sv ee sand rocessing, Detaled discussion of input dev ae Unit 122° Memory UNIT (he function of the memory unit is to store of storage, called primary and secondary. Pe "4 Gat There are ty1.2) FUNCTIONAL UNITS (Primary storage is a fast memory that operates at electronic speeds, Programs must be stored in the memory while they are being executed/ The memory contains a large number of semiconductor storage cells, euch capable of storing one bit of information, These cells are rarely read or written as individual cells but instead are processed in groups of fixed size called words, The memory is organized so that the contents of one word, containing n bits, can be stored or retrieved in one basic operation.) ‘To provide easy access to any word in the memory, a distinct address is associated with each word location, Addresses are numbers that identify successive locations. A given word is accessed by specifying its address and issuing a control command that starts the storage or retrieval process. | The number of bits in each word is often referred to as the word length of the computer. Typical word lengths range from 16 to 64 bits. The capacity of the memory is one factor that characterizes the size of a computer. Small machines typically have only @ few tens of millions of words, whereas medium and large machines normally have many tens or hundreds of millions of words) Data are usually processed within a machine in units of words, multiples of words, or parts of words, When the memory is accessed, usually only one word of data is read or written, Programs must reside in the memory during execution. Instructions and data can be written into the memory or read out under the control of the processor. It is essential to be able to access any word location in the memory as quickly as possible. Memory in which any location can be reached in a short and fixed amount of time after specifying its address is called random-access memory (RAM).\The time required io access one word is called the memory access time. This time is fixed, independent of the location of the word being accessed. It typically ranges from a few nanoseconds (ns) to about 100 ns for modern RAM units.iThe memory of a computer is normally implemented as a memory hierarchy of three or four levels of semiconductor RAM units with different speeds and sizes, The small, fast, RAM units are called caches. They are tightly coupled with the processor and are often contained on the same integrated circuit chip to achieve high performance, The largest and slowest unit is referred to as the main memory. We will give a brief description of how information is accessed in the memary hierarchy later in the chapter. Chapter 5 discusses the operational and.performance aspects of the computer memory in detail. Although primary storage is essential, it tends to be expensive. Thus additional, cheaper, secondary storage is used when large amounts of data and many programs have to be stored, particularly for information that is accessed infrequently. A wide selection of secondary storage devices is available, including magnetic disks and tapes and optical disks (CD-ROMs). These devices are also described in Chapter 5, 123) ARITHMETIC ANQ LOGIC UNIE [Most computer operations are executed in the arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) of the Processor, Consider a typical example: Suppose two numbers located in the memory are to be added, They are brought into the processor, and the actual addition is carried out by the ALU. Th then be stored in the memory or retained in.the processor for immediate use, jcn. 4+ Basi STRUCTURE OF COMPUTERS T \Any other arithmetic or logic operation, for example, multiplication, division, or comparison of numbers, is initiated by bringing the required operands into the processor, ‘where the operation is performed by the ALU, When operands are brought into the processor, they are stored in high-speed storage elements called registers) Each register can store one word of data, Access times to registers are somewhat faster than access times to the fastest cache unit in the memory hierarchy, The control and the arithmetic and logic units are many times faster than other devices connected to a computer system, This enables a single processor to control a number of extemal devices such as keyboards, displays, magnetic and optical disks, sensors, and mechanical controllers! 1.2.47 OvTPuT UNIT \The output unit is the counterpart of the input unit, Its function is to send processed results to the outside world. The most familiar example of such a device is a printer. Printers employ mechanical impact heads, ink jet streams, or photocopying techniques, as in laser printers, to perform the printing! It is possible to produce printers capable of printing as many as 10,000 lines per minute. This isa tremendous speed for a mechanical device but is still very slow compared to the electronic speed of a processor uni {Some units, such as graphic displays, provide both an output function and an input function. The dual role of such units is the reason for using the single name. 1/O unit in many cases. | “The memory, arithmetic and logic, and input and output units store and process ip Formation and perform input and output operations. The operation of these units must be coordinated in some way. is the task of the control unit. The control unit is effectively the nerve center sends control signals to other units and senses their states. a “1/O transfers, consisting of input and output operations, are controlled by the in- structions of I/O programs that identify the devices involved and the information to be transferred | Howeves ual timing signals that govern the transfers are generated by the control circuits) Timing signals are signals that det hen a giver is to take place. Data transfers between the processor and the memory are als¢ by the control unit through timing signals; It is reasonable to think of a control unit as a well-defined, physically separate unit that interacts with other parts of the machine. © In practice, however, this is seldom the case. Much of the control circuitry is physi- ‘ally distributed throughout the machine) A large set of control lines (wires) carries the signals used for timing and synchronization of events in all units. The operation of a computer can be summarized as follows: * The computer accepts information in the form of programs and data through an input unit and stores it in the memory. y1.3) BASIC OPERATIONAL CONCEPTS * Information stored in the memory is fetched, under program control, into an arith- metic and logic unit, where it is processed. * Processed information leaves the computer through an output unit. + All activities inside the machine are directed by the control unit.