MODULE – 1

Calculus (Integration)
 Calculus (Integration)

Prerequisite:
Basic knowledge of calculus, geometry, trigonometry, functions, basic algebra, limits, and
continuity is assumed.
Learning Objective:
To formulate the basic knowledge of anti-derivative as the mechanism for aggregation of
quantities defined through real valued functions of one real variable, especially for problems of
unbounded nature and the case of simplification due to underlying symmetry.
Learning Outcome:
1. Explain the meaning of curvature and associated loci for a plane curve.
2. Describe the significance of unbounded character in an improper integral relative to its
convergence and utilize them for the special functions: the Beta function and the Gamma
function.
3. Perceive the usefulness of symmetry in evaluating surface of revolution and volume of
revolution by the application of definite integrals.

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 Calculus (Integration)

Contents:
Chapter 1: Evolutes and Involutes .............................................................................................. 5
1.1 Curvature ........................................................................................................................... 5
1.1.1 Circle of Curvature ..................................................................................................... 5
1.1.2 Formulae for the evaluation of Radius of Curvature .................................................. 6
1.1.3 Radius of Curvature at origin (Newton’s Theorem) ................................................... 6
1.1.4 Formulae of Centre of Curvature ................................................................................ 7
1.2 Evolute and Involute .......................................................................................................... 7
1.3 Worked Out Problems ....................................................................................................... 8
Chapter 2: Improper Integral ..................................................................................................... 13
2.1 Introduction: The Definite Integral .................................................................................. 13
2.1.1 The case of finite discontinuity ................................................................................. 13
2.2 The Limit of a proper Definite Integral ........................................................................... 14
2.2.1 Type 1: Infinite Range of Integration ....................................................................... 14
2.2.2 Type 2: (Infinite) Discontinuity of Integrand ........................................................... 14
2.3 The Improper Integral ...................................................................................................... 15
2.3.1 Type-1 Improper Integrals as Limit of Proper Integrals ........................................... 15
2.3.2 Type-2 Improper Integrals as Limit of Proper Integrals ........................................... 16
2.3.3 Summary: Improper Integrals as Limit of Proper Integrals ...................................... 17
2.4 Tests for Convergence of Improper Integrals .................................................................. 18
2.4.1 Comparison of Two Improper Integrals ................................................................... 18
2.4.2 Comparison Tests for Convergence .......................................................................... 19
2.4.3 Examples on Comparison Tests ................................................................................ 20
2.4.4 Limit Comparison Form ........................................................................................... 21
2.4.5 Comparison and Limit Comparison: special cases ................................................... 22
2.4.6 Practice Problems: Comparison Tests ...................................................................... 24
2.5 Cauchy Principal Value ................................................................................................... 25
2.5.1 A Cautionary Example of Cauchy Principal value ................................................... 27
2.6 Absolute Convergence versus Conditional Convergence ............................................... 28
2.6.1 Notation..................................................................................................................... 28
Chapter 3: Beta and Gamma Functions..................................................................................... 31

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 Calculus (Integration)

3.1 The Gamma Function ............................................................................................. 31

3.1.1 Extending the Factorial ............................................................................................. 31
3.1.2 The Gamma Function at Half-Integers ..................................................................... 32
3.1.3 The Recursive Evaluation of Gamma Function ........................................................ 33
3.1.4 Infinite Discontinuity of Gamma Function ............................................................... 33
3.1.5 Infinite Product Expressions of Gamma Function .................................................... 33
3.1.6 Integral Forms of Gamma Function for Positive Values .......................................... 34
3.1.7 Integral Forms of Gamma Function for Negative Values ........................................ 34
3.1.8 Application of Gamma Function as a Generalized Factorial .................................... 34
3.1.9 Relations on Product of Gamma Functions .............................................................. 35
3.1.10 Integrals Reducible to Gamma Function ................................................................ 36
3.1.11 Derivatives of Gamma Function ............................................................................. 36
3.1.12 Problem Set on Gamma Function ........................................................................... 37
3.2 The Beta Function or ......................................................................... 39
3.2.1 Integral Definition ..................................................................................................... 39
3.2.2 Alternate Integral Forms and Integrals Reducible to Beta Function ........................ 39
3.2.3 Relation between Beta Function and Gamma Function ........................................... 39
3.2.4 Results from the Beta – Gamma Relation................................................................. 40
3.2.5 Problem Set on the Beta Function ............................................................................ 41
Chapter 4: Application of Definite Integrals - Surface and Volume of Revolution ................. 42
4.1 Symmetry created by Revolution .................................................................................... 42
4.2 Application of Definite Integrals ..................................................................................... 43
4.3 Alternative forms of surface and volume of revolution integrals .................................... 44
4.3.1 Disc and Washer approximations ............................................................................. 45
4.3.2 General Axis of Rotation .......................................................................................... 48
4.4 Theorem of Pappus (Pappus Centroid Theorem) ............................................................ 49
4.5 Problem Set on Surface and Volume of Revolution labeled as per RBT* ...................... 51

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 Calculus (Integration)

Chapter 1: Evolutes and Involutes

1.1 Curvature

The shape of a plane curve L is characterized by the degree of bendiness or Curvedness.

Let P be a variable point on the following curve and PT be variable tangent of the curve at P. We
see as P moves on the curve this tangent will turn. This rotation will be higher from B to C than
that of within the arc AC. We call bending of the curve in the portion AC is greater than that of
in the portion BC. Again if we compare this amount of bending in the portion CD with that of in
the portion DE we shall see the bending is very less.

So, a tool is required to measure the bending property of a curve at every point on it. It is actually
called curvature.

Curvature is that measure which is defined as the rate of change of the angle made by the
tangent with with respect to the length of arc of the curve.

1.1.1 Circle of Curvature

Let L be a curve and P be any point
on it. Let us construct a circle such
that the circle and the curve L have
same tangent at P, the circle lies on
the same side of the tangent as the
curve and the circle have same
curvature at P. This circle is called
the circle of curvature of L at the
point P.
Its centre is called the Centre of
Curvature of L at P and the radius of
it is called the Radius of Curvature
of L at P.

Note: It can be proved that the reciprocal of the curvature of a curve is the radius of curvature of
the curve.

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 Calculus (Integration)

1.1.2 Formulae for the evaluation of Radius of Curvature

 In Cartesian Co-ordinates:
Let be the curve, then radius of curvature at a point is given by

|( ( ) ) |

| |

If the given equation of the curve is given as then the radius of curvature at a
point is

|( ( ) ) |

| |

 In Parametric Form:
Let be the parametric form of the given equation. Then

| (( ) ( ) ) |

|( )|

 In Polar Co-ordinates:
Let be the equation of the curve in polar form. Then

| |

where .

1.1.3 Radius of Curvature at origin (Newton’s Theorem)

Let a curve be passing through the origin and or is tangent to the
curve at the origin. Then the radius of curvature at is given by:
 If is tangent at , then

 If is tangent at , then

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 Calculus (Integration)

Note: If the given curve passes through and neither nor is

tangent to the curve, then Using Maclaurin’s series expansion of , we get

Then,
By this we can calculate at using the formula for finding Radius of Curvature in
Cartesian Co-ordinates.

1.1.4 Formulae of Centre of Curvature

 Let be a curve and be a point on the curve. If be the coordinate
of the Centre of Curvature of the curve at P then

 Let be a curve and be a point on the curve. If be the coordinate

of the Centre of Curvature of the curve at P then

1.2 Evolute and Involute

Let L be a curve and be the centre of curvature of L at P. Then the locus of C as the
point P moves on L is called the Evolute of the curve L.

If the curve L1 be evolute of L then L is called the Involute of the curve L1 .

Theorem: The normal to the involute are tangents to its evolute.

Conversely the tangents to the evolute are normal to its evolute.

This could be an alternative way to find evolute of a curve and is illustrated through an example.

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 Calculus (Integration)

1.3 Worked Out Problems

Problem 1: Find the radius of curvature at the point ( ) of the curve
.
Solution: The radius of curvature at a point of the given curve is given by

|( ( ) ) |

| |

Now,
Differentiate w.r.to , we get

( )

( )
( )

Again differentiating , w.r.to. , we get

( ) ( )

( )
( )

Hence, the Radius of curvature at ( ) is given by

√
| |
( )

Problem 2: If be the radius of curvature at the extremities of a chord of the cardioid

which passes through the pole, show that .
Solution: Let us consider A and B to be the extremities of the chord, whose coordinates are
given by and .

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 Calculus (Integration)

Let be the radius of curvature at the point A and B respectively.

We know that the radius of curvature of the curve is
( )
| | , where .

Now,
Then and
Hence,

(( ) )
( )

Similarly,

Now, ( ) ( )

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 Calculus (Integration)

Problem 3: Find the centre of curvature at the point ( ) of the curve √ √ √ .

Find also the equation of the circle of curvature at that point.
Solution: Let be the coordinate of the centre of curvature at any point of the given curve.
Now, √ √ √
Differentiating w.r.to , we get

√ √
√
√
( )
( )
Again, differentiating w.r.to. , we get
√ √
√ √

( )
( )
Hence, the coordinate of the centre of curvature of the given curve is,

( ) ( )

Hence, ( )
Now, radius of curvature at the point of the given curve is given by

|( ( ) ) |
| |
| | √

Hence, the equation of the circle of curvature at is

( ) ( )

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 Calculus (Integration)

Problem 4: Find the coordinates of centre of curvature at any point of the parabola
and also show its evolute is given by .

Solution: Given curve is

Let be the coordinate of the centre of curvature at any point on the curve. Then
( )

where .

Now,  
and

( ( ) )
( )

( ( ) )
( )

i.e. ( )

Now we are going to eliminate from ,

From (2) we get
And from (3) we get .
Putting these in (1),

( )

Hence, the Evolute of the given parabola is .

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 Calculus (Integration)

Problem 5: Find evolute of the ellipse .

Solution: Let us consider the parametric equation of the given ellipse
.
Now, 
and 
Then

Equation of normal at this point is

( )

This is family of normals to the ellipse, is parameter.

Differentiating partially w.r.to we get

We shall eliminate from (1) and (2).

From we get,

( )

Similarly from we get,

( )

Squaring and adding,

which is the required evolute of the given ellipse.

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 Calculus (Integration)

Chapter 2: Improper Integral

2.1 Introduction: The Definite Integral
The idea of definite integral is introduced at the school level and, for the definite integral of a
real valued function of one real variable, is usually associated with the algebraic area-under-the-
curve as:

Conventionally, area above the x-axis is considered + ve and below – ve:

For all the familiar definite integrals, these two conditions hold:
a) The range of integration is finite: from a to b with both a & b as finite real numbers.
b) The integrand f(x) is continuous and bounded in this range of integration.

2.1.1 The case of finite discontinuity

A finite number of finite discontinuities can be addressed by writing the integral in several parts
as in:
∫ ∫ ∫
Here f(x) is not continuous at x=1 but the discontinuity is finite: at x=1 for f(x) the left hand limit
is 2 and right hand limit is 1.

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 Calculus (Integration)

2.2 The Limit of a proper Definite Integral

Now, we seek to extend this idea of definite integral using the concept of limits to the case where
either condition a) or condition b) (above) or both do not hold.

2.2.1 Type 1: Infinite Range of Integration

The range of integration is NOT finite: from a to b but either a or b or both, are not finite,
real numbers:
1.

∫ ∫

2.

∫ ∫

3.

∫ ∫ ∫

Note: in each case the integral with infinite range is defined as the limit of another definite
integral with finite range.

2.2.2 Type 2: (Infinite) Discontinuity of Integrand

The integrand f(x) is NOT bounded (becomes “infinite” at some point) in the range of
integration:

1.

∫ ∫ ∫

2.

∫ ∫ ∫
3. [ ]

∫ ∫ ∫

∫ ∫ ∫

Note: in each case the integrand has a point of infinite discontinuity and is defined as the
limit of another definite integral with point of infinite discontinuity “removed” from the
range.

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 Calculus (Integration)

2.3 The Improper Integral

In each of the above special cases, the definite integral (in LHS) that violates the usual
conditions: range “infinite” or integrand “infinite” is called an Improper Integral.

In all such cases, define another proper definite integral (in RHS) and if possible, calculate the
limit (as defined).

Then the improper integral is the limit of the proper integral: if the limit exists finitely then the
improper integral is said to be convergent.

Check and try out all the following examples. The following link provides a very helpful
calculator (even does improper integration!):
https://www.emathhelp.net/calculators/calculus-2/definite-integral-calculator/

2.3.1 Type-1 Improper Integrals as Limit of Proper Integrals

Example 1.L3: ∫ ∫
∫
To imagine this limiting process, consider (check using calculator):

As the upper bound of the integral increases, the area under the curve of increases BUT
even though the curve extends to infinity and is above the x-axis throughout … the TOTAL area under
the curve does NOT become infinite: it approaches in the limit.

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 Calculus (Integration)

Example 2.L3: ∫ ∫ ∫

In this case the limit does not exist finitely hence ∫ does not converge: this improper
integral is divergent.

2.3.2 Type-2 Improper Integrals as Limit of Proper Integrals

Example 3.L3: Consider a different type, ∫ here the integrand
√ √
which is the lower limit here.

Strangely, though the curve is not bounded above… even then the total area
√
under the curve is finite and the integral ∫ is convergent.
√

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 Calculus (Integration)

Example 4.L4: ∫ here has infinite discontinuity at so the point of infinite

discontinuity of the integrand is an interior point of the interval and the integrand is split up
around this point.

For this improper integral ∫ to converge it is necessary that both the improper parts
∫ ∫ must converge.
Clearly, it does not happen in this case and hence this improper integral ∫ is divergent.
If we neglect the unbounded behavior of as then we obtain:
The absurd result ∫ * + as the area under this (positive) curve (see fig.
above).

2.3.3 Summary: Improper Integrals as Limit of Proper Integrals

In each of the examples, there is a common process, a common idea, which can be summarized
as:
The problem-point or the improper-point is replaced and then limit is taken
(knowledge about limits from school level will be useful here including L’Hospital’s
Rule).
EXAMPLE PROBLEM-POINT LIMIT-REPLACEMENT CONCLUSION
Limit Exists (
∫ Upper Limit Not Finite ∫ Improper Integral
Convergent
Limit does NOT exist
∫ Upper Limit Not Finite ∫ Improper Integral
Divergent
Limit Exists (
Integrand Not Bounded
∫ ∫ Improper Integral
√ at Lower Limit √ Convergent
Limits do NOT exist
Integrand Not Bounded
∫ ∫ ∫ Improper Integral
at Intermediate Point
Divergent

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 Calculus (Integration)

2.4 Tests for Convergence of Improper Integrals

2.4.1 Comparison of Two Improper Integrals

Improper integrals often arise in engineering problems and before attempting to solve such an
integral – numerically or analytically – it is useful to determine whether it is convergent or not.
In the next section, this idea is explored. The actual implementation of the process will vary but
the basic idea of comparison is straightforward and easy to visualize:

In [ ] then if area-under-the-curve is finite for the bigger

function g(x) then the smaller area under f(x) will automatically be finite, BUT if area under f(x)
is NOT finite then the greater area under g(x) is also not finite, hence

∫ ( ∫ ) ∫ ( ∫ )

∫ ( ∫ ) ∫ ( ∫ )

Here the integrand has an infinite discontinuity as but still

and the conclusion remains the same:
∫ ∫

∫ ∫
[To understand the foundation of this comparison theme, watch this video lecture on the
different rates at which different functions grow (increase):
https://ximera.osu.edu/ptgmath104/math104online/applications/15ordergrowthwarm ]

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 Calculus (Integration)

2.4.2 Comparison Tests for Convergence

We start with a few standard improper integrals whose nature is easy to determine and then
compare other improper integrals to them (this type of comparison test is a common theme in
several different topics in mathematics). The standard improper integrals shown below are
usually called - :
Improper Integral Similar p-Integral
Known Character of the -
in Question for Comparison
and upper limit Converges if
∫
infinite Diverges if
Converges if
Diverges if
and integrand MAY Note: if it becomes a simple
at lower limit zero ∫ proper integral
(see Note in column 3)
(check behaviour of
)
: finite limits Converges if
but integrand at lower ∫ Diverges if
limit Note 1: if it is a proper integral
Note 2: previous case is similar if
: finite limits
but integrand at upper ∫ Note 3: forms are
limit also useful as in these are
positive
Most other improper integral cases can be algebraically manipulated to get the forms in column one.

The various forms of the - will be the g(x) [or f(x)] in the comparison test.

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 Calculus (Integration)

2.4.3 Examples on Comparison Tests

Example 5.L3: the nature of the integrand will often provide an easy guess for the comparison
function say
∫

Hence an easy candidate for comparison is ∫ ∫ * +

∫ ∫
In fact the comparison provides an upper bound of the given integral:
∫ ∫

Here, no - was required for comparison as the integrand itself provided a hint for the
comparison function: always try to visualize the nature of the integrand in question.
Example 6.L3:

∫ ∫

∫ ∫

Example 7.L3: √ √ √
√ √ √
∫ ∫ ∫

√
∫ ∫

√ √
∫ ∫

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 Calculus (Integration)

2.4.4 Limit Comparison Form

Note the complementary nature of examples 6 and 7 above.

In 6:“smaller” integration divergent means that the other, bigger one MUST be divergent…
In 7:“bigger” integration convergent means that the other, smaller one MUST be convergent…
Also note the usefulness of the positive functions: automatic lower bound of zero.
Sometimes a more powerful form of comparison is easier: Limit Comparison.
√
In example 7 above, we are trying to compare and and the “improper” point is
√
also for both and are then Limit Comparison uses:
√
( )
√
( )
( )

Since this limit is a finite and non-zero number (the case of limit result zero is slightly more
complicated) hence both the improper integrals have the SAME character: both converge OR
both diverge.

√ √
( ) ∫

Each of the - in the table above can be used in this Limit Comparison style: just
imagine its integrand as g(x) and evaluate where, is the “improper” point, the
problem-point of the integration of f(x) in question. Of course, choose the correct -
first.

Remember: if problem-point is an intermediate point then the improper integral

MUST be broken into two parts and each separate part MUST be checked
independently.
Note: at this level, limit comparison will mostly be used with positive (or non-negative)
functions; other cases require more investigation/manipulation.

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 Calculus (Integration)

2.4.5 Comparison and Limit Comparison: special cases

Example 8.L4: consider an improper integral of mixed type, here the upper limit is not finite and
the integrand tends to infinity at the lower limit – so, two “improper” points and it is best to
investigate them separately (and the modulus on sine ensures that integrand is non-negative).
| | | | | |
∫ ∫ ∫ 3

(theoretically, the break can be for any positive c but c=1 makes the calculation
easier for THIS case)

Style: Comparison
Always try to get a rough idea of the behavior of the integrand:
| | | |
( )
√
| |
| |
| |

√ √
| |
∫ ∫

Row two of the table above, - with hence convergent.

By comparison the smaller, positive (non-negative) integral is also convergent.
For it is easier, the first row of the table is applicable: - hence
convergent.
| |
∫ ∫
By comparison the smaller, positive (non-negative) integral is also convergent.
Hence both improper parts are independently convergent, conclusion: is convergent.
| |
∫

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 Calculus (Integration)

Style: Limit Comparison

As per the nature of the integrand discussed above:
| | | |
∫
√
| |

∫ ∫

By row two: ∫ convergent hence convergent.

| | | |
∫ 3

| |

3
However the solution can be obtained from inspection, sine is bounded so any positive power of
x left in the denominator will allow us to evaluate this limit comparison at infinity:
| | | |
∫
| | | |

Unfortunately, the limit is finite but zero: this is a slightly more complicated case and the
similarity of
∫ ∫
only works partially:

If the limit was finite and non-zero, then this similarity would be complete:

In the example above, the limit comparison gives zero with -

which is the case for convergence (row one in table) hence even the partial similarity is enough
so
| | | |
∫ ∫

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 Calculus (Integration)

2.4.6 Practice Problems: Comparison Tests

∫ ( )

∫ ( )

( )

∫ ∫ ∫

( )

( )

∫ ( )

∫ ( )
∫ ∫

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 Calculus (Integration)

More Problems:
http://www.ms.uky.edu/~mshaw/ma114s13/worksheets/worksheet10.pdf
https://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/Problems/CalcII/ImproperIntegralsCompTest.aspx
https://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/ProblemsNS/CalcII/ImproperIntegralsCompTest.aspx

2.5 Cauchy Principal Value

In general, the process described above replaces the problem points by limits. For certain
improper integrals, it is useful to consider symmetrical limits around the problem points, then
the result is known as Cauchy Principal Value.
Example 9.L4
∫

∫ ∫ ∫ ∫ ∫
Note how the points have been replaced by limits: original range of integration but
new range is [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
0
…replaced by…
a -c 0 d b
∫ ∫ ∫
( ) ( )
| |
Clearly this limit does not exist .

Cauchy Principal Value: consider symmetrical limits around the problem points.
Replace the range by [ ] [ ] note the symmetry:

0
…replaced by…
-b -d 0 d b
∫ ∫ ∫
( ) ( )

Clearly this limit exists (the values cancel to zero before limits due to symmetry). This is called
the Cauchy Principal Value of the integral.
∫ ∫ ∫

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 Calculus (Integration)

If an improper integral is otherwise convergent (by methods discussed before) then the Cauchy
P.V. will be equal to that value. As the example above shows, converse is not true: P.V. may
exist even if the integral is not convergent.

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 Calculus (Integration)

2.5.1 A Cautionary Example of Cauchy Principal value

Example 10.L5 Cauchy Principal Value
can give strange results:

At this has infinite

discontinuity so this is an improper
integral
∫
Integrand has problem only at zero (as -
5 is outside the range of integration).
Consider the Cauchy P.V. from two
different starting points:

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 Calculus (Integration)

Now consider,

This cautionary example is from https://web.ma.utexas.edu/users/rusin/408D-12b/CPV.pdf : be

careful while using Cauchy Principal Value.

2.6 Absolute Convergence versus Conditional Convergence

In the section on Comparison Tests, it was noted that they are usually applied to positive (non-
negative) functions. For general functions we can associate a corresponding positive function:
| | both have similar behavior around the “improper”, problem points.

∫ ∫ | |

Absolute convergence is powerful: it also implies convergence of the original integral

∫ .

∫ | | ∫

Converse is NOT true. Even when ∫ converges; ∫ | | may diverge.

∫ ∫ | |

2.6.1 Notation
1. Absolute Convergence ∫ | | convergent (hence ∫ also convergent).
2. Conditional Convergence ∫ convergent BUT ∫ | | divergent.

Since the comparison tests are used with positive functions, absolute convergence may be easier
to calculate in some cases: especially with trigonometric functions which are periodically
positive and negative.

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 Calculus (Integration)

∫ 3
∫ | 3
|
| |
∫ 3

The last integral was already shown to be convergent in example 8.

∫ | 3
| ∫ 3

Example 11.L5 The most common example of an improper integral that is conditionally
convergent is ∫
Part 1: Convergence – note so no problems at lower limit, integrate by parts

∫ ∫ ∫

∫ * + ∫ ∫

| | ∫ | | ∫

Thus the cosine integral term is Absolutely Convergent by comparison with -

in row 1 of the table. Since absolute convergence implies convergence so we get:
∫ ∫ ∫
Part 2: Absolute Convergence – the above calculation comes close:
∫ ∫ ∫
The first term is “proper”, the second is constant and the third is absolutely convergent and yet...
∫ | |

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 Calculus (Integration)

The proof is a bit lengthy:

∫ | |

∫ | |

| | | |

∫ | | ∫ | | ∫ | | ∫

| |

∫ | | ∫ | |

∫ | | ∑∫ | | ∑ ∑

Note 1: the last term is an infinite series and is a divergent series (there are many common ideas
in the convergence of series and integral) which implies that the integral is divergent
Note 2: it would be more rigorous to evaluate after replacing the upper limit by

For some more results beyond the scope of this material check:
http://www.math.uni-leipzig.de/~konarovskyi/teaching/2018/Math1/pdf/Note18.pdf

RBT (Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy): Remember, Understand, Apply, Analyze, Evaluate &
Synthesize are the levels in order; examples and problems marked as L1 to L6 above.

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 Calculus (Integration)

Chapter 3: Beta and Gamma Functions

3.1 The Gamma Function

3.1.1 Extending the Factorial

The factorial function is well known and is valid
for positive integer values of where provides the special case .
Define the improper integral: ∫ which is convergent for . Note that
the “variable” of the Gamma function: is actually the “parameter” inside the improper integral.
This integral is called the “Euler Integral of the Second Kind” and represents the Gamma
function.

The Gamma function may be considered as a generalization of the factorial function to non-
integer values and has similar character: for and
or which can be used for all real values of (i.e.
except the negative integers and zero) even though the improper integral representation is only
meaningful for . The function plot below shows the Gamma function: smoothly
“interpolating” the red dots representing the discrete factorial function:

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 Calculus (Integration)

There are other such possible functions that smoothly “interpolate” the factorial function but the
Gamma function has the unique distinction (Bohr-Mullerup theorem) of “log-convexity”
( is convex) among such interpolating functions:

For a historical overview of the Gamma function, its various representations, its convergence and
even a calculator; check:
https://www.cantorsparadise.com/the-beautiful-gamma-function-and-the-genius-who-
discovered-it-8778437565dc
https://mathworld.wolfram.com/GammaFunction.html
http://math.stmarys-ca.edu/wp-content/uploads/2017/07/Andres-Diestra.pdf

3.1.2 The Gamma Function at Half-Integers

It is difficult to actually “solve” the integral defining the Gamma function for non-integer cases
e.g. ∫ and various approximations are utilized for such cases; check:
https://math.stackexchange.com/questions/2386900/evaluating-the-gamma-function
For the special case of “half-integer” values:
( ) ∫ ∫ ∫ ∫
√
( )
( ) ( ) *∫ + *∫ + ∫ ∫ ∫ ∫

( ) ( ) ∫ ∫ ( ) √
Substitutions used 1. 2. 3.
(For several other possible ways to obtain this important result, check:
https://math.stackexchange.com/questions/215352/why-is-gamma-left-frac12-right-sqrt-pi )
But ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) which
effectively gives the Gamma function values for etc. just because ( ) is
( )
now known. In the opposite direction: ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) which now give the values of Gamma function at

etc…

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 Calculus (Integration)

3.1.3 The Recursive Evaluation of Gamma Function

Hence if Gamma function is known at any particular value, say then the relations
& provide a simple process to solve for
and condensing this in a simple form gives:

[Remember the “log-tables” in school: if is known it easily gives the values of

.]
If is (somehow) known it easily gives the values of
(note the last two: cases.]
Thus at all “half-integer” values: the Gamma function can be
evaluated using ( ) √ e.g.
to get ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) OR ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) to get ( ).
Also, at positive integer values: the Gamma function is (which
is why ( ) √ is sometimes written as ( ) √ : just to highlight the fact the Gamma
function generalizes the factorial function as otherwise “factorial of minus half” makes no
sense).

3.1.4 Infinite Discontinuity of Gamma Function

Check that this process fails for Gamma function at (usually taken as the
Gamma function becoming “infinite” at these points) e.g. .

3.1.5 Infinite Product Expressions of Gamma Function

1. Euler’s Limit Formula ( )

. Euler’s infinite product ( )

3. Weierstrass product ( )

where Euler-Mascheroni constant (∑ )

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 Calculus (Integration)

3.1.6 Integral Forms of Gamma Function for Positive Values

While “Euler Integral of the Second Kind” is the most common representation of the Gamma
function ∫ which converges for but other integrals are possible:

3.1.7 Integral Forms of Gamma Function for Negative Values

Another special integral setup valid for the range :

Cauchy-Saalschütz representation is the general case of this form for the range
:

(In both the above note how the Taylor series expansion terms of are being subtracted…)

3.1.8 Application of Gamma Function as a Generalized Factorial

Recall the relation which works when
is not a negative integer or zero. The part looks like a
“factorial” starting at – this is sometimes called the “rising” factorial (as the factors are
increasing)

Since the Gamma function generalizes the factorial formula to non-integer values, this helps to
define various things which use factorials in terms of the Gamma function:
Combination: of things ( ) for integers can be
generalized using Gamma functions as ( ) even when
need be an integer.
This idea of “plugging” the Gamma function in place of factorial: just remember to increase the
argument by one for use ; gives several useful results as below

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 Calculus (Integration)

3.1.9 Relations on Product of Gamma Functions

Euler’s Reflection Formula for is

(using this for easily gives ( ) √ )

This powerful formula further gives:

Legendre’s duplication formula for

This may even be extended to a “triplication” formula like (with proper range)

The general case of these two is the Gauss’ Multiplication formula:

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 Calculus (Integration)

The Stirling’s formula is famous as an approximation of the factorial function for large . It can
also be used to approximate the Gamma function (remember to increase the argument by one):
√ ( ) √ ( ) for large

3.1.10 Integrals Reducible to Gamma Function

Several integrals can be converted to the Gamma function form for an easier solution:

The above uses while the example below uses

Similarly the example below uses and then

∫

3.1.11 Derivatives of Gamma Function

The Gamma function has continuous derivatives of all orders and these are calculated by using
“differentiation under the sign of integration” with respect to the parameter of the integral:
remember that the “variable” of the Gamma function is actually the “parameter” inside the
improper integral.
∫ ∫ ∫

More such identities and the infinite series/infinite products/improper integral manipulations
required to prove them (all beyond the scope of this material) may be found in:
https://web.williams.edu/Mathematics/sjmiller/public_html/372Fa15/handouts/GammaFnChapte
r_Miller.pdf
https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/39671766.pdf
http://www.math.sci.hokudai.ac.jp/~s.settepanella/teachingfile/Calculus/Calculus2/pagine/IntGB
.pdf

36
 Calculus (Integration)

3.1.12 Problem Set on Gamma Function

1.L6 Formulate a proof of the trigonometrical identity
by using Gamma function for positive integer
(hint: use Gauss’ Multiplication formula with and then square both sides to apply
Euler’s Reflection formula on the LHS; finally, simplify)
2.L5 Determine the nature of ∫ and evaluate if convergent.
(hint: shift to to express it as difference of two convergent integrals and for evaluation
use in the original integral then combine with this modified integral to apply
reflection formula in the integrand, also use ∫ )
3.L3 Construct a proof of ( ) √ for using appropriate
recurrence.
4.L2 Rephrase the Duplication formula to prove ( ) ( )
5.L3 Construct a proof of the relation
when is not a negative integer or zero and using appropriate recurrence..
6.L3 Construct a proof of the limit:
6.L4 Examine the nature of the Gamma function as its argument approaches negative integers or
zero: the points of singularity of
7.L Rephrase the Gauss’ Multiplication formula for ( ) ( ) ( )
(hint: put use )
8.L3 Identify the correct transformation to express ∫ in terms of the Gamma function.
(hint: to express in terms of )
9.L3 Identify the correct transformation to express ∫ in terms of the Gamma function.
(hint: change range as integrand is even function then use )

10.L3 Identify the correct transformation to express ∫ using Gamma

function.
(hint: part of [∫ ]
)
11.L2 Demonstrate (solved):

37
 Calculus (Integration)

RBT (Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy): Remember, Understand, Apply, Analyze, Evaluate &
Synthesize are the levels in order; marked as L1 to L6 above.

38
 Calculus (Integration)

3.2 The Beta Function or

3.2.1 Integral Definition

Similar to the Euler Integral of the Second kind that defines the Gamma function, there is also
the closely related Euler Integral of the First kind that defines the Beta function:
∫
This is “improper” as if and as if but is convergent as long as

This is a proper integral when both

3.2.2 Alternate Integral Forms and Integrals Reducible to Beta Function

A simple substitution gives - an important symmetry.
The substitution gives ∫
The substitution gives ∫
And symmetry provides:
∫ ∫ ∫
Further manipulation** gives ∫ .

The substitution gives ∫

The substitution gives
∫
The substitution also provides a possible path.
Note the similarity here: original definition ranges from to with
For special case with symmetrical range: ∫ then also
works.

3.2.3 Relation between Beta Function and Gamma Function

However, the single most important relation is the one that connects the First Kind and Second
Kind of Euler Integrals  the relation between Beta function and Gamma function:

This single relation paves the way for a large number of results: both in terms of the Beta
function and the Gamma function. Some of the elementary ones are:

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 Calculus (Integration)

3.2.4 Results from the Beta – Gamma Relation

( )

( )

similarly hence

**A naïve “proof”; assuming convergence of the integrals involved (and without the
intermediate, rigorous steps of replacing the bounds by limits) is:
∫ ∫ ∫

∫ ∫ ∫
( )

∫ ∫ ∫
Conversely:
∫ ∫ { }

∫ { } ∫ { }

∫ { } ∫ { } ∫

These types of manipulations are a staple of the exercise level problems.

40
 Calculus (Integration)

3.2.5 Problem Set on the Beta Function

1.L3 Identify the correct transformation and express ∫ using Beta function.
(hint: assume )
√ ( )
2.L2 Show ∫ .
√ ( )
(hint: use or use )
3.L3 Identify the correct transformation and express ∫ using Beta function.
(hint: assume )
4.L2 Show ∫ .
(hint: put or put )
5.L4 Examine the Beta function when: a) exactly one argument is a positive integer b) both
arguments are positive integers.
(hint: use Beta-Gamma relation)
6.L2 Demonstrate, using trigonometrical form of Beta function and/or Beta-Gamma relation:
a) ∫ ∫ b) ∫ ∫
5
c) ( ) √ d) ∫ C3) (hint: )
e) evaluate ∫ √ and ∫ √ f)
g)
7.L5 Interpret the Beta function for equal arguments using its trigonometrical form.
(hint: check and relate to ( ) using )
8.L6 Formulate a proof of Legendre’s Duplication formula for the Gamma function.
(hint: use previous problem and the Beta-Gamma relation)
9.L3 Identify the correct transformation and express using Beta function: ∫
.
(hint: assume put )
10.L2 Show ∫
√
(hint: put )
11.L3 Identify the correct transformation and express using Beta function: ∫
for
(hint: put )

RBT (Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy): Remember, Understand, Apply, Analyze, Evaluate &
Synthesize are the levels in order; marked as L1 to L6 above.

41
 Calculus (Integration)

Chapter 4: Application of Definite Integrals - Surface

and Volume of Revolution
4.1 Symmetry created by Revolution

It is common to use ∫ to obtain the plane area bounded by -

If this curve is rotated about the - into the third dimension, a 3-D cylindrical shape is
generated but with a variable radius (like a flower vase): effectively the curve “sweeps-out” a
surface in space and the area under it “sweeps-out” a volume in space as shown below.

Normally, calculating the surface area would require a double integral and the volume would
require a triple integral. Note the symmetry of the simple examples below (vertical axis):

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 Calculus (Integration)

Due to symmetry inherent in the rotation process, this surface of revolution and this volume of
revolution can be calculated using single integrals only.

4.2 Application of Definite Integrals

As in normal integration which is considered as the limit of a sum, the process of rotating the
curve in the left figure can also be considered in “small pieces”:

This shows an approximation with four pieces of the curve replaced by straight line segments
which on rotation create four frustums: a frustum is a slice from a cone, like

Comparing the three diagrams above, for rotation about the - , the frustums have:
from
Note the side

This gives the curved surface and volume of one frustum as:

As in the usual definite integral to find the “area under a curve” in the plane, these
approximations above also improve if the number of subdivisions increases and the size of each
subdivision reduces: that is, the number of frustums increases but the thickness of each frustum
decreases.
For the entire surface and volume of revolution, this process gives:

∫ ∫ √ ( )

√ ( ) √

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 Calculus (Integration)

These expressions represent the easiest geometrical setup. The various symmetries in any
particular problem often provide an easier avenue of attack.

The setup above can be manipulated to fit more general cases where:
a) Region between two curves is rotated
b) Region is rotated about the - for a curve described as
c) Curve is given in parametric form
d) More complicated region boundaries
e) Other straight lines as axis of rotation
f) Other ways of approximating the resultant symmetrical volume of revolution (e.g. disc
method, washer method, shell method)
g) Curves in polar coordinates rotated about the initial line (polar axis) about

For proofs, refer to:

https://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/Classes/CalcII/ArcLength.aspx
https://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/classes/calcii/surfacearea.aspx
https://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/Classes/CalcI/VolumeWithRings.aspx
https://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/Classes/CalcI/VolumeWithCylinder.aspx
https://magoosh.com/hs/ap/ap-calculus-review-disk-washer-methods/
https://ximera.osu.edu/mooculus/calculus2/solidsOfRevolution/titlePage

4.3 Alternative forms of surface and volume of revolution integrals

1. Rotation about - : everything is similar but now the “radius” of the object is
distance from the - - and now “thickness” of the frustums is
.

∫ ∫ √ ( ) for from

2. Curve given in parametric form: from to about -

∫ ( ) ( ) ∫ √( ) ( )

3. Two curves: assuming from to about - : note the

surface generated by is the outer surface and surface generated by is the inner
surface so the “hollow-cylinder” gets two generated surfaces: they add up. But the
volume of revolution is generated by the area between the two curves. Hence the two
possible volumes are subtracted.

*∫ ∫ +

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 Calculus (Integration)

*∫ √ ∫ √ +

4. Curve as Polar equation from about the axis (initial

line)

∫ ∫ √

The last term under the square root is interesting gives the
element of arc length (distance measured along the curve) using polar coordinates.

4.3.1 Disc and Washer approximations

The symmetry of volume of revolution allows several possible approximations:

a. Disc

b. Washer (a disc with a hole?!)

In each, the shape with the white outline is the cross-section that can be
revolved around the - to obtain the blue
object.
This shows one typical washer as a part of the
volume created when region bounded by
is revolved around the
- .

45
 Calculus (Integration)

A similar example is solved below, but note that the choice of method depends on
the actual problemaim is to get the easiest integral representation.

On the right, the green shaded region is

rotated around the - : volume of
the washer is area thickness, i.e.
so the integral is
∫ ( )
Now try the same style with the
region as shown below for .
Which leads to an “ugly” washer:
in the integral from “inner”
radius.

∫
For this case, the shell method is better.
c. Shells
In disc and washer (a disc-with-hole)
methods, the part of volume chosen is
created by slicing “perpendicular” to the

46
 Calculus (Integration)

axis of rotation: see the diagrams . In the shell method, the part of volume chosen
is created by taking a slice “parallel” to the axis of rotation.
Consider the following example revolved around
the - . If disc/washer method is applied, two integrals are required: from
yellow discs above the dotted line have radius √ and from
green discs below have radius
This can also be solved considering “slices” parallel to the axis of rotation, -
as shown:

Revolving this slice about the y- creates a hollow cylinder as shown next.
Draw another slice parallel and closer to the - and note that a different
hollow cylinder with the same axis is formed inside. Thus the shell method
creates a series of nested shells (the hollow cylinders here) to calculate the
volume. Note that in disc method for - rotation, is thickness of disc: here
shell has thickness .

∫ ∫

47
 Calculus (Integration)

This is the previous problem showing the two different slices: disc/washer method, perpendicular
to axis of rotation on the left and shell method, parallel to axis of rotation on the right.
∫ ∫

4.3.2 General Axis of Rotation

The case of general straight line as axis of rotation is difficult (with two simple special cases).

a) If the axis of rotation is a vertical line i.e. parallel to the - say simply
use new coordinates which implies : the new - is the
axis of rotation.

Inner radius: and outer radius:

. As the axis is shifted to this adds 4 to each radius.

48
 Calculus (Integration)

b) If the axis of rotation is a horizontal line i.e. parallel to the - say simply
use new coordinates which implies : the new X- is the
axis of rotation.

c) If the axis is a general slanting line, above process of coordinate axis transformation
will still work except instead of simple translation there would also be “rotation of
axis”.

Here it is done without that transformation.

This shows the case of rotation of the green shaded region for about the line
and what a disc would look like in this case (remember: slice
perpendicular to the axis of rotation).

∫ ( )

For proof, check:

https://www.emathhelp.net/notes/calculus-2/applications-of-integrals/volume-of-
solid-of-revolution-about-slant-line/

4.4 Theorem of Pappus (Pappus Centroid Theorem)

The first theorem of Pappus (left figure) states that the surface area A of a surface of revolution
obtained by rotating a plane curve C about a non-intersecting axis which lies in the same plane is
equal to the product of the curve length L and the distance d traveled by the centroid of C:
.

49
 Calculus (Integration)

The second theorem of Pappus (right figure) states that the volume of a solid of revolution
obtained by rotating a lamina F about a non-intersecting axis lying in the same plane is equal to
the product of the area A of the lamina F and the distance d travelled by the centroid of F:
.
For several examples, check: https://www.math24.net/pappus-theorem
These theorems are very useful in those cases where it is easy to determine the arc length L, the
lamina’s area A, the centroid and the length of its orbit as then no further integration is required
to find the surface & volume of revolution (however, integration may be required to find the
inputs unless the shapes under consideration are well known).
This theorem is also powerful as it can give results for the case of partial rotation ( ).
Consider the simple cases: cone, cylinder & sphere whose centroids, arc lengths, generating area
(triangle for cone, rectangle for cylinder, semi-circle (why?) for sphere) are well known.

50
 Calculus (Integration)

4.5 Problem Set on Surface and Volume of Revolution labeled as per RBT*

1.L6 Develop the formula for surface & volume of revolution when a) an open arc of the
generating curve intersects the axis of rotation b) a closed symmetrical loop of the generating
curve is present around the axis of rotation c) same as case b) but for non-symmetrical cases.
2.L6 Develop the formula for the shell method when the shells are not chosen parallel to the axis
of rotation but instead shells are created by slices parallel to the generating curve for the simplest
case of the semi-circle generating a sphere.
3.L6 Develop the formula for the surface of revolution for the case rotated about
from
4.L3 Solve for the volume of revolution of the cissoid about (its
asymptote) and obtain
5.L3 Solve for volume and surface of revolution formed when a quadrant of a circle of radius
is rotated about its chord (line joining its end-points) to obtain ( ) and
√ √
respectively.
6.L3 Solve for volume of revolution by rotating the ellipse around
to obtain .
7.L3 The region bounded by and is rotated about the - . Solve
to obtain the volume .
8.L4 Examine the symmetry of the object created by revolving the asteroid
around either of the coordinate axes. Show that it has surface area .
9.L4 Examine the symmetry of the object created by revolving the cardioide
around the initial line . Show that it has surface area . Solve the similar case of
the cardioide
10.L5 Compare the surface area & volume of an oblate spheroid versus a prolate spheroid – both
from the same ellipse.

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 Calculus (Integration)

10.L1 List the following formulae:

a) surface created by curve rotating about x-axis or a line parallel to it.
b) surface created by curve rotating about y-axis or a line parallel to it.
c) volume created by curve rotating about x-axis or a line parallel to it.
d) volume created by curve rotating about y-axis or a line parallel to it.
e) surface created by curve rotating about
f) volume created by curve rotating about
g) surface created by curve in parametric form rotating about x-axis or a line parallel to it.
h) volume created by curve in parametric form rotating about x-axis or a line parallel to it.
#
RBT (Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy): Remember, Understand, Apply, Analyze, Evaluate &
Synthesize are the levels in order; marked as L1 to L6 above.

52