Assessment of Children’s

Development and Learning

Functions of Behaviour

Accurately identifying function allows you to make informed decisions to

change behavior. Understanding why a behavior occurs leads to meaningful
change. You can then use this information to alter the conditions surrounding
the behavior. For more about how to use this information to guide treatment

"The function of a behavior refers to the source of environmental

reinforcement for it."

- Tarbox et al (2009, p. 494)

Four Common Functions of Behaviour

Before getting more technical about the functions of behaviour we’re going to
outline four common behavioural functions below.

1.

Social Attention
A person may engage in a certain behaviour to gain some form of social
attention or a reaction from other people. For example, a child might engage in
a behaviour to get other people to look at them, laugh at them, play with them,
hug them or scold them.

While it might seem strange that a person would engage in a behaviour to

deliberately have someone scold them it can occur because for some people it’s
better to obtain “bad” attention than no attention at all (Cooper, Heron &
Heward, 2007).

Example #1: Sarah screams every instance that her father walks away from
her. When she engages in this screaming behavior, her father returns to her and
asks, “What’s wrong Sarah?” This behavior is attention-maintained because the
behavior consistently results in attention. When Sarah “wants” attention, she
screams.
Example #2: Jordan licks the fence in the school yard when he is by himself.
Every time Jordan licks the fence, his teacher walks over to him to tell him no.
Jordan continues knowing that his teacher will come over to him again. This
behavior is attention0maintained because the behavior consistently results in
attention. When Jordan "wants" attention, he licks the fence.

 (Please note that licking things can be a sensory component of having

autism, in some situations it can also be an attention seeking behavior like in
this case).

Other Examples: The following are examples of attention seeking behaviors in

Autistic children:

 Being way too loud, screaming, dancing, jumping

 Asking for things way too often (If they are verbal)
 Pretending they can not do something they are perfectly capable of doing
 Fake crying
 Whining
 Throwing tantrums
 Acting violently, kicking, biting, or hitting siblings or other children.
 Beating themselves, hitting his/her head on things, throwing themselves
on the floor, pulling their hair, etc.

Solutions and Suggestions "If the individual you are working with has the
intent to socially engage or get a reaction from another person some strategies
that may be effective:"

 Teach your child new and more appropriate ways to seek attention (e.g.,
tap on shoulder, “look at me”) and reinforce when these new behaviours
occur
 Give positive attention many times throughout the day
 Ignore when undesired attention seeking behaviour occur

2. Tangibles or Activities
Some behaviours occur so the person can obtain a tangible item or gain access
to a desired activity. For example, someone might scream and shout until their
parents buy them a new toy (tangible item) or bring them to the zoo (activity).

An individual engages in a behavior to get access to an item or activity. A

tangible is something an individual could touch or pick up. Individuals on the
autism spectrum develop attachments to unusual objects like straws, rocks,
scrap paper, pieces of dirt, flags, sticks, etc.
Example #1: When Jenna cries, her mother gives her a pacifier. In the future,
Jenna cries because it consistently results in access to the pacifier.
Example #2: Joey wants a toy from his friend. During playtime, Joey will hits
a peer which results in the peer dropping the toy and crying. As a result of the
hit, Joey now has access to the toy he wanted. This hitting behavior will
continue because he realizes when he hits a friend, more than likely he will then
have access to the toy he wanted.
Solutions and Suggestions: "If the individual you are working with has an
activity or item they want some strategies that may be effective:"

 Increase the variety of activities/items your child is interested in so there

are more things to help motivate your child
 Teaching your child to accept ‘no’ o Control access to tangibles
 Teach your child to request
 Transitional warnings 

3. Escape or Avoidance
Not all behaviours occur so the person can “obtain” something; many
behaviours occur because the person wants to get away from something or avoid
something altogether (Miltenberger, 2008).

For example, a child might engage in aggressive behaviour so his teachers stop
running academic tasks with him or another child might engage in self-injury to
avoid having to go outside to play with classmates.

Example #1: Every time Ms.Sam places a vocabulary worksheet on Stella’s

desk, she rips up the paper and throws it on the floor. As a result, Ms.Sam does
not make her do her vocabulary homework. In the future, Stella continues to
engage in this behavior every time she receives a vocabulary worksheet because
it results in escaping the vocabulary work.
Example #2: Kyla tantrums every time a demand is placed on her by her
teacher Ms.Jenning. Ms.Jenning will ask Kyla to clean up her mess and Kyla will
instantly engage in tantruming behaviors. The tantrum will go on until
Ms.Jenning decides that it would be easier to clean up the toys herself instead of
going through the trouble of getting Kyla to do it. In the future, Kyla continues
to engage in this behavior every time a demand (like cleaning up) is placed on
her because it results in escaping from having to clean up.
Solutions & Suggestions If the individual you are working with is avoiding a
demand or task some strategies that may be effective are:

 Using a first-then board

 Using a visual schedule
 Establishing a good rapport o Using social stories TM
 Offering choices
 Clear expectations
 Follow through

4. Sensory Stimulation
The function of some behaviours do not rely on anything external to the person
and instead are internally pleasing in some way – they are “self-stimulating”
(O’Neill, Horner, Albin, Sprague, Storey, & Newton, 1997). They function only to
give the person some form of internal sensation that is pleasing or to remove an
internal sensation that is displeasing (e.g. pain).
For example, a child might rock back and forth because it is enjoyable for them
while another child might rub their knee to sooth the pain after accidentally
banging it off the corner of a table. In both cases, these children do not engage
in either behaviour to obtain any attention, any tangible items or to escape any
demands placed on them.

An individual engages in a behavior because it physically feels good or relieves

something that feels bad.

Example #1: Christopher engages in hand flapping in the absence of any

specific antecedent or consequence stimulus. This behavior provides automatic
sensory stimulation.
Example #2: Derek holds his ears when his peers are talking on the rug. This
behavior provides automatically sensory stimulation as it reduces loud noises
for Derek.
"Since the goal of sensory-seeking behaviors is to obtain some form of feedback
from the environment, they can involve lots of different parts of the body.
Sights, sounds, smells, tastes, textures, or body movements can all trigger
sensory issues. Some examples include:"
Body movements (e.g., hand-flapping, covering the ears, hair twirling)
Providing pressure or squeezing to certain parts of the body Waving or placing
objects near the eyes Covering the eyes to avoid bright lights or patterns
Chewing on objects or clothing Avoiding perfumes, lotions, or air fresheners
Strong aversions to specific food textures. 
Solutions and Suggestions: "If your child has behaviors that are internally
reinforcing that could provide a need for relief, a calming sensation, or a
pleasing sensation, here are some strategies that may be effective:"

 Introduce your child to self management techniques

 Redirect inappropriate behaviors to more functional ones and reinforce
those behaviors (e.g., tapping fingers on a table tapping keys on a piano)
 Reinforce behaviors that are incompatible with the self stimulatory
behavior (e.g. a child that flaps their hands would be reinforced for keeping
their hands folded)
 Physical exercise may decrease behavior
 Seek medical advice 

Behaviours Occur for a Reason

A behaviour that a person engages in repeatedly will typically serve some kind of
purpose or function for them (O’Neill, et al, 1997). Note the word “repeatedly” is
used because people engage in all kinds of behaviours but unless a behaviour
serves some kind of function for them it wouldn’t typically continue to occur.

When we say the “function” of a behaviour we basically mean “why” the

behaviour is occurring. While it might be difficult to understand why a person
does something (e.g. challenging behaviours such as self-injury or aggression)
there will always be an underlying function (O’Neill, et al, 1997).
It’s worth noting that a behaviour can serve more than one function
(Miltenberger, 2008). For example, a child might learn to hurt themselves
during class to get out of having to complete academic tasks and then also hurt
themselves in the playground to get attention from the teachers. Here the same
behaviour – self-injury – serves two different functions depending on the
environment the child is in.

Function (Why) vs. Topography (What)

If a child hurts themselves and we describe that behaviour as “self-injury” then
we are describing the topography of the behaviour. Topography only describes
“what” behaviour is occurring but it says nothing about “why” the behaviour
occurs; this is where the function of the behaviour is needed because the
function will describe “why” it is occurring (Cooper et al, 2007).

Another example would be if we said the person is “talking”. To say someone is

talking is describing the topography of the behaviour but tells us nothing about
the function. Someone might talk to another person to ask for directions,
another person might talk to teach a class of students while another person
might talk to chat up someone they want to date.

While a clear definition of the behaviour’s topography is needed, it is important

to identify and describe the function of the behaviour through a Functional
Behaviour Assessment (FBA). Without understanding the function of a
behaviour any intervention put in place could be ineffective and/or make the
behaviour worse (O’Neill et al, 1997).

Function and Reinforcement

The reason for a behaviour occurring can be described in terms of the function it
serves or the reinforcement that is maintaining it (Miltenberger, 2008).

When we say the “reinforcement that is maintaining it”, this just means we can
describe the reason the behaviour occurs in terms of the favourable outcome
that the behaviour creates for the person (Miltenberger, 2008).

It doesn’t really matter whether you choose to describe the function of the
behaviour or the reinforcement maintaining the behaviour because either way
you are saying the same thing but just using different terminology.

That said, it can useful to use both terms when describing the function of a
behaviour. For example, you could say: “the behaviour is being maintained by
positive reinforcement; he is hitting his peers in the playground and the
function of this behaviour is to obtain access to the swing set during lunch
break”.

https://www.educateautism.com/behavioural-principles/functions-
of-behaviour.html

Behavior Modification
Behavior modification is a psychotherapeutic intervention primarily used to
eliminate or reduce maladaptive behavior in children or adults. While some
therapies focus on changing thought processes that can affect behavior, for
example, cognitive behavioral therapy, behavior modification focuses on
changing specific behaviors with little consideration of a person’s thoughts or
feelings. The progress and outcome of the intervention can be measured and
evaluated. Functional analysis of the antecedents and consequences of the
problem behavior(s) must be identified. This leads to the creation of specific
target behaviors that will become the focus of change. Then, certain variables
can be manipulated via reinforcers and punishments to change problem
behavior(s). The goal is to eliminate or reduce maladaptive behavior.

Behavior modification is a type of behavior therapy. B. F. Skinner demonstrated

that behavior could be shaped through reinforcement and/or punishment.
Skinner noted that a reinforcer is a consequence that increases the likelihood of
behavior to recur, while punishment is a consequence that decreases the chance.
Positive and negative are used in mathematical terms. Positive indicates that
something is added, and negative indicates something is subtracted or taken
away. Thus, positive reinforcement occurs when a behavior is encouraged by
rewards. If a child enjoys candy and cleaning the room is the desired behavior,
the candy is a positive reinforcer (reward) because it is something that is given
or added when the behavior occurs. This makes the behavior more likely to
recur. Negative reinforcement is removing a stimulus as the consequence of
behavior but results in a positive outcome for the individual. For example, a fine
is dropped, and a person no longer has to go to jail. The removal of the negative
stimulus (the fine) results in a positive outcome for the individual, no jail time.

Conversely, positive punishment is the addition of an adverse consequence. For

example, a child gets spanked when he crosses the street without holding his
mother’s hand. He then no longer crosses the street alone. Spanking is positive
punishment because it is a consequence added to the situation that decreases
the likelihood of the child crossing the street alone. Negative punishment is
taking away favorable consequences to reduce unwanted behavior. For example,
if Emily doesn’t finish her homework on time, her cell phone gets taken away.
She makes it a priority to finish her homework immediately after school before
she does anything else. Removal of the cell phone would be a “negative” because
it takes something away, decreasing the chance that she won’t finish her
homework the next time.

Reinforcement and punishment

both work independently, as well
as together, as part of a behavior
plan. Positive reinforcement works
exceedingly better and faster than
punishment. In child psychiatry,
parents often come to the office
angry and frustrated with their
child because “nothing works.”
They have tried multiple types of
punishments when bad behavior
has occurred using the removal of toys or privileges away or placing a child in
time out. Often positive types are not being reinforced. One immediate benefit
of behavior modification plans is the shift away from solely punishing unwanted
behavior to also rewarding good behavior

(Table 1, Scott and Cogburn, 2017)

In table 1, note that punishment and reinforcement have nothing to do with

good or bad behavior, only if it increases or decreases the likelihood of the
behavior to recur.

There are several schedules of reinforcement that can impact behavior. When a
behavior plan is initially set up, continuous two is used to establish and
reinforce the behavior. Once the behavior has been established, continuous
reinforcement can change to intermittent reinforcement which is
termed thinning. There are four types of intermittent reinforcement. They are:

1. Fixed interval where the person is reinforced by a set number of responses

2. Variable interval where the person is reinforced by a variable number of

responses

3. Fixed ratio where the person is reinforced after a certain number of responses

4. Variable ratio where the person is reinforced after a variable number of

responses. Variable ratio intermittent reinforcement is the most effective
schedule to reinforce a behavior.

Examples

1. Fixed interval: rewarding a person at the end of each day

2. Variable interval: rewarding a person sometimes at the end of the day,

sometimes at the end of the week, sometimes every few days

3. Fixed ratio: rewarding a person after completing the desired behavior four
times

4. Variable ratio: rewarding a person after completing the desired behavior after
three times, then after six times, then after two times. Gambling is a real-world
example of a variable ratio of reinforcement.

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29083709/

Schemas

Schemas (or schemata) refer to a type of cognitive heuristic which facilitates our

understanding of our environment. They are mental concepts which are used to
recognize and develop an understanding of otherwise complex objects and ideas,
from recognizing people, animals and objects in our immediate environment, to
processing other types of information, such as what to expect during a repeated
activity like attending a wedding, or attending a job interview. Schemas also affect
the way in which memories are encoded and retrieved, supporting the theory that
our memories are reconstructive.

Schemas are a form of cognitive heuristic - a rule which makes assumptions

about a particular situation and, although not completely accurate, enables us to
make snap judgements which meet our everyday needs.

Schemas are a product of our experiences starting from a very early age and can be
adjusted or refined throughout our lives.

For instance, as young children, we may encounter pet cats. We recognize the
typical characteristics of these animals (e.g. furry, walk on four legs, miaow, have
whiskers around their mouths) and gradually create in our minds a schema of a
cat. The next time we see an animal, we will use the schema to identify it as being
a cat: if it resembles our schema, we consider it to be a cat. But if we see a dog
barking instead of miaowing, the animal does not conform to our schema and we
do not consider it to be a cat.

Using schemas, we are able to develop an understanding of the objects around us

based on characteristics that we have encountered in similar objects in the past.
Past schemas can also help us in future, novel situations. When we are given a
electronic device that we do not recognize (e.g. a new type of phone), previous
experience of electronics (embodied in a schema) will tell us that it should have an
on/off button, and so we seek that to turn it on before trying to use it. 

Schemas can also hinder our understanding of new concepts, leading us to fall
back on prior knowledge rather than encouraging us to try to understand an idea
anew. People often create stereotypes - a type of schema - which assign
particular traits to a group of people, and expect all members of the group to
possess those traits when encountering them. When they meet someone from that
group who does not conform to their preconceived stereotype, they may overlook
their differences and judge them based on a group categorization rather than on
their individual characteristics.

History

The concept of schemas was first outlined by the German philosopher Immanuel
Kant in The Critique of Pure Reason (1781). The idea was later picked up by Swiss
psychologist Jean Piaget, a self-described “genetic epistemologist” who led
research into the origins of human thought. Piaget proposed a series stages of
cognitive development in children and believed that schemas were acquired from
an early age as an adaptation to one’s environment - a cognitive heuristic used to
comprehend an otherwise complex new situation (Piaget, 1923).

Frederic Bartlett (1886-1969), a psychologist at the University of Cambridge, later

conducted an experiment to test the effect of schemas on memory recall. In 1932,
Bartlett told a Native American folktale known as the “War of the Ghosts” to a
group of British participants. The story was chosen as it was one which they were
unlikely to have heard before. Bartlett then asked subjects to recall their memory
of the story at varying intervals and recorded their version of it as time progressed.

Bartlett reported that the memories described initially closely followed the
original story. As time progressed, however, he observed that participants’
accounts became less detailed, only retaining memories of key aspects of the story
and filtering out elements which did not seem right, as well as adjusting others so
that the tale adhered to the cultural norms that they were used to, rather than
those of the Native Americans from whom the story had originated.

The accounts of the story recounted by the participants confirmed Bartlett’s belief
that memory is reconstructive. Instead of storing the story verbatim, as it was
told, memories of separate elements of the tale appeared to have been stored.
When asked to recall it, participants appeared to have pieced together those
memories with the help of schemas, which encouraged the inclusion of details that
conformed to their expectation of what should have happened in the story, leading
to the exclusion of details which did not seem to ‘fit’ it (Bartlett, 1932).

Fluidity: Assimilation or Accommodation

Piaget recognized that schemas remain fluid, cognizant of new information which
either enforces or challenges them. He suggested that we either understand such
information in terms of an existing schema, or that we accommodate it by
adjusting our schemas to take account of it.

Imagine if a centenarian, who believes in magic but if unfamiliar with modern

technology, was introduced to a mobile phone. He would likely be astounded by
the way it enables him to speak to someone at the other side of the globe. He may
use assimilation to explain this newfound capability in terms of his existing
understanding of the world, writing off the phone’s capabilities as being an act of
magic. Alternatively, accommodation may occur, whereby the man adjusts
the schema, realising that his understanding of the world needs to be changed to
comprehend this new technology (Piaget, 1923).

Types of Schema

Various types of schema help us to understand a range of concepts. They can

influence memories of events at the point of them being witnessed, affecting what
our attention focusses on, therefore affecting the chunks of information available
for encoding as long-term memories. This confirmation bias leads us to tend
to seek out information which supports existing schemas, rather than that which
may contradict it.

Additionally, when we try to remember an event, schemas can help us to piece

together memories from it, but can lead to false memories based on our
impression of how it should have occurred, rather than how it actually happened.

Types of schema include:

Object Schemas
Object schemas inform our understanding of what various objects are, how they
should function and what we should expect of them. For example, we understand
how to use a door - walking up to it, turning a handle, pushing it open and walking
through the doorway - because previous observations of people using doors have
led to the creation of an object schema for doors.

Stereotypes

A stereotype describes a set of characteristics that a person associates with a group

of people, often falsely assuming that all the members of that group will abide by a
particular set of behaviors or other traits. A common stereotype - that people in
Paris are more romantic than those elsewhere - might lead us to generalize that
everybody living in the city is romantic. To meet a person who is cold or obviously
not romantic, but who claims to be Parisian, would contradict the preconceptions
we associate with this stereotype. Our reductionist schema would not explain the
mismatch between the person’s claim as to where they live, and his or her
personality. We might doubt that they are from Paris (assimilation) or realise that
not every Parisian is necessarily romantic (accommodation).

Prototypes

A prototype is a schema which describes a concept in its idealised form. The

mention of a ‘beach holiday’ may conjure up ideas of a warm sun, soft sand and
delicious ice cream, excluding negative aspects, such as sunburn, gritty sand and
ice cream rapidly melting in the sun’s heat. In this case, we have created a
prototype of an ideal holiday on a beach, rather than a schema which reflects true
details of it.

Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung noted that people possess many common prototypes -
or archetypes - of idealised characters, such as the caring mother figure (the
“Great Mother”) and the meek but enlightened “wise old man”. The traits of such
prototypical schemas, with which we can all identify, can be found amongst
characters in stories across different cultures and eras (Jung, 1939).

Script

Activities and specific occasions often follow a particular schedule of events. We

know that a wedding tends to involve a ceremony, followed by a celebratory meal
and reception, whilst a commute to work might involve leaving the house, walking
to the bus stop, paying the bus driver and taking a seat until you arrive outside
your office. We create event schemas known as ‘scripts’, so that we can prepare
for, and adapt to, repeated situations. Unanticipated interruptions to this script
tend to be unexpected, and can cause distress - e.g. the bus breaking down and
causing you to be late for work.

Role Schema

People tend to hold common expectations of how a person in a particular role

should behave. Aside from a particular uniform, we anticipate that particular roles
should be carried out by people with specific personality traits. For example, many
people would expect a priest or vicar to be somewhat introverted - a calm figure
who is quietly spoken - yet these traits are not necessitated by the role of a vicar.
Instead, it is the role schema which defines our expectations.

Self Schema

Self schemas refer to the way in which we perceive ourselves. If we hold a self
schema that describes an ambitious person, our behavior will be adjusted to aspire
towards that schema - we might take more risks and expect to be successful, whilst
a self schema depicting a timid person might lead us to take the back seat in large
groups and avoid confrontations. By adjusting our self schema we can alter the
self-expectations of our own behavior.

https://www.psychologistworld.com/memory/schema-memory

Sociocultural theory

Sociocultural theory is a psychological and sociological theory. The theory was

developed by Lev Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist, in 1934.

The theory talks about the importance of society and culture to shape and
develop an individual. It shows how parents, friends, teachers, and society
develop the individual’s sociocultural, learning and cognitive functions.
Similarly, the theory highlights the importance of sociocultural values and
beliefs in developing these functions.

Many pieces of research and

additions have been made to the
theory since its development. It has
been used to derive other cognitive
development theories like social, and
child development.

Concepts in Sociocultural Theory

Every function in the child’s cultural development appears twice: first, on the
social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people
(interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological). This applies
equally to voluntary attention, to logical memory, and to the formation of
concepts. All the higher functions originate as actual relationships between
individuals . - Vygotsky, 1978
According to Vygotsky, a child already has some innate biological characteristics
of his brain. Society and culture only provide him “tools for intellectual
adaptations”. These tools vary in different cultures and societies. Socio-cultural
development with the help of these tools develops his human intelligence and
cognition.

For example, one culture teaches

children to play with toys, while the
other encourages them to play
outdoors. Children from both cultures
adapt to what their cultures teach
them. If a culture encourages talking,
they will learn to do so. If a culture
requires children to learn two
languages at the same time, they will
learn both.
There are two levels of learning in
children according to this theory –
social level and personal level.

Social level (the first level) says that an

individual learns through interaction in
a society. Adding to this, Personal level
(the second level) says these learning
are reflected throughout his life.

Inter-psychological cognitive
development is the development of
learning and cognition in the first level.
It happens due to society and culture
through interaction. On the other hand,
changes that occur inside a child’s brain
in the second level is an intra-psychological process of cognitive development.
Here, child’s behavior and thinking pattern change because of interaction with
culture and society. These are the two types of cognitive development that
occurs socio-culturally in the theory.

Sociocultural reasons help children to form concepts, mindsets, logical memory

and attention span. These are parts of cognition of humans.

Cognitive Development Strategies

Cognitive development happens within the limits of zone of proximal
development (ZPD). ZPD is the difference between cognitive development
that a child can achieve on its own and what it can’t. In some activities, children
need support from their social and cultural circles. They can get help from
parents, teachers or peers to develop skills and form understanding.

Society teaches shared meanings to the children. It also helps in children’s

cognitive development socio-culturally. This help and support is the concept of
scaffolding according to Vygotsky. The people who know more than a child and
help it develop is the more knowledgeable other (MKO).

Other processes or strategies used to develop the child’s cognitive abilities are:
  Modeling
 Collaborative learning
 Discourse
There can also be differences in the child’s potential to develop his/her
cognition and the actual development level.

Principles of Sociocultural
Theory
 Children construct their own knowledge:
Knowledge is not transferable; it needs
learning. Acquiring knowledge is an
individual ability. However, children
might need help to do so.
 Learning needs mediation:
Other people interact with the child to
use tools and facilitate the learning process.
 Language is used for mental development:
People use language to develop higher psychological functions.
 Two levels of learning:
It happens on social level at first and then on individual level.
 Social context is important:
If a person does not get the proper social environment to develop,
cognition does not develop.
 Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD):
It is how much a child develops with help from society. It differs from that
of the development that happens without help.

Examples of Sociocultural Theory

A child can’t learn many
things without society
like language skills. They
need to be with people to
learn how to use
language.

Similarly, people also

develop their own
cognition by reading,
interacting, using
various tools, etc. So, a
person’s cognitive level and another person’s can be different.

One child can be curious, exploring, eager to learn and hardworking, while
another child might not be. Someone might be better at indoor games while
someone at outdoor games. People differ according to their cognitive
development and their interests.

Individual persistence can help the person acquire new

skills and knowledge. He/she might need external help to
see and learn those things.
For instance, the child has never seen anyone play a Chinese game called
Mahjong, the child will not be able to know how to play it. But if someone shows
him/her, the child will develop a skill to play the game. He/she can even surpass
the skills of the person who taught him/her with practice and cognitive
development.
When a child is first taught to write, he/she might not be able to do it right away
but can write well after several days’ practice.

Piaget’s Sociocultural Theory

According to Piaget’s Sociocultural theory, bits of information that form
cognition is a schema. It is mental representations and meanings of everything.
Adaptation processes like assimilation, accommodation and equilibration help
in changing schemata.

There are four stages of cognitive development. They are sensorimotor stage,
preoperational stage, concrete operational stage and formal operational stage.

Vygotsky and Piaget’s Sociocultural Theory

Vygotsky and Piaget have given their own versions of the theory. According to
both, children construct knowledge by learning. But there are many differences
between the two psychologists’ concept of the theory.

Vygotsky says that language and culture are more

important than maturation.But, according to
Piaget, there are stages of thinking based on
natural maturation. Role of teachers is central
according to Vygotsky and the opposite in Piaget.

According to Vygotsky, children need

opportunities to develop skills in various things.
For this, scaffolding is important. He also states
that language is a means to achieve cognitive
development while Piaget regards language as a
measure of cognitive development.

Criticisms of Sociocultural Theory

 The theory by Vygotsky is in Russian and is not accessible in other parts
of the world without translation.
 The theory is assumed to be applicable to all cultures, but it might not be
possible in some. The theory is refuted as being universal.
 Concepts like scaffolding, use of verbal communication and use of
language might not be applicable all times to all the people like blinds and
deafs.
  Skills are not learned through verbal instructions but by observation and
practice.
 Piaget has said that maturation and learning process is relational to
contexts. Maturation does not only affect learning but learning can be a
way of maturation.

https://www.businesstopia.net/communication/sociocultural-theory

Observation Techniques

Observations of Children should
demonstrate a variety of different
observation techniques and
various ways to present your
work.

Observations of child
development can be recorded in:
written records to record details of
what the child does and says, and more importantly how the child does and says
things.
audio tape recordings to record details of spoken language, tone of voice and
other sounds.
video recordings to record details of what is seen and heard of the child's
development.

The advantages and disadvantages of different methods of recording

observations.

RECORDING
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
METHOD

Convenient and
Things may happen too
requires no special
WRITING quickly to accurately record
equipment except a
every detail.
notebook and pen.

Requires a tape recorder,

Records all the
audio tape and a quiet area
sounds so no details
with a minimum of
are missed. This is
background noise. Very
AUDIO TAPE helpful to record
young children use non-
RECORDING language
verbal communication in
development,
gesture, facial expression
especially in school
and actions which are not
children.
recorded.

VIDEO TAPE Records all the Requires special equipment

RECORDING details that can be and knowledge to use it
seen and heard by effectively.
the camera. This is Lighting and background
 noise can affect the
helpful to record
recording. Children may be
planned activities in
inhibited, move away or
one area of a room.
play to the camera.

Now we know how to record observations of child development  writing

 audio tape video recording
So the next step is choose an appropriate observation technique.

Different observation techniques help to

OBSERVATION
focus the observation so appropriate data is
TECHNIQUE
collected and presented in meaningful ways.

This is a written narrative that tells the story

as it happens. Observations can be of planned
ANECDOTAL activities, but spontaneous observations can
show surprising things about a child's
development that might never be seen.

It is helpful to research the area of

development before observing. A pre-planned
SCHEDULES development checklist helps to focus the
observation, but can be limited unless
individual details are recorded.

Charts and pictures can present observation

CHARTS AND
data in colourful ways to make your portfolio
PICTOGRAMS
appear more interesting.

Observations of children are recorded at fixed

regular intervals of time to note what is
TIME SAMPLING happening at that moment. For example
children's play during a morning can be
recorded every 15 minutes.

Observations focus on particular events to

build up a pattern of a child's behaviour over
EVENT a period of days or weeks. For example to
SAMPLING discover what provokes tantrums, or how a
child reacts to leaving their carer at the start
of each day in nursery.

A series of observations to give a picture of an

individual child's holistic development. A
baby will change rapidly during your time in
TARGET CHILD
placement and a longitudinal study of a
child's development over several months is
fascinating.
Observation Techniques

Anecdotal - Anecdotal observations of child development can be planned in

advance or be spontaneous observations of interesting instances.

 anecdotal observations record details of what the child does and says,

and more importantly how the child does and says things.
 anecdotal observations record a written narrative that tells the story as it
happens.
 anecdotal observations can be of planned activities, but spontaneous
observations can show surprising things about a child's development that might
otherwise never be seen.

Now we know what an anecdotal observations of child development

is a written narrative that tells the story as it happens.

So the next step is consider an appropriate example of this observation

technique.

This anecdotal observation tells a story of two 3 year old girls playing in the
home corner of an Education Nursery. The observation is focused on observing
social development.

Points to remember when using an anecdotal observation technique

1. Research developmental guides and textbooks to focus your observation

2. Include sources of information about norms for stages of development in
the bibliography
3. Include a specific aim to focus on an area and stage of development
4. Include the ages of the children
5. Write up your observation notes as soon as possible so you do not forget
essential details
6. Give a detailed description of the observation

Include details of what the child says and does, but more
importantly describe how the child says and does things

Before you go off somewhere else check your understanding!

1. What exactly is an anecdotal observation technique? Choose an option.

 Is this an observation of a planned activity?

 Is this an observation of an individual child?
 Is this a written narrative that tells the story as it happens?

2. When is an anecdotal observation the most appropriate observation

technique to use? Choose an option.
 To observe a child's behaviour at lunchtimes over two weeks.
 To observe a 2 year old child's interaction with an adult.
 To observe Year 1 children using the National Curriculum.

Schedules - Observation schedules can be pre-planned in advance to help

focus the observation

 observation schedules are a pre-planned list of child development

milestones used to assess a child on one particular day. They give a snapshot
observation to help plan to meet the child's individual needs.
 observation schedules are an easy, quick way to collect and present a
great deal of information especially for observations of groups of children. The
results are obvious and easy to interpret.
 observation schedules can be limited in giving details of an individual's
unique development. Observers need to be objective and only record skills seen
during the observation and not tick skills that they think the child has achieved.

Now we know what an observation schedule is a pre-planned

checklist of child development milestones.

So the next step is consider an appropriate example of this observation

technique.

There are two examples of observation schedules.

The first uses the same example of two 3 year old girls, Katy and Rosie, playing
in the home corner of an Education Nursery. The checklist is focused on social
development and includes a column to comment on individual details of
development. The checklist is more specific and meaningful in showing the
children's development.
The second example of gross motor skills is limited and lacks detail.

Points to remember when using an observation schedule technique

1. Use developmental guides and textbooks to design a checklist

2. State the sources of information about norms for stages of development
3. Include a title to say what area of development is observed
4. Include the ages of the children
5. Include a key to explain what the checklist means
6. Using observed today/not observed today is less judgemental
than yes/no or achieved/not achieved
7. Ticklists give limited information, but adding comments can give
individual details about each child's development.

Before you go off somewhere else check your understanding!

1. What exactly is an observation schedule? Choose an option.

 Is this a way to observe a group of children?

 Is this a pre-planned checklist of child development milestones?
 Is this a checklist to record all the skills a child has achieved?
2. When is an observation schedule the most appropriate technique to use for an
observation? Choose an option.

 To observe a child's verbal language.

 To observe a baby's development as part of a longitudinal study.
 To observe an individual child's cognitive development to plan stimulating
activities to meet the child's needs.

Charts and Pictograms - Charts and pictures can present observation data in
colourful ways to make your portfolio appear more interesting.

 charts are a useful way of presenting easy to read information about

groups of children.
 charts show how many children have reached particular milestones, but
give little information about individual development. Examples are graphs, bar
charts, pie charts, histograms and Venn diagrams.
 pictograms present a developmental checklist in an attractive way.
Examples are flower charts, butterflies and other pictures to show key
development milestones associated with a particular activity.

Now we know what charts and pictograms are attractive ways to

present information about groups of children.

So the next step is consider an appropriate example of this observation

technique.

The information used in the charts is taken from the Time Sampling observation
of children's play in different areas of an Education Nursery. Examples of graph,
bar chart, pie chart and Venn Diagram are shown. The Pictograms give
examples of cognitive skills.

Points to remember when using observation charts and pictograms

1. Research developmental guides and textbooks to focus your observation

2. Include sources of information about norms for stages of development in
the bibliography
3. Include a specific title to focus on an area and stage of development
4. Include the ages of the children
5. Include a key to explain the chart or pictogram
6. Make sure charts are neat, legible and colourful
7. Make sure charts are accurate it is easy to make mistakes in transferring
observation data

Before you go off somewhere else check your understanding!

1. What exactly is an observation chart? Choose an option.

 Is this a way to observe a group of children?
 Is this an attractive way to present data on groups of children?
 Is this a checklist to record child development?

2. When is an observation chart the most appropriate technique to present an

observation?

Choose an option.

 To observe a toddler's unique language development.

 To observe emotional development as part of a longitudinal study.
 To observe children's gross motor skills during outdoor play.

Time Sampling - Observations of children are recorded at fixed regular

intervals of time to note what is happening at that moment.

 time samples are a useful way to collect and present observation data

over a long period of time.
 time samples are repeated short focused snapshots of child development
used to collect precise data.
 time samples can be used to observe a child's behaviour to identify
possible concerns. For example a shy child who does not relate to other
children. The observer needs to be aware of not making it obvious to the child
that they are being observed.

Now we know what time samples are repeated short focused

snapshots of child development used to collect precise data over a
long period of time.

So the next step is consider an appropriate example of this observation

technique.

Points to remember when using a time sampling technique

technique

1. You will need to concentrate on observing what happens at regular

intervals
2. Ask advice from placement supervisors about when and where to try a
time sampling technique
3. Have a clear specific aim to focus your work
4. Plan a simple chart to record your data
5. Do this before you start to observe
6. Keep a careful watch on the time it is easy to be side-tracked
7. STOP observing if a child needs you

Before you go off somewhere else check your understanding!

1. What exactly is time sampling? Choose an option.

 Is this a way to observe a group of children?

 Is this observing a child for an exact period of time?
 Is this repeated short focused snapshots of child development used to collect
precise data over a long period of time?
2. When is time sampling the most appropriate technique to use? Choose an
option.

 To observe a baby's interaction with an older sibling.

 To observe an individual's emotional development over two days.
 To observe children's gross motor skills during outdoor play.

Event Sampling - Observations focus on particular events to build up a

pattern of a child's behaviour over a period of days or weeks. For example to
discover what provokes tantrums, or how a child reacts to leaving their carer at
the start of each day in nursery.

 event samples are a useful way to detect if a child has a behaviour

problem that needs help or referral to another professional.
 event samples help to clarify what really happens during a tantrum. For
example is the child provoked, does the event happen at certain times of day,
how long does the tantrum last?
 event samples focus on perceived problems and attempt to find solutions
to manage the child's behaviour more effectively. The observer needs to be
focused and remember to note the details as the event occurs.

Now we know what event samples are observations focused on

particular events to build up a pattern of a child's behaviour over a
period of days or weeks.

Points to remember when using an event sampling technique

1. Event sampling is writing a diary focused on one child's response to the

present situation
2. State the aim to give a clear focus to your work
3. Include a title to say what behaviour is observed
4. Give the context of the observation to explain your aims more fully
5. Include a antecedent to explain what lead up to the behaviour
6. Describe the child's behaviour in some detail
7. Include the consequences to show what happens next.
This shows strategies that reinforce the behaviour.

Before you go off somewhere else check your understanding!

1. What exactly is event sampling? Choose an option.

 Is this observations focused on particular events to build up a pattern of a

child's behaviour over a period of days or weeks.
 Is this observing a child completing an activity?
 Is this repeated short focused snapshots of child development used to collect
precise data over a long period of time?

2. When is event sampling the most appropriate technique to use? Choose an

option.

 To observe two children painting a picture.

 To observe a child's aggressive behaviour at playtime to judge which strategies
are successful in managing this behaviour.
 To observe a baby learning to crawl.

Target Child - A series of observations to give a picture of an individual child's

holistic development.

 observations of a target child show a child's unique all round

development at a particular age and stage.
 observations of a target child can form part of a longitudinal study that
observes a child's development and repeats the observation at a later age and
stage. Children change more slowly, but over several months a baby will develop
new skills at a fascinating rate.
 observations of a target child provide a vast amount of information about
an individual's progress in each area of development The observer needs to be
aware that the child may feel singled out if the observation is made too obvious.
This can be avoided by sometimes observing the target child as part of a group.

Now we know what target child observations are a series of

observations to give a picture of an individual child's holistic
development.

So the next step is consider an appropriate example of this observation

technique.

Points to remember when using a target child technique

1. Focus on one child's development

2. Try not to make it obvious to the child that you are observing them. This
can distress some children or it can encourage others to play-up for the occasion
3. A study of holistic development should include a variety of observation
techniques
4. The evaluation of a target child study should refer to the other
observations and include an assessment of the child's holistic development
5. A longitudinal study should focus on a specific area of development to
show changes in development over time
6. The evaluation of a longitudinal study should refer back to the first
observation and show the progress the child has made in their development.
7. Use a variety of sources of information to research norms and make an
assessment of the child's stage of development

Before you go off somewhere else check your understanding!

1. What exactly is a target child observation?

Choose an option.

 Is this a longitudinal study of a baby's language development?

 Is this a series of observations to give a picture of an individual child's holistic
development.
 Is this an observation of a 7 year old child reading aloud?

2. When is observing a target child the most appropriate technique to use?

Choose an option.

 To observe interaction between a baby and an older sibling in the first 3
months.
 To observe a child with special needs to assess holistic development to help to
plan appropriate learning opportunities.
 To observe play in an early years setting.

http://www.newchildcare.co.uk/techni.html

What is an assessment?

Assessment is the systematic process of documenting and using empirical data

on the knowledge, skills, attitudes and beliefs. By taking the assessment,
teachers try to improve student learning. This is a short definition of
assessment.If you want to read more about assessment, click on this link.

What is testing?

What is testing in education? Almost everybody has experienced testing during

his or her life. Grammar tests, driving license test etc. A test is used to examine
someone’s knowledge of something to determine what that person knows or has
learned. It measures the level of skill or knowledge that has been reached. An
evaluative device or procedure in which a sample of an examinee’s behavior in a
specified domain is obtained and subsequently evaluated and scored using a
standardized process (The Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing,
1999)

So, what’s the difference?

Test and assessment are used interchangeably, but they do mean something
different. A test is a “product” that measures a particular behavior or set of
objectives. Meanwhile assessment is seen as a procedure instead of a product.
Assessment is used during and after the instruction has taken place. After you’ve
received the results of your assessment, you can interpret the results and in case
needed alter the instruction. Tests are done after the instruction has taken
place, it’s a way to complete the instruction and get the results. The results of
the tests don’t have to be interpreted, unlike assessment. 

6 Types of assessment to use in your

classroom

There’s a time and place for every type of

assessment. Keep reading to find creative
ways of delivering assessments and
understanding your students’ learning
process!

1. Diagnostic assessment

Let’s say you’re starting a lesson on two-

digit multiplication. To make sure the unit
goes smoothly, you want to know if your students have mastered fact
families, place value and one-digit multiplication before you move on to more
complicated questions.

When you structure diagnostic assessments around your lesson, you’ll get

the information you need to understand student knowledge and
engage your whole classroom.

Some examples to try include:

 Mind maps
 Flow charts
 KWL charts
 Short quizzes
 Journal entries
 Student interviews
 Student reflections
 Graphic organizers
 Classroom discussions
Diagnostic assessments can also help benchmark student progress. Consider
giving the same assessment at the end of the unit so students can see how far
they’ve come!

Using Prodigy for diagnostic assessments

One unique way of delivering diagnostic assessments is to use a game-based

learning platform that engages your students.

Prodigy’s assessments tool helps you align the math questions your students see
in-game with the lessons you want to cover.

To set up a diagnostic assessment, use your assessments tool to create a Plan that

guides students through a skill and automatically drops them down to pre-
requisites when necessary.

2. Formative assessment

Just because students made it to the end-of-unit test, doesn’t mean

they’ve mastered the skill. Formative assessments help teachers understand
student learning while they teach, and adjust their teaching strategies accordingly. 

Meaningful learning involves processing new facts, adjusting assumptions and

drawing nuanced conclusions. Or, as researchers Thomas Romberg and Thomas
Carpenter describe it:

“Current research indicates that acquired knowledge is not

simply a collection of concepts and procedural skills filed in

long-term memory. Rather, the knowledge is structured by

individuals in meaningful ways, which grow and change over

time.”

Formative assessments help you track how student knowledge is

growing and changing in your classroom in real-time. While it
requires a bit of a time investment — especially at first — the gains are more
than worth it. 

Some examples of formative assessments include:

 Portfolios
 Group projects
 Progress reports
 Class discussions
 Entry and exit tickets
 Short, regular quizzes
 Virtual classroom tools like Socrative or Kahoot!
When running formative assessments in your classroom, it’s best to keep
them short, easy to grade and consistent. Introducing students to formative
assessments in a low-stakes way can help you benchmark their progress and
reduce math anxiety when a big test day rolls around.

How Prodigy helps you deliver formative assessments

Prodigy makes it easy to create, deliver and grade formative assessments that keep
your students engaged with the learning process and provide you with actionable
data to adjust your lesson plans. 

Use your Prodigy teacher dashboard to create an Assignment and make formative

assessments easy!

Assignments assess your students on a particular skill with a set number of

questions and can be differentiated for individual students or groups of students.

3. Summative assessment

Summative assessments measure
student progress as an assessment of
learning and provide data for you,
school leaders and district
leaders.

They're cost-efficient and valuable

when it comes to communicating
student progress, but they don’t
always give clear feedback on the
learning process and can foster a
“teach to the test” mindset if you’re not
careful. 

Plus, they’re stressful for teachers. One Harvard survey found 60% of teachers

said “preparing students to pass mandated standardized tests” “dictates most of”
or “substantially affects” their teaching.

Sound familiar?

But just because it’s a summative assessment, doesn’t mean it can’t be engaging
for students and useful for your teaching. Try creating assessments that deviate
from the standard multiple-choice test, like:

 Recording a podcast
 Writing a script for a short play
 Producing an independent study project

No matter what type of summative assessment you give your students, keep some
best practices in mind:

 Keep it real-world relevant where you can

 Make questions clear and instructions easy to follow
 Give a rubric so students know what’s expected of them
 Create your final test after, not before, teaching the lesson
 Try blind grading: don’t look at the name on the assignment before you
mark it
 Preparing student for summative assessments with Prodigy

Did you know you can use Prodigy to prepare your students for summative
assessments — and deliver them in-game?

Use Assignments to differentiate math practice for each student or send an end-

of-unit test to the whole class.

Or use our Test Prep tool to understand student progress and help them prepare
for standardized tests in an easy, fun way!

See how you can benchmark student

progress and prepare for
standardized tests with Prodigy.

4. Ipsative assessments

How many of your students get a

bad grade on a test and get so
discouraged they stop trying? 

Ipsative assessments are one of

the types of assessment as learning
that compares previous results
with a second try, motivating students to set goals and improve their
skills. 

When a student hands in a piece of creative writing, it’s just the first draft. They
practice athletic skills and musical talents to improve, but don’t always get the
same chance when it comes to other subjects like math. 

A two-stage assessment framework helps students learn from their mistakes and
motivates them to do better. Plus, it removes the instant gratification of goals and
teaches students learning is a process. 

You can incorporate ipsative assessments into your classroom with:

 Portfolios
 A two-stage testing process
 Project-based learning activities

One study on ipsative learning techniques found that when it was used with higher
education distance learners, it helped motivate students and encouraged them to
act on feedback to improve their grades. What could it look like in your classroom?

5. Norm-referenced assessments

Norm-referenced assessments are tests designed to compare an individual to

a group of their peers, usually based on national standards and occasionally
adjusted for age, ethnicity or other demographics.
Unlike ipsative assessments, where the student is only competing against
themselves, norm-referenced assessments draw from a wide range of data
points to make conclusions about student achievement.

Types of norm-referenced assessments include:

 IQ tests
 Physical assessments
 Standardized college admissions tests like the SAT and GRE

Proponents of norm-referenced assessments point out that they accentuate

differences among test-takers and make it easy to analyze large-scale trends.
Critics argue they don’t encourage complex thinking and can inadvertently
discriminate against low-income students and minorities. 

Norm-referenced assessments are most useful when measuring student

achievement to determine:

 Language ability
 Grade readiness
 Physical development
 College admission decisions
 Need for additional learning support

While they’re not usually the type of assessment you deliver in your classroom,
chances are you have access to data from past tests that can give you valuable
insights into student performance.

6. Criterion-referenced assessments

Criterion-referenced assessments compare the score of an individual

student to a learning standard and performance level, independent of other
students around them. 

Types Of Standardized Testing

An exam or quiz is an educational examination meant to measure the capability,

knowledge, aptitude, ability, class, or category in different subjects. There are
several kinds of tests and quizzes available in the market. These consist of
multiple-choice, reappraisal, judgment task, logical reasoning test, and
personality test. A variety of companies, both private and government, provide
these tests and quizzes at various levels to students, parents, teachers, coaches,
and counselors.

Based upon the type of examination, the kind of test and its mode of
administration, it can vary a great deal from one subject to another. For
instance, depending upon the kind of examination, the kinds of questions it
contains, and the mode of administering it, a home-based test may be different
from a college or university test. Moreover, depending upon the jurisdiction and
policies of the educational institution that holds the exam or quiz, the kind of
procedures the administrators make use of in administering the exams and
quizzes can also differ. In short, the kinds of exams and quizzes administered
depend solely on the kind of objectives that the educational institution wishes to
achieve from holding these tests. However, there are certain general types of
examinations that are administered by almost all educational institutions.

Most of the educational institutions hold standardized testing and proficiency

examinations for students taking up courses in schools and colleges. This is to
determine whether the student is in line with the requirements of the
institution. Standardized testing and proficiency examinations are conducted
through nationally accredited organizations such as the National Association for
State Board of Education (NASBE) and the Council of Higher Education
Accreditation (CHEA). Systemized testing and proficiency examinations are also
conducted by the state as well as the country. The reason for holding a
standardized examination and a proficiency examination varies from subject to
subject.

Home-based standardized tests are usually administered by parents, guardians,

or any other individual who has been designated by the school or the district to
administer these tests. For students taking up classes at home, parents or
guardians may administer the exam. In this case, the test may be taken either at
the school at home, or at a remote site that offers instructional facilities for such
an examination. In most cases, home-based assessments are more affordable
than the others. In addition, students taking up classes at home have greater
access to tutors and instructors who are more capable of imparting knowledge
learned in school to them.

There are also multiple-choice standardized tests that are administered to

students taking up academic courses in colleges and universities. Unlike in
home-based assessment, test takers have greater chances to make mistakes
during the assessment process. Test results are thus more likely to vary
according to the student’s performance.

In summary, standardized testing has three major types that vary according to
their nature. In some cases, standardized testing is compulsory while in others it
is given as a consequence of failure to comply with rules. Most schools still
administering standardized tests have different approaches in administering
exams.

The Cycle of Assessment

Good assessment follows an intentional and reflective process of design,

implementation, evaluation, and revision. The Cycle of Assessment relies on
four simple but dynamic words to represent this process: Teach, Measure,
Reflect, and Plan & Improve.
The following graphics show how the Cycle of Assessment is built on these four
distinct but interrelated actions.

Assessment Cycle: Teach

“Teaching” is the first phase of our

assessment cycle. We employ strategies to
help our students learn the course outcomes.

Assessment Cycle: Measure

“Assessing Student Learning” is the second

phase of our assessment cycle. We develop
methods to assess whether our students are
learning the material.

Assessment Cycle: Reflect

“Reflecting” is the third phase of our

assessment cycle. We look back on whether
our teaching strategies were successful and
what changes we can make improve to
student learning.

Assessment Cycle: Plan & Improve

“Improving our instruction” is the fourth phase of our assessment cycle. We
refine our instructional strategies and techniques to help all students achieve
mastery of the course outcomes.

What do I want students to learn?*

Good assessment planning begins by identifying learning outcomes for
students. Planning then involves building programs and courses that provide
students opportunities to achieve these learning outcomes.

Alignment and integration of learning outcomes are the keys to successful

assessment planning. Learning outcomes identified at the institutional level
must be integrated at the program and course level. Conversely, course
outcomes must align with program outcomes, which in turn must align with
institutional outcomes.

Effective planning and integration depends on clearly articulated goals for

student learning. Outcome statements must also be measurable and must target
various skill levels within the cognitive domain.

The links on this page provide guidance with each of these elements of
successful assessment planning. The first link discusses the paradigm shift at
the heart of contemporary assessment-the shift from a focus on what the
instructor does to what the student learns. The second set of links provides
specific information designed to guide effective planning. The final link provides
a light-hearted but helpful overview of planning components.

How do I teach effectively?*

Assessment gathers data on what students do (what is learned) not on what
instructors do (what is taught). However, the “DO” stage of the assessment cycle
begins with instructors and with the question, “How do I teach effectively?”

Effective teaching provides continuity between the Plan and Check stages of the
assessment cycle. Effective teachers implement program outcomes at the course
level in ways that facilitate student learning. That is, they design learning
activities that help students achieve what is developed in the Plan stage. The
range of possible learning activities is wide and varied: projects, papers,
performances, presentations, and exams are the most familiar direct
measurements of student learning used at the course level.

Learning activities must be designed to stimulate learning and to yield

assessment data for the evaluation that follows in the Check stage. In addition to
relying on data gathered within particular courses, program evaluation is also
based on other sources of assessment data, including direct measures such as
comprehensive and standardized exams and indirect measures such as course
evaluations and alumni surveys. The development of these assessment measures
is also part of the Do stage.

Are my outcomes being met?*

The previous stage concludes with students “doing” activities designed to help
them achieve learning objectives developed at the “planning” stage. Effectively
designed activities generate assessment data that is “checked” at this stage of
the assessment cycle.

Checking should occur at both the course and program levels. Instructors check
the array of activities students complete to fulfill course requirements. But if
checking stops with the individual instructor, then program assessment will
necessarily be limited. Effective program assessment requires that participants
gather and share data on student achievement of program outcomes. Some of
this data may come from assessments not limited to a particular course (such
and surveys and competency exams). Other data will come from student
performance within the courses that constitute the academic program.

Checking seeks to determine the extent to which students are achieving each
outcome. Thus, a global measure of student success, such as a course grade, is
not likely to provide sufficient assessment data. Effective course and program
evaluation requires that student performance on individual outcomes be
reported as specifically as possible.

How do I use what I’ve learned?*

Good instructors constantly act on the results of assessment. When students
don’t seem to be achieving desired outcomes, instructors make adjustments.
Such a process is continuous and includes both reinforcement and revision. The
things that work, stay; the things that don’t, go.

When the above process is followed within an individual course, the assessment
cycle is complete and able to repeat. Instructors can improve at each stage of the
process, but the minimum requirements of assessment are being met and
modifications (based on assessment data) can be made to improve student
learning.

Action can be taken at the program level provided sufficient data have been
gathered and checked. If the steps described in the Check stage have been
followed, those involved in designing the program can take needed action.

At both the course and program levels, the results of “checking” identify
“actions” that will form the basis for subsequent “planning.” Action thus allows
the Plan-Do-Check-Act cycle to continue.

Formative and Summative Assessments

Assessment allows both instructor and student to monitor progress towards

achieving learning objectives, and can be approached in a variety of
ways. Formative assessment refers to tools that identify misconceptions,
struggles, and learning gaps along the way and assess how to close those gaps.
It includes effective tools for helping to shape learning, and can even bolster
students’ abilities to take ownership of their learning when they understand
that the goal is to improve learning, not apply final marks (Trumbull and Lash,
2013). It can include students assessing themselves, peers, or even the
instructor, through writing, quizzes, conversation, and more. In short,
formative assessment occurs throughout a class or course, and seeks to
improve student achievement of learning objectives through approaches that
can support specific student needs (Theal and Franklin, 2010, p. 151). 

In contrast, summative assessments evaluate student learning, knowledge,

proficiency, or success at the conclusion of an instructional period, like a unit,
course, or program. Summative assessments are almost always formally
graded and often heavily weighted (though they do not need to be).
Summative assessment can be used to great effect in conjunction and
alignment with formative assessment, and instructors can consider a variety of
ways to combine these approaches. 

Examples of Formative and Summative Assessments

Formative Summative

In-class discussions Instructor-created exams

Clicker questions Standardized tests

Low-stakes group work Final projects

Weekly quizzes Final essays

1-minute reflection writing assignments Final presentations

Homework assignments Final reports

Surveys Final Grades

Both forms of assessment can vary across several dimensions (Trumbull and
Lash, 2013): 

 Informal / formal
 Immediate / delayed feedback
 Embedded in lesson plan / stand-alone
 Spontaneous / planned
 Individual / group
 Verbal / nonverbal
 Oral / written
 Graded / ungraded
 Open-ended response / closed/constrained response
 Teacher initiated/controlled / student initiated/controlled
 Teacher and student(s) / peers
 Process-oriented / product-oriented
 Brief / extended
 Scaffolded (teacher supported) / independently performed 

Recommendations
Formative Assessment   Ideally, formative assessment strategies improve
teaching and learning simultaneously. Instructors can help students grow as
learners by actively encouraging them to self-assess their own skills and
knowledge retention, and by giving clear instructions and feedback. Seven
principles (adapted from Nicol and Macfarlane-Dick, 2007 with additions) can
guide instructor strategies:

 Keep clear criteria for what defines good performance -

Instructors can explain criteria for A-F graded papers, and encourage
student discussion and reflection about these criteria (this can be
accomplished though office hours, rubrics, post-grade peer review,
or exam / assignment wrappers(link is external)). Instructors may
also hold class-wide conversations on performance criteria at strategic
moments throughout a term.

 Encourage students’ self-reflection - Instructors can ask students

to utilize course criteria to evaluate their own or a peer’s work, and to
share what kinds of feedback they find most valuable. In addition,
instructors can ask students to describe the qualities of their best work,
either through writing or group discussion.

 Give students detailed, actionable feedback - Instructors can

consistently provide specific feedback tied to predefined criteria, with
opportunities to revise or apply feedback before final submission.
Feedback may be corrective and forward-looking, rather than just
evaluative. Examples include comments on multiple paper drafts,
criterion discussions during 1-on-1 conferences, and regular online
quizzes.

 Encourage teacher and peer dialogue around learning -

Instructors can invite students to discuss the formative learning process
together. This practice primarily revolves around mid-semester
feedback and small group feedback sessions, where students reflect
on the course and instructors respond to student concerns. Students can
also identify examples of feedback comments they found useful and
explain how they helped. A particularly useful strategy, instructors can
invite students to discuss learning goals and assignment criteria, and
weave student hopes into the syllabus.

 Promote positive motivational beliefs and self-esteem -

Students will be more motivated and engaged when they are assured that
an instructor cares for their development. Instructors can allow for
 rewrites/resubmissions to signal that an assignment is designed to
promote development of learning. These rewrites might utilize low-stakes
assessments, or even automated online testing that is anonymous, and (if
appropriate) allows for unlimited resubmissions.

 Provide opportunities to close the gap between current and

desired performance - Related to the above, instructors can improve
student motivation and engagement by making visible any opportunities
to close gaps between current and desired performance. Examples include
opportunities for resubmission, specific action points for writing or task-
based assignments, and sharing study or process strategies that an
instructor would use in order to succeed.
 
 Collect information which can be used to help shape
teaching - Instructors can feel free to collect useful information from
students in order to provide targeted feedback and instruction. Students
can identify where they are having difficulties, either on an assignment or
test, or in written submissions. This approach also
promotes metacognition, as students are asked to think about their own
learning. Poorvu Center staff can also perform a classroom
observation or conduct a small group feedback session that can
provide instructors with potential student struggles. 

Instructors can find a variety of other formative assessment techniques

through Angelo and Cross (1993), Classroom Assessment Techniques (list of
techniques available here(link is external)).

Summative Assessment   Because summative assessments are usually

higher-stakes than formative assessments, it is especially important to ensure
that the assessment aligns with the goals and expected outcomes of the
instruction.  

 Use a Rubric or Table of Specifications - Instructors can use

a rubric to lay out expected performance criteria for a range of grades.
Rubrics will describe what an ideal assignment looks like, and
“summarize” expected performance at the beginning of term, providing
students with a trajectory and sense of completion. 
 Design Clear, Effective Questions - If designing essay questions,
instructors can ensure that questions meet criteria while allowing
students freedom to express their knowledge creatively and in ways that
honor how they digested, constructed, or mastered meaning. Instructors
can read about ways to design effective multiple choice questions.

 Assess Comprehensiveness - Effective summative assessments

provide an opportunity for students to consider the totality of a course’s
content, making broad connections, demonstrating synthesized skills, and
exploring deeper concepts that drive or found a course’s ideas and
content. 
 Make Parameters Clear - When approaching a final assessment,
instructors can ensure that parameters are well defined (length of
assessment, depth of response, time and date, grading standards);
knowledge assessed relates clearly to content covered in course; and
students with disabilities are provided required space and support.

 Consider Blind Grading - Instructors may wish to know whose work

they grade, in order to provide feedback that speaks to a student’s term-
long trajectory. If instructors wish to provide truly unbiased summative
assessment, they can also consider a variety of blind grading
techniques.

Mosaic Approach

The development of the Mosaic approach has taken place through two studies
and an international review. The aim of the original study was to develop
methodologies for including the voices of young children in the evaluation of
early childhood services. The name, the Mosaic approach, was chosen to
represent the bringing together of different pieces or perspectives in order to
create an image of children’s worlds, both individual and collective. The Mosaic
approach combines the traditional methodology of observation and interviewing
with the introduction of participatory tools. Children use cameras to document
‘what is important here’; they take the researcher on a tour and are in charge of
how this is recorded, and make maps using their photographs and drawings.
Each tool forms one piece of the mosaic. There were two stages in the original
study. Stage One focused on gathering material using these varied methods. In
Stage Two, these pieces of documentation were brought together with parents’
and practitioners’ comments to form the basis of dialogue, reflection and
interpretation, a process involving children and adults

• Stage One: gathering children’s and adults’ perspectives;

• Stage Two: discussing (reviewing) the material;
• Stage Three: deciding on areas of continuity and change.

Although this describes the gathering and reviewing as two distinct phases, in
reality these stages become to some [extent] blurred. For example, practitioners
began to review the children’s use of the outdoor space when the researcher
placed photographs from the observation in the cloakroom area during the first
weeks of the study. Reflecting on meanings and reassessing understandings is
implicit throughout the whole approach, but this second stage allows a
concentrated period of reflection

The pedagogy of listening and the Mosaic approach

[…] Rinaldi [2005] describes the multifaceted nature of the pedagogy of

listening, which has been one of the cornerstones of practice in Reggio Emilia.
The elements include:

• internal listening or self-reflection;

• multiple listening or openness to other ‘voices’;
• visible listening, which includes documentation and interpretation
Each of these features relate to the listening processes, which have emerged
from working with the Mosaic approach. The following section will examine
these elements in turn with the help of case studies taken from the Spaces to
play study

Internal listening Internal listening acknowledges the importance of listening as

a strategy for children to make sense of their world. Listening is, therefore, not
just an avenue for other people receiving information but a reflective process for
children to consider meanings, make discoveries and new connections and
express understandings. […] Rinaldi [2005] describes one of the first questions
the educators in Reggio ask themselves: ‘How can we help children find the
meaning of what they do, what they encounter, what they experience?’. The
question at the centre of the Mosaic approach has been: ‘What does it mean to
be in this place?’. The question can be interpreted in many ways but at one level
it is asking children: ‘What does it mean to be you in this place now in this
present moment, in the past and in the future?’. There is a physical dimension
to this question. It has directed children to reflect on the specific environment of
their early childhood institution, whether inside or outside. However, the place
could be a city, a park or a bedroom. […] The important ingredient here is that
children are given the opportunity to reflect on their lived experiences rather
than an abstract concept. This is in keeping with constructivist models of
learning in which the environment is a key factor in children’s search for
meanings (MacNaughton, 2003). It is a question with no ‘wrong’ answer.
Children can explore their understandings without the fear that they have to
second-guess the intended response. This helps to make the internal listening a
creative process in which there is the freedom to express an idea for the first
time or in a new way. This dimension of listening is in contrast to the
understanding of listening as ‘extracting the truth’, a viewpoint encountered
during the development phase of the Mosaic approach when discussions with
some children’s rights officers implied that children should be enabled to say
what they thought, without the interference of adult interpretation. The Mosaic
approach is more in keeping with the view that ‘it’s not so much a matter of
eliciting children’s preformed ideas and opinions, it’s much more a question of
enabling them to explore the ways in which they perceive the world and
communicate their ideas in a way that is meaningful to them’ (Tolfree and
Woodhead, 1999, p. 21). Developing a multimethod framework has helped the
Mosaic approach to promote internal listening. This was one of the reasons for
including more than one research tool. The greater the diversity of methods
with different learning styles used then the more opportunity children will have
to find new ways of thinking, of looking at the same question in a variety of
ways. Taking photographs, leading a tour or watching slides provide different
mirrors for reflecting on the central question: ‘What does it mean to be in this
place?’. Some young children would be barred from answering this question if
they were only offered one traditional research tool, such as interviewing. This
might include

Case study

Internal listening and inclusive practice Rees was four years old, and about to
start school. He was an affectionate child who appeared to be thoroughly
enjoying preschool. However, his verbal language skills seemed limited, in the
context of the preschool. He was, however, fascinated with cameras. He took
great interest in the researcher’s camera and was keen to volunteer to take his
own photographs. He was delighted with the results and concentrated for an
extended period on making a book of his images (see Table 1.2). Rees insisted
on ‘writing’ his own captions. The practitioners were surprised when they saw
his book as he had shown little interest in experimenting with writing in the
preschool. Rees’s photographs were taken in a great hurry. They covered a range
of subjects including other children and members of staff, but there was only
one shot of just one other child. Rees did not appear to have a particular friend
at the preschool. He chose a photograph of the playhouse for the cover. The
house was not the obvious focus of the photograph but Rees’s naming of the
photograph clarified its subject. This prioritizing of the house tallied with the
responses of many of the children who indicated the significance of this play
space. His choice of the pram was interesting. He filled the pram with pebbles
from the edge of the play space before taking his photograph. This indicated his
awareness of detail and interest in natural objects. Observation had revealed
that Rees was one of the boys who enjoyed playing with the pram and
pushchairs. Rees was invited to take part in the child interview. This was
designed to be as flexible as possible with some children choosing to answer the
questions on the move. However, when the researcher started the interview
Rees copied the questions but made no other response. Rees enjoyed taking part
in the magic carpet slide show. He was captivated by the mechanics of the slide
projector and expressed his delight at learning how to operate the buttons to
produce a new image: ‘I’ve got that one’, he explained. When a slide appeared
showing Barney, he picked up the toy dog and matched him to the image on the
screen. Rees chose to hold Barney as he took part in the review of the study and
listened attentively as the researcher read the book of the children’s words. Rees
had been able to convey important features of his experience at the preschool.
These included the pleasure of being with other children but with no particular
friend, his liking for the playhouse and the pram and an interest in mechanical
objects. Rees had conveyed these ‘ways of seeing’ through the Mosaic approach,
using a range of languages and learning styles (see Figure 1.1). This in turn led
to Rees displaying an interest in communicating through developing graphic
skills as well as entering into more conversations with the researcher. However,
had the study relied solely on the interview he would have been another
invisible child and Rees would not have had the opportunity to engage with the
question ‘what does it mean to be in this place?’ and perhaps more importantly
‘what does it mean to be me here?’. One concern is that Rees will not be offered
the same range of languages and learning styles in order for him to make sense
of the transition to school. This section has focused on the links between the
Mosaic approach and internal listening. The emphasis will now move to
examine the role of multiple listening in the Mosaic approach.

Multiple listening

[…] Rinaldi [2005] describes multiple listening as the opportunities for

practitioners, groups of children and individual children to listen to each other
and to themselves. This conveys the multifaceted nature of listening: it is not
limited to one exchange between two individuals but is a complex web of
interactions, continually moving from the micro to the macro level. This is in
keeping with an interpretivist model of learning (Carr, 2000; MacNaughton,
2003), which acknowledges the importance of multiple perspectives. Multiple
listening recognises the need to make space for the ‘other’, emphasising
listening as an ethical issue. Researchers and practitioners who promote
multiple listening acknowledge the importance of time and resources to enable
children to reflect on their ideas and experiences with their peers and with
adults. The Mosaic approach creates opportunities for multiple listening:

• with practitioners and parents;

• with the researcher and other professionals;
• through individual, paired, small and large group interaction.

The Mosaic approach acknowledges the importance of a framework for

listening, which does not exclude the perspectives of practitioners and parents;
a culture of listening should extend to all involved with an early childhood
institution (Clark et al, 2003). There are opportunities in the Mosaic approach
for listening to practitioners and parents through interviews and through the
second-stage review process. Listening to practitioners’ perspectives in the
Spaces to play study focused on their general perceptions of children’s interests
and priorities outdoors, rather than focusing on individual children. It was
important to interview the manager as well as a range of new and more
experienced practitioners. This acknowledged that there was not a hierarchy of
listening that privileged senior practitioners at the expense of the views of
younger members of the team. The review process provided other opportunities
for multiple listening with practitioners. The staff meetings led by the
researcher to review the children’s material provided a formal opportunity for
reflecting on different perspectives (see the case study below). Many parents
have an in-depth understanding about the details of their children’s lives that
represent their current concerns, passions and interests. […] Interviewing
parents, in the Mosaic approach, is a formal way of acknowledging the different
‘ways of seeing’ parents can offer. One of the disadvantages of working within
the confines of a research study is the limited time available for such listening.
While the numbers of opportunities to listen to parents’ perspectives have been
small, the insights have added an important element to the overall picture of
‘what does it mean to be in this place?’. Several parents, for example, mentioned
that their children enjoyed having opportunities at home to dig and this
reinforced the practitioners’ desire to expand the outside digging spaces at the
preschool. What is the researcher’s role in the Mosaic approach in relation to
multiple listening? The researcher is at times ‘architect’: a creator of spaces and
opportunities where multiple listening can take place and at other times more of
an intermediary relaying different perspectives between different groups and
individuals. An example of the ‘architect’s’ role is the book-making activity. The
children in the Spaces to play study worked on their books of their own
photographs. This opened up discussions with other children who gathered
round the table, watched with interest and discussed the images. Practitioners
were interested in what was happening and talked to the children about the
images they had taken.

The intermediary role relates to the researcher facilitating listening between the
children and other professionals with an interest in children’s perspectives. This
is a way of extending the process of listening beyond the bounds of adults who
are in daily contact with young children. This may involve professionals working
in a range of disciplines, for example social workers (see Clark and Statham,
2005). However, in the Spaces to play study these conversations have been with
professionals concerned with redesigning play spaces. The researcher led the
review with the Development Officer from Learning through Landscapes, which
focused on the documentation of the children’s perspectives. Reflection on the
role of documentation or visible listening will be discussed later. The following
case study will illustrate the opportunities for multiple listening for adults and
children by focusing on the playhouse in the Spaces to play study.

Visible listening

Moving on from examining the links between internal listening and multiple
listening and the Mosaic approach, this next section will examine the role of
documentation or visible listening. Rinaldi [2005] describes the process of
documentation as visible listening through the construction of traces. She
describes how these traces, through note taking, photographs, slides and other
means, not only record the learning process but make the learning possible by
bringing it into being – making it visible. There is a connection here with
multiple listening because documentation allows listening to take place at
different levels and with a range of individuals and groups. […] This section will
focus on the role of documentation within the Mosaic approach, led by a
researcher. The Mosaic approach creates opportunities for visible listening by
promoting platforms for communication at an individual, group, organisational
and wider community level. Children’s book making is one example of visible
listening at an individual level. The process of map making is visible listening at
a group level, which opens out into listening at an organisational level by
displaying the maps for practitioners, parents, other children and visitors to
engage with. Further opportunities for promoting visible listening were added
in the Spaces to play study during the review and evaluation phase. The review
focused on a book made by the researcher, which was a collective record of the
children’s responses and photographs (in contrast to the children’s own
individual book making). This Spaces to play book provided a platform for
communication at an organisational level with practitioners and children. These
discussions led to the subsequent changes to the outdoor environment.
Documentation was a key part of the discussions with Learning through
Landscapes. The chart assembled by the researcher provided the focus for
discussions about the children’s use of the play space, drawing on the
researcher’s notes, the children’s photographs and maps and the interviews.
This illustrates how the Mosaic approach provided a platform for
communication with the wider community, in this instance with an external
organisation interested in working with the preschool but not engaged with the
children on a daily basis. Traces of the study were drawn together for the
evaluation. This collection of photographs acted as a platform for children to
discuss together what they remembered and had enjoyed about participating in
the study. One question arises from this process: who is the documenter? The
Mosaic approach enables both researcher and children to be co-documenters.
The participatory methods have emphasised the children’s role as documenters
of their experiences of ‘being in this place’. The researcher has in turn
documented her observations and reflections on the process, which include both
a visual and verbal contribution to the process. One possibility would be to
extend the documenting role to the practitioners, thus strengthening the
platform for communication and encouraging future visible listening. The
following case study illustrates how one of the tools, map making, provided
several opportunities for visible listening at a number of levels, from the
individual to the community

Communicating & Collaborating with Parents

Parent-Teacher Communication: Strategies for Effective Parent
Inclusion & Engagement

Many elements contribute to whether or not students embrace their educational

experience. Family support, equitable access to education, organized leadership,
committed educators, and attainable educational goals play a significant role in
every student’s academic success.

Studies continue to show that parent involvement is one important factor in

helping students engage in their learning, and parent-teacher communication is
a key aspect of promoting parent involvement.

What Is Parent-Teacher Communication?

Parent-teacher communication begins at the start of a school year and lasts until
students move onto the next grade. Teachers and parents will make
introductions and gradually establish a relationship based on what they have in
common: the student. Parent-teacher communication can take place in person,
typically through parent-teacher conferences or during student drop-off or pick-
up times. Teachers can also reach out to parents on the phone or by email.

Through regular communication with parents, teachers can share information

about a student’s good work and achievements. If a student begins to struggle
with a certain subject or exhibits behavioral problems, the parent will already
have a relationship with the teacher, which helps facilitate parent-teacher
collaboration. This cooperative relationship empowers parents to step in and
support the student at home, supplementing what the teacher is doing at school.

Benefits of Parent-Teacher Communication

When conversations are flowing, students can see that teachers and parents
have their best interests at heart. Effective communication helps establish a
relationship of respect between teachers, parents, and students.
Benefits for Students

Parents who are more involved in their child’s education can help improve
academic achievement, according to the National Center for Education
Statistics. When parents take an interest in school activities, students are given
an additional level of accountability.

When parents communicate with teachers to discover their childrens’ needs,

students see that their family is looking out for them and wants them to be
successful. Parents who assist children with homework and remind them to
study for tests can increase their chances of short-term and long-term success
by helping them develop important habits. Parents can also support children
and help boost their confidence by encouraging them when they do well in
school.

Benefits for Parents

Effective parent-teacher communication can also benefit parents. Since parents

are not always directly involved in the classroom, regular conversations with
teachers can help them understand which subject areas their children are doing
well in, and which ones they are struggling with. It can also help them feel
valued and more confident in engaging in the learning process. Parents who
want to be involved can develop a greater role in their child’s education by
supplementing lessons at home and explaining complicated homework
problems.

Benefits for Teachers

Teachers also benefit from parent-teacher communication, as parents can serve

as a valuable asset in the learning environment. Teachers who cultivate
relationships with parents will gain added cooperation, as parents are more
likely to work with and reach out to teachers they trust. When parents help their
children with homework and behavior at home, teachers can focus on
instruction in the classroom. Teachers may also see higher rates of homework
completion and better grades when parents are involved.

Communication Strategies

Parent-teacher communication can look different for different teachers and

parents. Some relationships may be more difficult to establish than others, but
there are a number of communication strategies that can help teachers and
parents increase engagement in various situations.

Discovering the best methods of communication and formulating messaging

plans early in the year is important, as is maintaining consistent communication
throughout the year. Teachers shouldn’t be afraid to be persistent in
establishing relationships with parents, and vice versa. Teachers and parents
can try the following tactics for improving parent-teacher communication:
 Regular in-person communication: This type of communication
works great for parents who typically drop off and pick up their children from
school.

 Parent-teacher conferences: This type of communication is less
consistent, but parents and teachers can schedule meetings to discuss a
student’s work and future goals.
 Phone calls and emails: Parents with busy work or personal schedules
may not have the opportunity to go to school or schedule conferences. These
parents may be easier to reach on the phone or via email. Teachers can also use
phone calls and emails to regularly communicate with parents between
conferences.
 Text messages. Some teachers use mass text messages or special
messaging apps to communicate with parents. A number of text services cater
specifically to teachers, such as Remind.
 Open houses: Most schools host annual open houses where parents can
visit their childrens’ classrooms. This allows teachers to meet parents for the
first time or to meet a second parent who may not be in regular communication.
 Parent-teacher associations: Parents and teachers can establish
ongoing relationships through board meetings or PTA meetings in which they
help make decisions for the school.
 Homework handouts and newsletters: Teachers can create
handouts for students to take home with them containing information about
homework and other tasks. Teachers can also write weekly or monthly
newsletters to let parents know what is going on in the classroom and how they
can participate.
 Class websites: Teachers can create websites for their classes to post
announcements, homework, and reminders. This helps ensure that assignments
don’t get lost in communication between the classroom and home. Other similar
methods of communication include social media sites or learning management
platforms such as ClassDojo.