BIOLOGY

Cytoplasm contains all other cell structure/organelle

- is a branch of science that deals with the study of life and living
organisms
Ribosomes site of protein synthesis

Life Functions/Processes
B. Only found in eukaryotic cells
- All living things carry out certain activities in order to maintain life.
Cell Part Function(s)
I. THE CELL
contains genetic material, which control the activities
Cell theories:
Nucleus
of the cell
1. All known living things are made up of cells.

2. The cell is the structural and functional unit of all living things.
Mitochondria generate energy from the cell
3. All cells come from pre-existing cells by division.
Endoplasmic
4. Cells contain hereditary information, which is passed from cell to Reticulum
moves materials (specially proteins) around the cell
cell during cell division.
a. Rough ER
lipid snthesis
5. All cells are basically the same in chemical composition.
b. Smooth ER
6. All energy ow of life occurs within cells.

“protein warehouse” that modi es and packages

Two types of cells
Golgi Apparatus
newly made proteins
1. Prokaryotic cell – cells
that do not contain a small organelles that breaks down material using
Lysosomes
nucleus or any digestive ezymes
membrane-bound convert light energy into chemical energy
organelle
Chloroplast
(photosynthesis); only found in plants
2. Eukaryotic cell – cells
that contain storage area for food, water, wastes, and other
membrane-bound Vacoule
materials.
organelle, such as the
nucleus

II. PHOTOSYNTHESIS

- is the process in which light energy is converted to chemical energy and

Separate features found in prokaryotes

used to produce organic compounds

• Capsule – protects bacteria from being eaten by other organisms

6 CO2 + 6 H2O light energy C6H12O6 + 6 O2

• Pili – hair-like structures found at the cell surface used for attachment to
other bacteria

Parts of Photosynthesis:

• Flagella – helps in locomotion

1. Light-dependent reaction

• Plasmid – circular DNA structures not involved in reproduction

- occurs in the thylakoid membranes of the chloroplast

• Nucleoid region – area in cytoplasm that contains single DNA molecule

2. Light-independent reaction or Calvin Cycle

- chemical energy from the light-dependent and carbon from the

PARTS AND FUNCTIONS OF A CELL

atmosphere are used to produce carbohydrate molecules such

A. Present in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells as glucose.

Cell Part Function(s) III. CELLULAR RESPIRATION

Cell Wall surrounds and protects the plasma membrane - is the process of converting glucose into ATP

- occurs in both eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells

Plasma Mebrane controls substance that move into and out the cell
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 3 main stages:
• Metaphase – chromosomes line up at the center of the cell

1. Glycolysis – glucose is converted into pyruvate

• Anaphase – centromeres split; sister chromatids separate and
2. Citric Acid Cycle/Krebs Cycle – acetyl CoA combines with a 4- moves toward opposite poles

carbon compound which undergoes a series of reaction, • Telophase – chromosomes begin to decondense upon reaching
ultimately producing energy molecules ATP, NADH, and FADH2.
opposite poles; nuclear membrane surrounds each set of
3. Electron Transport Chain/Oxidative Phosphorylation – energy chromosomes; nucleolus becomes visible, spindle begins to break
from NADH and FADH2 are used to create more ATP.
apart

IV. CELL GROWTH & DIVISION

Meiosis – specialized division that occurs in the formation of reproductive
cells

REPRODUCTION

• Asexual
V. TAXONOMY

- produces o spring that have the same DNA from single parent (e.g. - the science of naming, describing and classifying organisms

binary ssion, budding, fragmentation & parthenogenesis)

• Sexual

- 2 parents contribute to the genetic makeup of an o spring

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CELL DIVISION

2 stages:

• Mitosis - division of the cell nucleus (contains chromosome that

carries DNA)

• Cytokinesis – division of the cytoplasm

CHROMOSOMES

• Chromatid – one of two identical “sister” parts of a duplicated MNEMONIC: King Philip Came Over For Good Spaghetti

chromosome

• Centromere – an area where the chromatids are attached to one another

THE FIVE MAJOR KINGDOMS

• Telomere – found at the end of each DNA strand that protects our I. Prokaryotes

chromosomes
1. Kingdom Monera (Bacteria and Archaebacteria) – unicellular
organisms with no nucleus or any membrane-bound organelle

THE CELL CYCLE

2 major phases:
II. Eukaryotes

1. Interphase – preparation stage for cell division

2. Kingdom Protista – mostly unicellular organisms that have a
nucleus. They live in water. Catch-all kingdom for everything that
• G1 phase – increase in size and synthesize new proteins and
organelles S phase- chromosomes are replicated; synthesis of does not t into the other four. (Examples: algae, amoeba,
DNA
paramecium)

3. Kingdom Fungi – multicellular heterotrophic organisms with cell

• G2 phase – synthesis of organelles and molecules required for
division
walls made of chitin. These organisms are immobile.

4. Kingdom Plantae – multicellular organisms with cell wall made of

2. Mitosis
cellulose. They are autotrophic and therefore are able to
photosynthesize.

• Prophase – chromosome condenses; centrioles move to opposite

sides of cell; chromosome attaches to spindle bers at 5. Kingdom Animalia – multicellular heterotrophic organisms with no
centromere; nucleolus and nuclear membrane disappears
cell walls.

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 VI. PLANTS
Cold-blooded vs. Warm-blooded Animals

- multicellular organisms containing the green pigment chlorophyll • Cold blooded – animals whose temperature is dictated by its
needed for photosynthesis
environment

• Warm blooded – are animals that keep its body at constant warm
Classi cation
temperature by generating internal heat

1. Non-vascular

- plants that don’t use roots and stems

MAINTAINING A CONSTANT CELL ENVIRONMENT

2. Vascular
• Di usion – movement of particles from an area of high concentration
- plants that use roots and stems to take in water and to an area of lower concentration

nutrients
• Facilitated di usion – specialized transport molecules help speed up
- can be seed bearing or spore bearing
the movement across the membrane

a. Gymnosperms – “naked seeds”

• Osmosis – specialized type of di usion wherein water molecules
b. Angiosperms – these are the owering plants; all have seeds move from high water concentration to low water concentration

protected by an ovule

Under angiosperms we have:

i. Monocotyledons

ii. Dicotyledons

TISSUE SYSTEMS

1. Dermal system – consists of the epidermis or outermost layer of the 2 types of transport:

plants body
1. Passive transport – movement of substance in and out of the cell
2. Vascular system – consists of 2 kinds of conducting tissues;
without the use of energy

• xylem – conducts water and dissolved mineral nutrients

2. Active transport – requires expenditure of cellular energy

• phloem – responsible for conduction of food

3. Ground system – comprises majority of plant body

VIII. BODY SYSTEMS

• parenchyma – capable of cell division at maturity

Summary of Primary Functions

• collenchyma – functions as support tissue in young, growing Flow of blood (and nutrients)
portions of plants
Cardiovascular System
throughout the body
• sclerenchyma – important in supporting and strengthening those
portions of plants that have nished growing
Control and coordination of all
Nervous System System
body functions
VII. ANIMALS
Respiratory System Gas Exchange
Classi cation

1. Invertebrates – lack a backbone; makeup 98% of the animal Strength, support, shape of the
Skeletal System
kingdom
body
2. Vertebrates – have a vertebrae/backbone
Motor power for movements of
Muscular System
body
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 Digestive System Digestion and absorption of food Aorta → Capillaries → Cell

Formation of sperms, semen;

Male Reproductive System
fertilizing the female Blood – special type of body tissue that is in uid form

1. Plasma- colorless uid which carries the blood cells throughout the
Formation of eggs and bearing body

Female Reproductive System

the fetus 2. Blood Cells

Regulation of body’s internal a. Red Blood Cells (RBCs) or erythrocytes - transport oxygen from
Urinary System environment; production & the lungs towards other organs and carry away carbon dioxide.

excretion of urine b. White Blood Cells (WBCs) or leukocytes - help ght infections
and aid in the immune process by ingesting and killing invading
Integumentary System Protects the body organisms.

c. Platelets or thrombocytes - aid in blood clotting. They group

Endocrine System Regulation of body functions together to form clumps, or a plug, in the hole of a vessel to stop
bleeding.

Immune/Lymphatic System Drainage and protection

Di erent blood types in humans

A. CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
Blood Groups
Heart – hollow muscular organ providing the force for ow of blood
throughout the human body
Phenotype
Antigen on Safe Transfusion
(Blood Type)
Genotype Red Blood
4 Main Chambers:
Cell To From
• Right atrium

• Right ventricle
A I A I A or I Ai A A, AB A, O
• Left atrium

• Left ventricle
B I B I B or I Bi B B, AB B, O
4 Valves:

• Tricuspid valve- between right atrium and right ventricle

AB IAIB A and B AB A, B, AB, O
• Bicuspid/Mitral valve- between left atrium and left ventricle

• Pulmonary valve- entrance of pulmonary artery

O ii None A, B, AB, O O
• Aortic valve- entrance of aorta

Blood vessels – pathways for blood ow in the human body; we have 3

B. NERVOUS SYSTEM

types:
a. Central nervous system (CNS) – consists of the brain and spinal
1. Arteries - carry blood away from the heart to other body parts
cord

2. Veins - carry blood towards the heart from other body parts
b. Peripheral nervous system (PNS) – consists of the cranial nerves,
3. Capillaries - microscopic blood vessels where exchange of nutrients spinal nerves, and ganglia

take place

Components

FLOW OF BLOOD
• Brain – central part of the nervous system; composed of 3 parts

1. Cerebrum – largest part of the brain; interprets touch, vision &

Cells → Capillaries (deoxygenated blood) → Veins → Superior & Inferior
hearing, speech, reasoning, learning and control of movement

vena cava → Right atrium → Right ventricle → Pulmonary artery → Lungs

2. Cerebellum – located under cerebrum; coordinate muscle,
→ Pulmonary vein (oxygenated blood) → Left atrium → Left ventricle →
movements, maintain posture and balance

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 3. Brainstem – connected cerebrum and cerebellum to spinal cord; D. SKELETAL SYSTEM

performs many automatic functions such as breathing, heart Important components:

rate, digestion, and etc.

• Bones – tough, strong, rigid, weight-boring organ of the human body

• Cartilage – rm, whitish, exible connective tissue

• Spinal Cord – long and thin bundle of nervous tissue extending from • Joint – part of the body where two parts of the skeleton t together

lower part of brain

• Nerves – bundle of peripheral axons enclosed by connective tissue

E. MUSCULAR SYSTEM

• Neuron – structural and functional unit of the nervous system

• Muscles – special type of tissue that possesses the ability to contract
and relax

• Tendons – tissue that attaches muscle to bone

Types of Muscle

Type Appearance Location Movement

striated, tubular, multi- usually attached
Skeletal voluntary
nucleated bers to skeleton
spindle-shaped, nonstriated walls of internal
Smooth involuntary
uninucleated bers organs
straited, branched, walls of the
Cardiac involuntary

uninucleated bers heart
C.RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

F. FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Internal Parts:

• Ovaries – organ that produces the egg cells

• Uterus – where the fertilized egg attaches followed by the

development of fetus

• Fallopian tubes – passageway of egg from the ovaries to the uterus;

usually where fertilization takes place

External Parts:

• Vagina – consists of the vulva, labia, clitoris;

• Menstrual Cycle (26-32 days; on average 28 days)

• Fertilization – fusion of sperm and egg cell Implantation – fastening of

embryo to uterine wall

• Pregnancy – period where baby develops in the uterus

Lungs Diaphragm G. MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

• Penis – male copulatory organ; transfers semen into female

Inhalation expand contract reproductive tract

• Testis – site of sperm production

Exhalation decrease in size relax • Epididymis – site of sperm maturation

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H. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Accessory Organs:

• Pituitary gland - “master gland” controls function of most other • Liver – detoxi es chemicals & metabolizes drugs

endocrine glands
• Gallbladder – stores and concentrates bile

• Thyroid gland - controls body metabolism

• Pancreas – produces insulin and glucagon that help in the regulation
• Parathyroid gland - controls body’s calcium levels
of blood sugar levels

• Adrenal gland – located at the top of the kidneys; a ect metabolism, • Other parts include: teeth, tongue, esophagus

blood pressure and body’s response to stress

• Other parts: pancreas, gonads

J. URINARY SYSTEM

• Kidneys – form urine and control its concentration

Major Hormones
• Ureters – hollow muscular tubes that connects the kidney to the
bladder

Hormone Site of production Function

• Urinary bladder – stores urine before it is excreted from the body

Insulin pancreas lowers blood glucose level • Urethra – tube connecting the bladder to the genitals for excretion

Glucagon pancreas raises blood glucose level K. LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

• Spleen – removes old blood cells from the circulation

Oxytocin posterior pituitary

stimulates contraction of uterus and • Bone marrow – a soft fatty substance found in the cavities of bones in
mammary gland cells which blood cells are produced

• Other parts: lymph vessels, thymus, lymph nodes

Growth Hormone anterior pituitary stimulates growth

IX. BASIC GENETICS AND HEREDITY

Thyroid Stimulating Gene – a section of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) that carries information

anterior pituitary stimulates thyroid gland

Hormone (TSH) for the construction of a protein or part of a protein

Calcitonin thyroid gland lowers blood calcium level

Nucleic acids consist of the following components:

Parathyroid 1. Nitrogenous bases

rises blood calcium level a. Pyrimidines – cytosine, thymine, uracil

Hormone
b. Purines – guanine, adenine

stimulates uterine lining growth; 2. Sugar backbone

Estrogen ovaries
promote development & maintenance 3. Phosphate

of female secondary sex

characteristics Mendelian Concepts

support formation/promote
• Allele - one of two or more di erent versions of a gene Genotype –
the genetic makeup of an organism

Testosterone testes development & maintenance of male

secondary sex characteristics.
• Phenotype – the trait manifested by the genotype

MENDELIAN GENETICS

I. DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance

Main Organs:
1. Law of Segregation – During reproduction, the gene pair (alleles) that
• Stomach – organ where digestion/breakdown of food occurs
determine traits separate into reproductive cells (gametes) by a
• Small intestines – where absorption of nutrients occurs
process called meiosis and randomly unite during fertilization.

• Large intestines – concerned with reabsorption of water and 2. Law of Independent Assortment – Genes located on di erent
formation of feces
chromosomes will be inherited independently from each other.

• Anus – last part of the alimentary canal; controls expulsion of feces

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 NONMENDELIAN GENETICS

• Incomplete Dominance – is a form of intermediate inheritance in

which one allele for a speci c trait is not completely expressed over
its paired allele

• Codominance – a form of dominance in which the alleles of a gene

pair in a heterozygote are fully expressed

• Multiple Alleles – involves more than just the typical two alleles that
usually code for a certain characteristic in a species

X. EVOLUTION

Darwin’s Theory of Evolution

Natural Selection

Lamarck’s Theory of Evolution

• Law of Use and Disuse – the more an animal uses a certain part of the
body, the better and stronger it becomes

• Inheritance of acquired characteristics – the traits that are developed

through use or disuse can be passed to the o spring.

Population Evolution

Key terms:

• Genetic hitchhiking – a phenomenon in which a gene increase in a

population because it lies near genes on the same chromosome that
are advantageous to an organism

• Genetic drift – an overall shift of allele distribution in an isolated

population, due to random uctuations in the frequencies of
individual alleles of the genes

• Founder e ect – a decrease in genetic variation that occurs when an

entire population descends from a small number of founders
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