Aldersgate College Physical Science

Science High School

Teacher: Marivic D. Dela Torre

Level: Grade 9
Allotted Time: 6 hours

Module 2: Nature’s Laws are Mathematical and Simple

Overview:

This module is about the tools used in the study of the physical world. To be precise in the
observation of nature, all physical quantities must be measured and quantified.

Objectives:

1. Express very large or very small numbers using the scientific notation form
2. Determine the number of significant figures in a given measurement
3. Enumerate the fundamental and derived quantities and give their corresponding SI units
4. Convert a particular unit into another unit
5. Cite sources of errors and limitations in measurement
6. Determine the relationship between given quantities

Pretest:

I. FILL IN THE BLANKS.

Direction: Below are given numerical numbers, write the significant figures of the following.
Write your answer on the space provided for.

1. How many significant figures do 163 have? __________________

2. How many significant figures do 6559.060 have? _____________
3. How many significant figures do 0.0624000 have? ____________
4. How many significant figures do 02000 have? ________________
5. How many significant figures do 734.01000 have? ____________

II. IDENTIFICATION:
Direction: The statement below refers to the instruments used to measure appropriately
the physical quantity. Identify the word or group of words that best defines the
statement.

_______________________1. It is used to measure length from a few cm to 1m.

_______________________2. It is used to measure temperature.
_______________________3. It is used to measure time intervals.
_______________________4. It is used to measure electric current.
_______________________5. It is used to measure potential differences/voltage.

III. MATCHING TYPE:

Direction: Column A represents accuracy and consistency. Match it with Column B to show
which best describes the given figure below. Write the letter of your answer on the space
provided for.

COLUMN A COLUMN B
_____1. a. Accurate and consistence
b. Inaccurate and Inconsistence
c. Consistence but not accurate
d. Accurate but inconsistence
_____2.

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_____3.

_____4.

Learning Focus:

Physics without mathematics is unthinkable. In fact, throughout your study of physics you will
find out that the basic rules governing the behavior of nature are reality expressed in mathematical form.

SCIENTIFIC NOTATION

 Scientific notation is a form of presenting very large numbers or very small numbers in a simpler
form. As we know, the whole numbers can be extended till infinity, but we cannot write such huge
numbers in a piece of paper. Also, the numbers which are present at the millions place after the
decimal needed to be represented in a simpler form. Thus, it is difficult to represent a few numbers in
their expanded form. Hence, we use scientific notations.
 Scientific notation, or standard form, is a convenient way to represent very large or very small
numbers. It allows the numbers to be easily recorded and read. The star Sirius is approximately 75
684 000 000 000 km from the Sun. We can represent this number more compactly by moving the
decimal point to just after the first non-zero digit and multiplying by an appropriate power of 10 to
recover the original number. Thus

75 684 000 000 000 = 7.5684 × 1013

If we move the decimal point 13 places to the right, inserting the necessary zeroes, we arrive back
at the number we started with. We can similarly deal with very small numbers using negative indices. For
example, an Angstrom (Å) is a unit of length equal to 0.000 000 000 1 m, which is the approximate
diameter of a small atom. We place the decimal point just after the first non-zero digit and multiply by the
appropriate power of ten. Thus

0.000 000 000 1 = 1 × 10-10

The examples of scientific notation are:

1)
490000000 = 4.9×108
2)
1230000000 = 1.23×109
3)
50500000 = 5.05 x 107
4)
0.000000097 = 9.7 x 10-8
5)
0.0000212 = 2.12 x 10-5

Scientific Notation Rules

To determine the power or exponent of 10, let us understand how many places we need to move
the decimal point after the single-digit number.

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1. If the given number is multiples of 10 then the decimal point has to move to the left, and the
power of 10 will be positive.
Example: 6000 = 6 × 103 is in scientific notation.
2. If the given number is smaller than 1, then the decimal point has to move to the right, so the power
of 10 will be negative.
Example: 0.006 = 6 × 0.001 = 6 × 10-3 is in scientific notation.

Positive and Negative Exponent

When the scientific notation of any large numbers is expressed, then we use positive exponents for
base 10. For example:
2000 = 2 x 104, where 4 is the positive exponent.

When the scientific notation of any small numbers is expressed, then we use negative exponents
for base 10. For example:
0.0002 = 2 x 10-4, where - 4 is the negative exponent.

Examples:
Positional form Exponential form
Diameter of the earth = 1 300 000 000 ans. 1.3 x 109 cm
Diameter of a hydrogen atom = 0.000 000 01 cm ans. 1 x 10- 8 cm
Speed of light = 30 000 000 000 cm/s ans. 3 x 1010cm/s

Problems and Solutions

Question 1:
Convert 0.00000046 into scientific notation.
Solution:
Move the decimal point to the right of 0.00000046 up to 7 places.
The decimal point was moved 7 places to the right to form the number 4.6
Since the numbers are less than 10 and decimal is moved to the right, so we use a negative
exponent here.
0.00000046 = 4.6 × 10-7 (This is the scientific notation).
Question 2:
Convert 301000000 in scientific notation.
Solution:
Move the decimal to the left 8 places so it is positioned to the right of the leftmost non zero digits
3.01000000. Remove all the zeroes and multiply the number by 10.
Now the number has become = 3.01.
Since the number is greater than 10 and decimal is moved to left, therefore, we use here a positive
exponent.
Hence, 3.01 × 108 is the scientific notation of the number.

Question 3:
Convert 1.36 × 107 from scientific notation to standard notation.
Solution:
Given, 1.36 × 107 in scientific notation.
Exponent = 7
Since the exponent is positive we need to move the decimal place 7 places to the right.
Therefore,

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1.36 × 107 = 1.36 × 10000000 = 13,600,000.

Example: Simplify the following expression using scientific notation. (1.26×106)+(2.4×104)

Explanation:

You can solve this problem in several ways. One way is to convert each number out of scientific
notation and write it out fully, then find the sum of the two values and convert the answer back into
scientific notation.

1) 1.26 x 106 + 2.4 x 104

= 1,260,000 + 24,000
= 1,284,000
= 1.284 x 106

Another, potentially faster, way to solve this problem is to convert one answer into the same
scientific notation terms as the other and then sum them.

1.26 × 106 + 2.4 × 104

2.4 × 104 = 0.024 × 106
1.26 × 106 + 0.024 × 106 = (1.26+0.024) × 106 = 1.284 × 106

Example: Multiply, and express the product in scientific notation: 7,200,000 × 5,000,000

Explanation:

Convert 7,200,000 to scientific notation as follows:

Move the (implied) decimal point until it is immediately after the first nonzero digit (the 7). This
required moving the point six units to the left:

7,200,000. 7.200000
It follows that 7,200,000 can be rewritten as 7.2 × 106.
By similar reasoning, 5,000,000 can be rewritten as 5 × 106.

Thus,
7,200,000 × 5,000,000
=(7.2 × 106) × (5×106)
Rearrange and regroup the expressions so that the powers of ten are together:
=(7.2 × 5) × (106 ×10 6)
Multiply the numbers in front. Also, multiply the powers of ten by adding exponents:
= 36 × 1066+6
= 36 × 1012
In order for the number to be in scientific notation, the number in front must be between 1 and 10.
An adjustment must be made by moving the implied decimal point in 36 one unit left. It follows that
36 = 3.6 × 101
Therefore,
36 × 1012 = (3.6 × 101) × 1012
= 3.6 × 101+12
= 3.6 × 1013
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Example: Multiply 5,000,000×1200,000,00. Express the product in scientific notation.

Explanation:

Scientific notation refers to a number expressed in the form ± a × 10N, where 1 ≤ a < 10 and N is an
integer.

Each factor can be rewritten in scientific notation as follows:

5,000,000 = 5 × 1,000,000 = 5 × 106

120,000,000 = 1.2 × 100,000,000 = 1.2 × 108

Now, substitute:

5,000,000 × 120,000,000
= 5 × 106 × 1.2 × 108
= (5 × 1.2) × (106 × 108)
= 6 × 106 × 108

Apply the Product of Powers Property:

= 6 × 106+8
= 6 × 1014

Activity 1:

Problem 1: Convert the following numbers into scientific notation.

1. 28,100,000
2. 7,890,000,000
3. 0.00000542
4. 0.000345
5. 0.00125
6. 2,000,000,000
7. 796,000
8. 872
9. 90
10. 0.000000000589

Problem 2: Convert the following into standard form.

1. 3.5 × 105
2. 2.89 × 10-6
3. 9.8 × 10-2
4. 5.14 × 105
5. 27 x 103
6. 281 x 102
7. 368 x 10-5
8. 8.68 x 107
9. 7.59 x 106
10. 3.6 x 10-8

Problem 3: Multiply Two Numbers Written in Scientific Notation:

1. (9 × 10-1) × (3 × 1010)
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Problem 3: Divide Two Numbers Written in Scientific Notation:

1. (3.5 × 10-6) / (5 × 10-2)

Add Two Numbers Written in Scientific Notation:

1. 4.9 × 102 + 7.9 × 103

SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

 Appropriate number of significant data is important in order to have a meaningful level of power-
resolution when reporting analytical concentrations. Various methods or parameters can be used to
determine how many significant figures are required. In most cases, three key figures are sufficient.
 The term “significant figures” refers to the number of important single digits (0 to 9 inclusive) in the
coefficient of expression in the scientific notation. The number of significant figures in the expression
indicates the confidence or precision with which an engineer or scientist indicates a quantity.
 They comprise all digits that are known with certainty plus the first digit that is uncertain. The
position of the decimal point is relevant.

Rules in counting significant figures

Rule Measurement Significant

Expression Figures

1. All nonzero digits are significant. 14567.3 6

34.128 5
3.986 4

2. All zeros between two nonzero digits are significant. 34.0045 6

1.00006017 9
20037089 8

3. Zeros to the right of a nonzero digit, but to the left of an 108,000000 3

understood decimal point, are not significant unless 108,0000 _ 4
specifically indicated as significant by a bar placed above 108,000000 9
the rightmost, such zero becomes significant.

4. All zeros to the right of a decimal point but to the left of 0.000509 3
a nonzero digit are not significant.* 0.02876 4
0.0000036 2

5. All zeros to the right of a decimal point and to the right 0.4087 4
of a nonzero digit are significant. 0.030670890 8
700.00000000 11

 The single zero conventionally placed to the left of a decimal point in such an expression is never
significant. It is just used to locate the decimal point.

OPERATIONS WITH SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

 Addition and Subtraction

The answer must contain the same number of decimal places as the term with the least number of
decimal places.

Examples:
a. 20.63 + 6.6 cm + 3. 786 cm = 31.016 cm ans. 31.0 cm
b. 387.876 L – 197.23L = 190.646 L ans. 190.65 L

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The numbers in boldface are the significant figures.

 4308 – 4 significant figures

 40.05 – 4 significant figures
 470,000 – 2 significant figures
 4.00 – 3 significant figures
 0.00500 – 3 significant figures

Example of Significant Figures

 Multiplication and Division

The answer must contain the same number of significant figures as the term with the least number of
significant figures.

Examples:
a. 9.25 m x 0.52 m x 11. 35m = 54.5935 m3 ans. 55 m3
b. 69.48 m by 3.62 s = 19.19337017 m/s ans. 19.2 m/s

Activity 2:
Perform these operations with significant digits:

1. 24.687 m + 2.33 m + 3.2 m

2. 9.46 cm + 25.45 cm + 491.55 cm + 9.0972 cm + 11.8 cm
3. 28.63 L – 15.4 L
4. 3.22 m x 2.2 m
5. 2.567 cm x 3.02 cm x 0.0021 cm
6. 36.5 m / 3.1416 s
7. 28.653 m + 37.35 m + 13.1 m
8. 420.171 mL – 220.57 mL
9. 7.3 s x 2.25 s
10. 72.8 kg – 2.95 kg

ROUNDING OFF NUMBERS

1. If the figure to be dropped is five, or greater than five, increase by one the value of the last figure
to be retained.
Examples:
a) 78.567 rounded off to the nearest hundredths place is 78.57
b) 123.345 rounded off to the nearest hundredths place is 123.35
c) 457.9679 rounded off to the nearest thousandths place is 457.968

2. If the figure to be dropped is less than five, the last figure to be retained should not be changed.
Examples:
a) 5.052 rounded off to the nearest hundredths place is 5.05.
b) 136.324 rounded off to the nearest ones place is 136
c) 98230.478 rounded off to the nearest tens place is 98230

FUNDAMENTALS OF MEASUREMENT

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 MEASUREMENT is comparing a thing with a standard to see how many times as big it is
 MEASUREMENT is a process that uses a well-defined and agreed upon referent (the thing a word
stands for) to describe a standard unit
 MEASUREMENT in chemistry enables us to understand many properties of matter that is why it
must be accurate (agrees with the true value of the quantity being measured; degree of agreement
between a measured value and the true value) and precise (it is reproducible; degree of exactness
to which a measurement can be reproduced; degree of the instrument’s exactness).

A. Kinds of Measurable Quantities

1. Fundamental Quantities
 measured by direct method

LENGTH (m) describes how long something is. Distance, height, thickness, and depth also use the
same units.

Some of the common units are as follows:

• millimeter (mm) – a metric unit commonly used to express the length of very small objects like
keys, and thickness of small objects like notebook.

• centimeter (cm) – a metric unit commonly used to express the length of small objects. It is also
used in measuring the height of a person.

• inch (in) – an English unit commonly used to express the length of small objects such as boxes
and bottles.

• foot (ft) – an English unit equivalent to 12 inches. It is commonly used to express short
distances, and height of all objects like trees and buildings.

MASS (kg) describes how heavy something is.

Some of the common units are as follows:

• milligram (mg) - a metric unit commonly used to express the mass of very small objects like
candy.

• gram (g) – a metric unit which is the base unit for mass. It is commonly used to express the mass
of small objects like orange, egg, and tomato.

• ounce (oz) – an English unit commonly used to express the mass o

• kilogram (kg) – an English unit commonly used for measuring short distances, and height of tall
objects like trees and buildings.

• pound (lb) – an English unit commonly used for measuring short distances, and height of tall
objects like trees and buildings.

• ton – an English unit commonly used for measuring short distances, and height of tall objects like
trees and buildings.

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A weighing scale is an instrument commonly used for measuring the

mass of fruits, vegetables, and meat. The scale is calibrated in grams and
kilograms

TIME (s) describes how long it takes to do something.

Both the metric and English system uses the same units of measurement for time.

Some of the common units are as follows:

• second (s) – is the base unit for time. One second is equivalent to a tick of a clock’s second hand.

• minute (min) – is a unit equivalent to one revolution of the clock’s second hand or one tick of the
clock’s long (minute) hand.

• hour (hr) – is a unit equivalent to one revolution of the clock’s long (minute) hand or one tick of
the clock’s short (hour) hand.

A clock is a common instrument for indicating time. It shows the time in hours, minutes, and
sometimes in seconds.

• day (d) – is a unit equivalent to two revolutions of the clock’s short (hour) hand.

• week (wk) – is a unit equivalent to 7 days.

• month (mo) – is a unit equivalent to 30 days. It is commonly used in determining the age of an
infant or a baby animal.

• year (yr) – is a unit equivalent to 12 months. It is commonly used in determining the age of a
person or an object.

TEMPERATURE describes how hot or cold something is.

The following are the common units:

• Celsius scale (°C) – is a metric unit for temperature and the most
commonly used unit of temperature worldwide. In this scale, the boiling
point of water is at 100°C while the freezing point is at 0°C.
• Fahrenheit scale (°F) – is an English unit for temperature, which is
commonly used in United States. In this scale, the boiling point of water
is at 212°F while the freezing point is at 32°F.
• Kelvin scale (K) – is a SI unit for temperature. Unlike the other two
temperature scales, the Kelvin scale does not use degrees. Its zero point,
0 K, is defined as the coldest possible temperature which is also called
absolute zero.
The thermometer is the most common instrument for measuring temperature. It is usually calibrated
on both the Celsius and Fahrenheit scales.

Units of Temperature

Metric System English System SI

Celsius scale °C Fahrenheit scale °F Kelvin scale K

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Temperature:

All matters are formed from atoms and molecules. In microscopic

view we see that all particles in a matter are in random motion, they are
vibrating, colliding randomly. We learned in previous sections that particle
has kinetic energy if it moves. Thus, in an object all particles have kinetic
energies because of their random motions. Temperature is the quantity
which is directly proportional to the average kinetic energy of the atoms of
matter. Be careful, it is not energy, it just show the quantity of average
kinetic energy of one atom or one molecule. In daily life we use some terms
like hot, cold or warm. All these terms are used with respect to another
reference matter. For example, you say that a glass of boiling water is hotter
than the ice cream. Be careful, ice cream is our reference matter.
We measure temperature of matters with a device called thermometer. There are three types of
thermometer, Celsius Thermometer, Fahrenheit Thermometer and Kelvin Thermometer. Look at the given
picture to see how we scale thermometers.

In Celsius thermometer, lower fixed point is 0 ºC and upper fixed point is 100 ºC, in Fahrenheit
thermometer lower fixed point is determined as 32 ºF and upper fixed point as 212 ºF and finally, lower
fixed point of Kelvin thermometer is 273.15 ºK and upper fixed point is 373 ºK. These temperatures are
determined with considering the freezing point and boiling point of water.
We can convert the measurements of Celsius to Kelvin or Fahrenheit to Kelvin, Celsius by using
following equations.

There are three main conversions of temperature such as Conversion between:

 Celsius and Kelvin

 Fahrenheit and Kelvin
 Celsius and Fahrenheit

Conversion Formula

The formula to convert Kelvin into Celsius is C = K - 273.15. All that is needed to convert Kelvin to
Celsius is one simple step:

Take your Kelvin temperature and subtract 273.15. Your answer will be in Celsius. The K does not use
the word degree or the symbol; depending on the context, generally one or the other (or simply C) is
used to report a Celsius temperature.

Kelvin to Celsius

How many degrees Celsius is 500 K?

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C = 500 - 273.15
500 K = 226.85 C

Let's convert normal body temperature from Kelvin to Celsius. Human body temperature is 310.15 K.
Put the value into the equation to solve for degrees Celsius:

C = K - 273.15
C = 310.15 - 273.15
Human body temperature = 37 C

Celsius to Kelvin

Similarly, it's easy to convert a Celsius temperature to the Kelvin scale. You can either use the formula
given above or use K = C + 273.15.

For example, let's convert the boiling point of water to Kelvin. The boiling point of water is 100 C.
Plug the value into the formula:

K = 100 + 273.15
K = 373.15

Fahrenheit to Kelvin

The temperature T in Kelvin (K) is equal to the temperature T in degrees Fahrenheit (°F) plus 459.67,
times 5/9:

T(K) = (T(°F) + 459.67) × 5/9

Example

Convert 60 degrees Fahrenheit to degrees Kelvin:

T(K) = (60°F + 459.67) × 5/9 = 288.71 K

Kelvin to Fahrenheit

The temperature T in degrees Fahrenheit (°F) is equal to the temperature T in Kelvin (K) times 9/5,
minus 459.67:

T(°F) = T(K) × 9/5 - 459.67

Example

Convert 300 Kelvin to degrees Fahrenheit:

T(°F) = 300K × 9/5 - 459.67 = 80.33 °F

Celsius to Fahrenheit

The temperature T in degrees Fahrenheit (°F) is equal to the temperature T in degrees Celsius (°C)
times 9/5 plus 32:

T(°F) = T(°C) × 9/5 + 32 or

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T(°F) = T(°C) × 1.8 + 32

Example

Convert 20 degrees Celsius to degrees Fahrenheit:

T(°F) = 20°C × 9/5 + 32 = 68 °F

Fahrenheit to Celsius

The temperature T in degrees Celsius (°C) is equal to the temperature T in degrees Fahrenheit (°F)
minus 32, times 5/9:

T(°C) = (T(°F) - 32) × 5/9 or

T(°C) = (T(°F) - 32) / (9/5) or

T(°C) = (T(°F) - 32) / 1.8

Example

Convert 68 degrees Fahrenheit to degrees Celsius:

T(°C) = (68°F - 32) × 5/9 = 20 °C

The Temperature formula is given by,

Δ T = Q / mc
Where,
Δ T = temperature difference or change in temperature
Q = amount of heat absorbed or released,
m = mass of the body,
c = specific heat of the body.

Example 1: Determine the temperature if 200 J of heat is released by the body of mass 6 Kg and has a
specific heat of 0.8 J/KgoC .

Solution:
Given:
Heat released Q = 200 J,
Mass m = 6 Kg,
Specific Heat c = 0.8 J/Kg oC
The temperature is given by ΔT = Q / mc
= 200 / 6 x 0.8
ΔT = 41.66 oC .

Example 2: Determine the heat released when the temperature changes by 40oC by a body of mass 3 Kg
which has a specific heat of 0.7 J/kg oC .

Solution:
Given:
Temperature change = 40 oC ,

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Mass m = 3 kg,
Specific heat c = 0.7 J/kg oC ,
The Heat released is given by formula Q = mc ΔT
= 3 × 0.7 × 40
Q = 84 J

Common Physical Quantities and Standard Units of Measurement

Quantity Unit Symbol

Length meter m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Temperature (absolute) Kelvin K
Electric current ampere A
Amount of substance mole mol
Luminous intensity candela cd
Charge coulomb c

Derived Quantities
 other physical quantities are formulated based from the fundamental quantities

AREA describes how much surface is occupied by something.

The measurement for area uses the same units of measurement for length. The only difference is
that the units are "squared" since area is a product of two dimensions (usually length and width,
which uses the same unit).

Some of the common units are as follows:

• square centimeter (cm2 or sq. cm) – is a metric unit equivalent to a square with sides 1 cm
each. Typically used in measuring small areas such as chessboard.

• square foot (ft2 or sq. ft) – is an English unit equivalent to a square with sides 1 ft each.
Typically used in measuring the floor or room area.

• square meter (m2 or sq. m) – is a metric unit equivalent to a square with sides 1 m each.
Typically used in measuring the area of a residential lot.

• acre – is an English unit used to measure land area such as farms and amusement parks.

• hectare (ha) – is a metric unit equivalent to a square with sides 100 m each. Like acre, it is
primarily used in land measurement.

A football field usually measures about 1 hectare.

VOLUME describes how much space (or liquid) is occupied (or contained) by something. Similar to
area, volume also uses the units of length but the only difference is that the unit is “cubed”. Cubed units
are typically used for volumes of space while there are also units of volume dedicated for liquid
measurements.

Some of the common units are as follows:

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• milliliter (mL) – is a metric unit commonly used for measuring small amounts of liquid such as
perfume.

• cubic centimeters (cm3 or cc) – is a metric unit for volume (both space and liquid) corresponding
to a cube with sides 1 cm each. A cubic centimeter is equivalent to a milliliter.

• fluid ounce (fl oz) – is an English unit commonly used for measuring liquids in bottles such as soft
drinks.

• cup – is an English unit equivalent to 8 fluid ounces. It is commonly used in measuring ingredients
for cooking and baking.

A measuring cup is a kitchen utensil used to measure the volume

of liquid or ingredients like flour and sugar.

• pint (pt) – is an English unit equivalent to 2 cups. It is

commonly used in different commodities.

• quart (qt) – is an English unit equivalent to a quarter of a

gallon.

• liter (L) – is the base unit for volume. It is commonly used in

measuring large amount of liquid such as gasoline.

• gallon (gal) – is an English unit counterpart for liter.

A gasoline container usually measures 1 gallon.

Quantity Unit Symbol

Area m (square meter)
2
A
Volume m3 (cubic meter) V
Density kg/m3 (kilogram per cubic meter) D
Speed/Velocity m/s (meter per second) v/v
Acceleration m/s2 (meter per second square) a
Force/Weight kg * m/s2 (N or Newton) F/W
Pressure N/m2 (Pa, Pascal) P
Work N * m (J or Joule) W
Power N * m/s (W or watt) P

B. Systems of Measurement
1. English System is known as the British Gravitational System. It is the standard units
based on body parts.
a. inch – end joint of the thumb (uncia)
b. foot – length of the foot (30.48 cm)
c. yard – distance from the tip of the nose to the end of the middle finger (3ft or 0.9144
m)
d. cubit – distance from the end of the elbow to the fingertip (18 in or 46 cm)
e. fathom – distance between the fingertips of two arms held straight out (6 ft or 1.8 m)

 In the Philippines
a. dama (palm) – width of the palm
b. dali (digit) – breadth of a finger
c. talampakan (foot)
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d. timuro – length of a forefinger

e. hakbang – a single stride
f. dakot – a handful
g. gusi – a jar used to measure volume of liquids like tuba and vinegar
h. kaing – a container used to measure the amount of harvested mangoes, tomatoes and
salt

2. Metric System
 established by the French Academy of Sciences in 1791
 decimal-based system of units which was proposed in France by Gabriel Mouton
 International Systems of Units
 SI (System International)
Did you know that…
Scientists chose the speed of light in a vacuum as the basis for the meter because this has been
measured exactly, probably with a very very very small degree of uncertainty. Moreover, the speed of
light does not change through the years. (speed of light = 299,792,458 meters per second)

The standard clock must be accurate enough to move to the second as stated in the definition. So the
atomic clock was made, containing Cesium-133 and converting its transitions to ticks in the clock. The
atomic clock is the internationally recognized timekeeping device. All clocks around the world must be
synchronized to the time of this device. These clocks are so accurate that they gain or lose one second
every 1.7 million years.

Prefixes for metric units

1024 yotta (Y) 10-1 deci (d)
10 21
zetta (Z) 10-2 centi (c)
1018 exa (E) 10-3 milli (m)
10 15
peta (P) 10-6 micro (µ)
1012 tera (T) 10-9 nano (n)
10 9
giga (G) 10-12 pico (p)
106 mega (M) 10-15 femto (f)
103 kilo (K) 10-18 atto (a)
10 2
hecto (h) 10-21 zepto (z)
101 deka (da) 10-24 yocto (y)

Did you know:

 The diameter of a CD is 0.12 m
 The diameter of the aorta is 0.018 m
 The diameter of a proton is 2 x 10-15
 the mass of a baseball is 0.15 kg
 A human heart beats about once every second
 The human reaction time is 0.1 s
 The length of a football field is 102 m
 A normal adult’s arm span or height is almost 2 meters
 The time between normal heartbeats is 0.8 s

Minute and Huge Measurements

Vernier Calipers are precision instruments that

measure the distance between two opposite sides of a
circular or straight object. A typical Vernier caliper is
composed of two internal and external jaws each, a
depth measurement prong, one locking screw, and

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imperial and metric scales. The primary aim of a

Vernier caliper is to measure internal and outside
dimensions as well as the depth of an object. Renowned
for their tremendous accuracy, vernier calipers can
measure up to one hundredth of a millimetre. With the
passage of time, these handy devices have been
absorbed into various industrial domains wherein they
serve a multitude of purposes. They are of great use to
professionals as well as engineering students alike.

It is easy to measure the length of a straight line on a

piece of paper using a ruler. Objects that can easily be
measured in one dimension, like a line, are measured in
inches. If something is longer we measure it in feet,
yards or miles. These are the measurements we use
every day, but they aren’t really that easy to use. We
have to memorize that there are 12 inches in a foot,
three feet in a yard, and 5,280 feet in a mile.

CONVERSION OF UNITS

 A unit conversion factor is used to covert a quantity in one system of units to corresponding quantity
in another system of units.

METRIC to ENGLISH ENGLISH to METRIC

1cm = 0.3937 in = 0.03281 ft 1 in = 2.54 cm = 0.0254 m
1m = 39.37 in = 3.281 ft = 1.094 yd 1ft = 30.5 cm = 0.305 m
1 km = 3281 ft = 0.6214 mi 1 yd = 91.4 cm = 0.914 m
1L = 1.06 qt = 0.265 gal = 0.0353 ft3 1 mi = 1609 m =1.609 km
1g = 0.0353 oz = 0.00220 lb 1 qt = 946 ml = 0.946 L
1kg = 2.20 lb = 0.00110 tn 1 oz = 28350 mg = 28.35 g
1 metric tn (103kg) = 2200 lb = 1.10 tn 1lb = 453.6 g = 0.4536 kg
1 tn = 907 kg = 0.907 metric tn

Uncertainty in Measurements can result from limitations in accuracy and precision. These limitations
can be attributes to systematic errors (determinate) and Random errors (indeterminate).

Systematic errors are due to the limitations of the measuring instruments and the skill or carefulness of
the experimenter.

Random errors are caused by external factors beyond the control of the experimenter such as vibrations,
noise, changes in atmospheric pressure and friction.

Accuracy is the ability of the instrument to measure the

accurate value is known as accuracy. In other words, the
closeness of the measured value to a standard or true value.
Accuracy is obtained by taking small readings. The small
reading reduces the error of the calculation.

Precision is the closeness of two or more measurements to

each other is known as the precision of a substance. If you
weigh a given substance five times and get 3.2 kg each time,
then your measurement is very precise but not necessarily
accurate. Precision is independent of accuracy.

Errors in Measurements. Any measurement that you make is just an approximation, 100% accuracy is
not possible. If you measure the same object two different times, the two measurements may not be
exactly the same. The difference between the two measurements is called a variation in the
measurements. This variation introduces an unwanted but unavoidable uncertainty in our measurement.

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This uncertainty is called the Errors in measurement. This ‘error’ should not be confused with a ‘mistake’.
Error, unlike mistake, does not mean that you got the wrong answer. It just means you didn’t get as close
to the true value as possible. The errors in measurement are a mathematical way to show the uncertainty
in the measurement. It is the difference between the result of the measurement and the true value of what
you were measuring.

Difference between Accuracy and Precision

In the previous few sections having discussed what each term means, let us now look at their differences.

Accuracy Precision
Precision implies the level of variation that
Accuracy refers to the level of agreement between the
lies in the values of several measurements of
actual measurement and the absolute measurement.
the same factor.
Represents how closely the results agree with the Represents how closely results agree with
standard value one another
Single factor or measurement Multiple measurements or factors are needed
It is possible for a measurement to be accurate on Results can be precise without being
occasion as a fluke. For a measurement to be consistently accurate. Alternatively, the results can be
accurate, it should also be precise. precise and accurate.

Equations: Relationships in A Capsule

A. Direct Proportion

Dependence of quantities on one another varies. Some quantities will increase proportionately to the
others. Consider the dependence of the circumference (C) of the circle on its diameter (D).

Diameter (cm) Circumference (cm) Circumference

Diameter
1 3.14 3.14
2 6.28 3.14
3 9.42 3.14
4 12.56 3.14

You will notice that, as the diameter increases, the circumference

also increases. The quotient of the two quantities is constant. The
graph is a straight line. The slope is constant. Thus, the
circumference is directly proportional to its diameter. In direct
proportionality, one quantity varies directly as the other quantity.
In symbols, y = kx or y , where k is constant of variation. In
x
equation form, circumference = constant ( ╥ )
diameter

C=╥ Hence, C = ╥D
D
Where: ╥ = pi (3.14)
B. Inverse Proportion

Pressure Volume (Pressure) (Volume)

1 90.0 90
2 45.0 90
3 30.0 90
4 22.5 90
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5 18.0 90

An inverse proportion is one wherein an increase in one quantity

means a decrease in the other. Consider the relationship that exists
between pressure (P) and volume (V) of a gas.
You will notice that as the pressure increases the volume decreases.
The product of pressure and volume gives you a constant result. The
graph is not a straight line but a hyperbola. The relationship is
described as inversely proportional. In equation form,
(pressure)(volume) = constant
PxV=k

C. Direct Square Proportion

Radius (cm) Area (cm2) Area

Radius2
1 3.14 3.14
2 12.56 3.14
3 28.26 3.14
4 50.24 3.14
5 78.50 3.14
6 113.04 3.14
7 153.86 3.14

In some cases, you can see that both quantities are increasing, but
one quantity increases faster than the other. This relationship is
known as direct square proportion. An example of this
relationship is the dependence of the area of a circle on its radius.
In a direct square relationship, you would notice that its graph is a
parabola and the quotient of the two quantities is constant, if you
square one quantity. In equation form,
Area = constant ( ╥ ) A = ╥ Hence, A = ╥r2
Radius2 r2

D. Inverse Square Proportion

Mass Velocity (Mass) (Velocity)2

1 3.14 3.14
2 12.56 3.14
3 28.26 3.14
4 50.24 3.14
5 78.50 3.14
6 113.04 3.14
7 153.86 3.14

Another kind of relationship is where one quantity decreases faster

as the other quantity increases. This is known as inversely square
proportion. An example of this relationship is the dependence of
velocity on mass.

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In an inverse square proportion, you would notice that its graph is

also hyperbola and the product of the two quantities is constant if
you square one quantity. In equation form,
(mass)(velocity)2 = constant
mv2 = k

Proportion can therefore provide a scientist with a tool in predicting the quantity of a dependent variable
given an independent variable.

Manipulating Equations: An unknown variable can be solved by manipulating equations.

Example: Given the equation F = ma
Find: a) the equation for
1. m
2. a
b) the relationship between
1. F and a
2. F and m
3. a and m
Solution:
a) 1. F = ma

1 F = ma 1 Multiply both sides by 1 F=m

a a a, a

2.F = ma

1 F = ma 1 Multiply both sides by 1 F =a

m m m, m

b) 1. F and a are directly proportional because the quotient of F and a is a constant

2.F and m are directly proportional because the quotient of F and m is constant
3. a and m are inversely proportional because the product of a and m is a
constant.

Activity 3: Consider the tables below

Table 1: Length of vibrating string and frequency of notes

l (m) 7.5 15 20 ? 80 240

f (cy/s) 1024 512 384 128 96 ?

Table 2: Stretching Force and Elongation of Spring

F (N) 8 15 25 37.5 ?
e (m) 3.2 6 ? 15 22

For each table:

a. Plot the points in a graph.
b. Describe the relationship that exists between the given physical quantities.
c. Express the relationship in equation form.
d. Complete the tables.

3. Given the equation, F = k

Find:
a. Equation for
a. q1
b. d
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c. q2
b. the relationship between
a. F and d
b. F and q1
c. q2 and d

References:

Padua, Alicia L., Crisostomo, Ricardo M., Ramos, Henry PhD , Consultant, Rabago, Lilia M,
PhD, Editor-Coordinator. Practical and Explorational Physics. Second Edition

www.mathsisfun.com › numbers › scientific-notation

inters.org › laws-of-nature

plato.stanford.edu › entries › laws-of-nature

plus.maths.org › content › laws-nature

manifold.umn.edu › read › section

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