Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach

8th Edition in SI Units

Yunus A. Çengel, Michael A. Boles
McGraw-Hill, 2015

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION AND
BASIC CONCEPTS

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. Basic Concept of Thermodynamics
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• Energy
• System
• Property

• State

• Process

• Cycle

• Pressure

• Temperature

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. Basic Concept of Thermodynamics
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. • Thermodynamics
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1 The science of energy
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• Energy
✓ Energy can be viewed as the ability to cause
changes.
✓ The name thermodynamics stems from the
Greek words therme (heat) and dynamis
(power).

• Conservation of energy principle

✓ During an interaction, energy can change
from one form to another but the total
amount of energy remains constant.

✓ Energy cannot be created or destroyed.

• The first law of thermodynamics

✓ An expression of the conservation of energy
principle.
✓ The first law asserts that energy is a
thermodynamic property.
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Basic Concept of Thermodynamics

▪ The second law of thermodynamics: It asserts that energy has quality as well as
quantity, and actual processes occur in the direction of decreasing quality of
energy.

▪ For example, a cup of hot coffee left on a table eventually cools, but a cup of
cool coffee in the same room never gets hot by itself.

Heat flows in the direction of

decreasing temperature.

The first law : the conservation of energy

The second law : It indicates in which direction a process will go.

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 Basic Concept of Thermodynamics
Classical thermodynamics: A macroscopic approach to the study of
thermodynamics that does not require a knowledge of the behavior of individual
particles. It provides a direct and easy way to the solution of engineering
problems and it is used in this text.
Statistical thermodynamics: A microscopic approach, based on the average
behavior of large groups of individual particles. It is used in this text only in the
supporting role.

E = m∙C2

C = 300000 km/s

C = 3∙108 m/s
Example: How much mass is required for 10 MW of energy ?

10∙106 = m∙9∙1016
m = 1/9∙109 kg

The reviews here are very small. In other words, the atomic size is processed.

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 Basic Concept of Thermodynamics
Application Areas of Thermodynamics

• Aircraft and automobile engines

• Power plants
• Air conditioners
• Furnace
• Wind turbines
• Pressure cooker

• Water Heater
• Refrigerator
• Pumps and compressors
• Rockets
• Iron

• Human body

• ………

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 Basic Concept of Thermodynamics
Application Areas of Thermodynamics

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 Systems and Control Volumes

System: A quantity of matter or a region in space chosen

for study.
Surroundings: The mass or region outside the system.
Boundary: The real or imaginary surface that separates the
system from its surroundings.

➢ The boundary of a system can be fixed or movable.

➢ Systems may be considered to be closed or open.

Closed system (Control mass): A fixed amount of mass,

and no mass can cross its boundary.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TFP6SvW
POQc

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 Basic Concept of Thermodynamics
A closed system (also known as a control mass) consists of a fixed amount of
mass, and no mass can cross its boundary.
Open system (control volume): A properly selected region in space.
It usually encloses a device that involves mass flow such as a compressor,
turbine, or nozzle.
Both mass and energy can cross the boundary of a control volume.
Control surface: The boundaries of a control volume. It can be real or imaginary
A control volume can involve fixed, moving, real, and imaginary boundaries.

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 Basic Concept of Thermodynamics
If, as a special case, even energy is not allowed to cross the boundary, that
system is called an isolated system.

➢ Thermodynamic equations applied to

mass open and closed systems are different.
Closed It is therefore important to determine
System the type of system before the analysis is
m=Constant performed.
energy
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 Basic Concept of Thermodynamics

Examples:

Moving
boundary

Gas
Gas

Fixed
boundary

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 Basic Concept of Thermodynamics

Examples:

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 Basic Concept of Thermodynamics

Examples:

Ice
Water

Show open and closed systems.

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 Basic Concept of Thermodynamics

Show open and closed systems.

a) b)

c) d)

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 Basic Concept of Thermodynamics
Dimensions and Units
Any physical quantity can be characterized by dimensions.
The magnitudes assigned to the dimensions are called units.

Dimensions

- Mass m
Primary or - Lenght L
fundamental
dimensions - Time t
- Temperature T

- velocity υ
secondary - energy E
dimensions, or
derived dimensions - volüme V
- pressure P

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 Basic Concept of Thermodynamics
Dimensions and Units
Units
1. English system-USCS (United States Customary System): It has no apparent
systematic numerical base, and various units in this system are related to each
other rather arbitrarily.
2. Metric SI system: A simple and logical system based on a decimal relationship between the
various units

Mass kilogram (kg) libre (lbm)

1 lbm = 0.45359 kg

Length metre (m) feet (ft)

1 ft = 0.3048 m

Force Newton (N) libre force(pound-force, lbf)

1 N = 1 kg m/s2
1 lbf = 32.174 lbm ft/s2
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32.174 lbm = 1 slug
 Some SI and
English Units

Work = Force  Distance

1 J = 1 N∙m
1 cal = 4.1868 J
1 Btu = 1.0551 kJ Btu (British thermal unit)
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 W weight
m mass
g gravitational
A body weighing 66 kgf on acceleration
earth will weigh only 11 kgf
on the moon.

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Dimensional homogeneity
All equations must be dimensionally homogeneous.

Unity Conversion Ratios

▪ All nonprimary units (secondary units) can be
formed by combinations of primary units.
Force units, for example, can be expressed as

▪ They can also be expressed more conveniently as

unity conversion ratios as

▪ Unity conversion ratios are identically equal to 1 and are unitless, and thus
such ratios (or their inverses) can be inserted conveniently into any calculation
to properly convert units.
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 Basic Concept of Thermodynamics

Energy Types

• Thermal

• Mechanic

• Kinetic

• Potential

• Electric

• Chemical

• Nuclear,

• Magnetic

• ………

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 Basic Concept of Thermodynamics

Total = ∑ Energy = E

The total energy of a system on a unit mass basis, e = E/m (kJ/kg)

Thermodynamics provides no information about the absolute value of the

total energy.

It deals only with the change of the total energy, which is what matters in
engineering problems.

Macroscopic (Visible energy)

Total Energy

Microscopic (dealing with molecular structure)

∑ Microscopic Energy = Internal Energy

=U

Internal energy U of a system is the sum of all the microscopic forms of energy.

Internal energy per unit mass, u = U/m (kJ/kg)

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 Basic Concept of Thermodynamics

Kinetic Energy

The energy that a system possesses as a result of its motion relative to some
reference frame is called kinetic energy (KE).

KE = m∙V2/2 (kJ)

ke = V2/2 (kJ/kg)

Potential energy (PE)

The energy that a system possesses as a result of its elevation in a

gravitational field is called potential energy (PE).

PE = m∙g∙z (kJ)

pe = g∙z (kJ/kg)

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 Basic Concept of Thermodynamics

For most closed systems, the difference in velocity and elevation is negligible.

E=U ve e=u

Usually, we'll accept closed systems motionless.

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 Basic Concept of Thermodynamics

Some Physical Observations About Internal Energy

The molecules have 3 different kinetic energy..

- change position

- Rotation

- Vibration

Sensible energy is the portion of the internal energy of a system associated

with the kinetic energies of the molecules

Sensible energy is proportional to temperature

Chemical energy is the internal energy associated with the atomic bonds in a
molecule.

Nuclear energy is the tremendous amount of energy associated with Nuclear

the strong bonds within the nucleus of the atom itself.
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0 Properties of a System
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1 Property: Any characteristic of a system.
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▪ Some familiar properties are pressure P, temperature T, volume V, and mass m.

Or viscosity , heat conductivity , elastic modulus , thermal expansion coefficient

, electrical resistance coefficient R

▪ Some properties can be determined by the other properties too.

Example: Density. Density is mass per unit volume.

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 Density and Specific Gravity

Density is mass per unit Specific gravity: The ratio of the

volume density of a substance to the density
of some standard substance at a
specified temperature (usually water
at 4°C).

Specific volume
is volume per unit
Specific weight:
mass.
The weight of a unit
volume of a substance.

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 Properties of a System

▪ Weight is the force, not mass.

W = mg

g = 9.807 m/s2
= 32.174 ft/s2

Example: A tank is filled with oil whose density is

 = 850 kg/m3. If the volume of the tank is V = 2 m3,
determine the amount of mass m in the tank.

Solution:

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 Properties of a System

• Properties are considered to be either intensive

or extensive.
• Intensive properties: Those that are
independent of the mass of a system, such
as temperature, pressure, and density.
• Extensive properties: Those whose values
depend on the size—or mass—of the
system.
• Specific properties: Extensive properties per
unit mass.

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 Basic Concept of Thermodynamics

State and Equilibrium

State: Consider a system not undergoing any change. At this point, all the
properties can be measured or calculated throughout the entire system, which gives
us a set of properties that completely describes the condition, or the state, of the
system.

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 Basic Concept of Thermodynamics

State and Equilibrium

▪ Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium states.

▪ Equilibrium: A state of balance.
▪ In an equilibrium state there are no unbalanced potentials (or driving forces)
within the system.
▪ Thermal equilibrium: If the temperature is the same throughout the entire
system.

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 Basic Concept of Thermodynamics

State and Equilibrium

▪ Mechanical equilibrium: If there is no change in pressure at any point of

the system with time.
▪ Phase equilibrium: If a system involves two phases and when the mass of
each phase reaches an equilibrium level and stays there.
▪ Chemical equilibrium: If the chemical composition of a system does not
change with time, that is, no chemical reactions occur.

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 Basic Concept of Thermodynamics

The State Postulate

▪ The number of properties required to fix the

state of a system is given by the state
postulate:

– The state of a simple compressible

system is completely specified by two
independent, intensive properties.

▪ Simple compressible system: If a system

involves no electrical, magnetic, gravitational,
motion, and surface tension effects.

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 Basic Concept of Thermodynamics

Processes and Cycles

Process: Any change that a system undergoes from one equilibrium state to
another.
Path: The series of states through which a system passes during a process.
To describe a process completely, one should specify the initial and final states, as
well as the path it follows, and the interactions with the surroundings.
Quasi-equilibrium process: When a process proceeds in such a manner that the
system remains infinitesimally close to an equilibrium state at all times.

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 Basic Concept of Thermodynamics

Processes and Cycles

▪ Process diagrams plotted by employing

thermodynamic properties as coordinates
are very useful in visualizing the processes.
▪ Some common properties that are used as
coordinates are temperature T, pressure P,
and volume V (or specific volume v).
▪ The prefix iso- is often used to designate a
process for which a particular property
remains constant.
▪ Isothermal process: A process during
which the temperature T remains constant.
▪ Isobaric process: A process during which
the pressure P remains constant.
▪ Isochoric (or isometric) process: A
process during which the specific volume v
remains constant.
▪ Cycle: A process during which the initial
and final states are identical.

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 Basic Concept of Thermodynamics

Processes and Cycles

A system is said to have undergone a cycle if it returns to its initial state

at the end of the process. That is, for a cycle the initial and final states are
identical.

Otto engine cycle

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 Basic Concept of Thermodynamics

▪ The changeable properties which are not affect each other are called
independent properties.

▪ T and  are always independent.

▪ P and T are not independent in phase changing order. T= f(P)

▪ Water boils at 100 oC in the sea level. But, it boils at a lower temperature in the
mountain.

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 Basic Concept of Thermodynamics

The Steady-Flow Process

▪ The term steady implies no change

with time. The opposite of steady is
unsteady, or transient.

▪ A large number of engineering devices

operate for long periods of time under the
same conditions, and they are classified as
steady-flow devices.

▪ Steady-flow process: A process during

which a fluid flows through a control
volume steadily.

▪ Steady-flow conditions can be closely

approximated by devices that are intended
for continuous operation such as turbines,
pumps, boilers, condensers, and heat
exchangers or power plants or
refrigeration systems.

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 Basic Concept of Thermodynamics

The Steady-Flow Process

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 Basic Concept of Thermodynamics

Pressure
68 kg 136 kg
Pressure(P): A normal force exerted by a
fluid per unit area
1 Paskal = N/m2

Pa = 1 N/m2

Afeet=300cm2

0.23 kgf/cm2 0.46 kgf/cm2

P=68/300=0.23 kgf/cm2

Some basic
pressure gages.

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 Basic Concept of Thermodynamics

Pressure

▪ Pressure is used for liquid and gases.

▪ Pressure does not change in the horizontal direction.

▪ Pressure is the same in every direction for a stationary fluid.

▪ Pressure in a fluid increases with depth.

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 Basic Concept of Thermodynamics

Pressure

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 Basic Concept of Thermodynamics

Pressure
• Absolute pressure: The actual pressure at a given position. It is measured
relative to absolute vacuum (i.e., absolute zero pressure).
• Gage pressure: The difference between the absolute pressure and the local
atmospheric pressure. Most pressure-measuring devices are calibrated to read
zero in the atmosphere, and so they indicate gage pressure.
• Vacuum pressures: Pressures below atmospheric pressure.

❑ Throughout this
text, the pressure
P will denote
absolute
pressure unless
specified
otherwise.

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 Basic Concept of Thermodynamics

Example

A vacuum gage connected to a chamber reads 5.8 psi at a location where

the atmospheric pressure is 14.5 psi. Determine the absolute pressure in the
chamber.

Solution

Pabs = Patm - Pvac = 14.5 - 5.8 = 8.7 psi

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 Basic Concept of Thermodynamics

Variation of Pressure with Depth

When the variation of density with

elevation is known

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 Basic Concept of Thermodynamics

Variation of Pressure with Depth

Pascal’s law: The pressure applied to a

confined fluid increases the pressure
throughout by the same amount.

The area ratio A2/A1 is called the ideal

mechanical advantage of the hydraulic lift.

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 Basic Concept of Thermodynamics

The Manometer

It is commonly used to measure small

and moderate pressure differences. A
manometer contains one or more fluids
such as mercury, water, alcohol, or oil.

P1 = P2 Patm

AP1 = APatm + W
h W
W = mg = Vg = Ahg

AP1 = APatm + Ahg

P1
P = P1 - Patm = hg = Pgage

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 Basic Concept of Thermodynamics

Example

SG

Solution
P = Patm + hg  = SG∙1000 = 850 kg/m3

P = 96 + 850∙9.807∙0.55/1000 = 100.6 kPa

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 Basic Concept of Thermodynamics
Example
The water in a tank is pressurized by air, and the
pressure is measured by a multifluid manometer as
shown in Figure. The tank is located on a mountain at
an altitude of 1400 m where the atmospheric
pressure is 85.6 kPa. Determine the air pressure in
the tank if h1 = 0.1 m, h2 = 0.2 m, and h3 = 0.35 m.
Take the densities of water, oil, and mercury to be
1000 kg/m3, 850 kg/m3, and 13,600 kg/m3,
respectively.

Solution

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 Basic Concept of Thermodynamics

Pressure Measurement Devices

The Barometer (Toricelli)

• Atmospheric pressure is measured by a

device called a barometer; thus, the
atmospheric pressure is often referred to as
the barometric pressure.

• A frequently used pressure unit is the

standard atmosphere, which is defined as the
pressure produced by a column of mercury
760 mm in height at 0°C (Hg=13,595 kg/m3)
under standard gravitational acceleration
(g = 9.807 m/s2).

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 Basic Concept of Thermodynamics

Pressure Measurement Devices

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 Basic Concept of Thermodynamics
Example

What is the atmospheric pressure value ?

vakum

Patm = gh (kPa)

Hg = 13595 kg/m3

1 atm = 760 mmHg

= 29.92 inHg

Patm = gh

Patm = 13595∙9.81∙0.76

Patm = 101,358.88 Pa

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 Basic Concept of Thermodynamics

Example

Barometer shows 740 mmHg and g is 9.7 m/s2 . Find the atmospheric pressure.

Hg =13570 kg/m3 at 10 oC

Solution

Patm = hg = 13570∙9.7∙0.74 /1000

= 97.41 kPa

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 Basic Concept of Thermodynamics
Example

a) The piston of a vertical piston–cylinder device containing a gas

has a mass of 60 kg and a cross-sectional area of 0.04 m2, as
shown in Figure. The local atmospheric pressure is 0.97 bar, and
the gravitational acceleration is 9.81 m/s2. (a) Determine the
pressure inside the cylinder. (b) If some heat is transferred to the
gas and its volume is doubled, do you expect the pressure inside
the cylinder to change?

Solution
a) PA = PatmA + W

P = Patm + mg/A

P = 0.97 + 60∙9.8/0.04∙105

P = 1.117 bar
b) The volume change will have no effect on the free-body
diagram drawn in part (a), and therefore the pressure inside
the cylinder will remain the same.
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 Basic Concept of Thermodynamics

Temperature

Temperature refers to how hot or cold an object

is as a word.

Thermal equilibrium is the case if temperatures

are equal.

The zeroth law of thermodynamics

The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that if two bodies are in thermal
equilibrium with a third body, they are also in thermal equilibrium with each
other.

This law allows us to measure temperatures.

T1 = T3 and T 2 = T3 → T 1 = T2
1 2

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 Basic Concept of Thermodynamics

Temperature Scales
• All temperature scales are based on some easily reproducible states such as
the freezing and boiling points of water: the ice point and the steam point.
• Ice point: A mixture of ice and water that is in equilibrium with air saturated
with vapor at 1 atm pressure (0°C or 32°F).
• Steam point: A mixture of liquid water and water vapor (with no air) in
equilibrium at 1 atm pressure (100°C or 212°F).
• Celsius scale: in SI unit system
• Fahrenheit scale: in English unit system
• Thermodynamic temperature scale: A temperature scale that is
independent of the properties of any substance.
• Kelvin scale (SI) Rankine scale (E) They are absolute temperatures
• A temperature scale nearly identical to the Kelvin scale is the ideal-gas
temperature scale. The temperatures on this scale are measured using a
constant-volume gas thermometer.

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 Basic Concept of Thermodynamics
Temperature Scales

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 Basic Concept of Thermodynamics
Temperature Scales
Comparison of
temperature
scales.

Comparison of
magnitudes of
various
temperature
units.

• The reference temperature in the original Kelvin scale was the ice point,
273.15 K, which is the temperature at which water freezes (or ice melts).
• The reference point was changed to a much more precisely reproducible point,
the triple point of water (the state at which all three phases of water coexist
in equilibrium), which is assigned the value 273.16 K. 59
 Temperature Scales
Example: During a heating process, the temperature of a system rises by 10°C.
Express this rise in temperature in K, °F, and R.

Solution:

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