What is computer network?

[2]

Ans: A computer network is a group of computer systems and other computing hardware devices
that are linked together through communication channels to facilitate communication and
resource-sharing among a wide range of users. Most common computer networks are Local area
network (LAN), Metropolitan area network (MAN), Wide area network (WAN).

What do you mean by protocol and interfaces?[4]

Network protocols are sets of established rules that dictate how to format, transmit and receive
data so computer network devices from servers and routers to endpoints can communicate
regardless of the differences in their underlying infrastructures, designs or standards.Standardized
network protocols provide a common language for network devices. Without them, computers
wouldn't know how to engage with each other.

And a network interface is a software or hardware interface between two pieces of equipment or
protocol layers in a computer network.A network interface will usually have some form of network
address. This may consist of a node identifier and a port number or may be a unique node ID in its
own right.Network interfaces provide standardized functions such as passing messages,
connecting and disconnecting, etc.

Write the protocols used in each layer of TCP/IP model.[4]

There are four layers in the TCP/IP model they are:

(a) Host to network layer:
Protocol is used to connect to the host,so that the packets can be sent over it.

(b) Internet layer:

Internet protocol is used in this layer which holds the whole architecture together. It helps
the packet to travel independently to the destination.

(c) Transport layer:

Its decides if the data transmission should be on parallel or single path.Functions such as
multiplexing, segmenting or splitting on the data is done.

(d) Application layer:

Its have different protocol such as TELNET for two -way communication, FTP for file
transfer, SMTP for the transport of electronic mail, DNS for resolving the ip adress into the
textual address for the Hosts connected over a network.
What are the features of client/ Server Architecture? [4]
Ans: Client-server architecture (client/server) is a network architecture in which each computer or
process on the network is either a client or a server. Servers are powerful computers or processes
dedicated to managing disk drives (file servers), printers (print servers), or network traffic
(network servers). Clients are PCs or workstations on which users run applications. Clients rely on
servers for resources, such as files, devices, and even processing power.
The features of client/server architecture are:
 It is widely used and forms the basis of much network usage.
 This whole arrangement is called the client-server model.
 It is applicable when the client and server are both in the same building but also when they
are far apart.
 Under most conditions, one server can handle a large number of clients.
 If we look at the client-server model in detail, we see that two processes are involved, one
on the client machine and one on the server machine.
 Communication takes the form of the client process sending a message over the network
to the server process.
 The client process then waits for a reply message.
 When the server process gets the request, it performs the requested work or looks up the
requested data and sends back a reply.

What do you mean by network architecture? [2]

Network Architecture is the complete framework of an organization's computer network. The

diagram of the network architecture provides a full picture of the established network with
detailed view of all the resources accessible. It includes hardware components used for
communication, cabling and device types, network layout and topologies, physical and wireless
connections, implemented areas and also the software rules and protocols needed.
The difference between TCP/IP and OSI reference models:

Explain in which level of OSI layer following tasks are done. [.5 marks for each ]

 Timing and voltage of received signal: Physical Layer

 Encryption and Decryption of data: Presentation Layer [2T]
 Data framing: Data Link Layer
 Error detection and correction : Data link layer
 Encryption and decryption of data : Presentation
 Logical identification of computer : Network layer
 Point-to-point connection of socket : Transport layer [2T]
 Dialogue control : Session layer
  Physical identification of computer :Physical layer

Explain five instances of how network are a part of your life today. Through we have
MAC address. Why do we use IP address to represent the host in network? Explain
your answer [5+3]

Solution: Networking allows us to meet like-minded individuals who have a mutual desire
to give value to the other person. Networking can happen in the workplace, at school, at
the gym or at a networking event. According to the Faced Squared article written by
greatbusinessschools.org, “People who got the most results from their networking efforts
participate more in "face-to-face" casual contact networks." Of that 72% of those surveyed
said they were influenced by looks and handshakes alone.

Here are three reasons why networking is important in your everyday life.

Career Development: Networking is an essential part of career development. Whether

you are starting your own business or looking to expand on your career, networking is
a gateway to building strong relationships for long term success. According to Forbes,”
Around 80% of jobs are not posted online. This is referred to as the “hidden jobs
market”. Those who find jobs in this hidden market are individuals who effectively
network with other people”

Opportunities: Networking in itself produces a great deal of opportunities. When you

network with people and start building connections, those connections also connect
you with their connections. The opportunities are endless, from finding a new job,
client leads, partnerships and more.

Personal Growth: Networking can help you in not only your business ventures but
your personal life as well. You gain skills on how to network, build confidence and
obtain a different perspective on your career path. Networking is also a great way to
build lifelong friendships!
 Networking is not just something people do, its a lifestyle and those that are most
successful have adapted to and mastered this lifestyle. Great networks don't grow on
trees; you must initiate, build and nourish them to have long lasting relationships.

Mac address cannot be changed. These address are assigned only during the
manufacture of hardware. Due to this the network become less secured using it.

You are assigned to design a network infrastructure for a 3 star-hotel. Recommend a network
solution with hardware and software in current trend that can be used in the hotel. Make
necessary assumptions and justify your recommendation with logical arguments where
possible. [8]
A network must be able to meet certain criteria, these are mentioned below:

1. Performance
2. Reliability
3. Scalability
Performance
It can be measured in following ways:
 Transit time: It is the time taken to travel a message from one device to another.
 Response time: It is defined as the time elapsed between enquiry and response.
Other ways to measure performance are:
1. Efficiency of software
2. Number of users
3. Capability of connected hardware
Reliability
It decides the frequency at which network failure takes place. More the failure are, less is the
network reliability.
Security
It refers to the protection of data from the unauthorized user or access. While travelling through
network, data passes many layers of network, and data can be traced if attempted. Hence security
is also a very important characteristic for Networks.
Properties of Good Network
 Interpersonal Communication: We can communicate with each other efficiently and easily
example emails, chat rooms, video conferencing etc.
 Resources can be shared: We can use the resources provided by network such as printers
etc.
 Sharing files, data: Authorized users are allowed to share the files on the network.

Components of a Network
A computer network comprises the following components:
  A minimum of at least 2 computers.
 Cables that connect the computer to each other’s, although wireless communication is
becoming more common.
 A network device on each computer (this is called a network interface card or NIC).
 A 'Switch' used to switch the data from one point to another. Hubs are outdated and are
little used for new installations.
 Network operating system software

Explain the need of Networking Software in the form of Hierarchy [6]

Networking software is a foundation element for any network which helps network
administrators deploy, manage, and monitor a network. Networking software is invisible to end-
users- it is simply used to facilitate the access those users have to network resources, in a
seamless way. It allows multiple devices, such as desktops, laptops, mobile phones, tablets, and
other systems to connect to one another, as well as other networks. The internet is a prime
example of a globally connected system of servers and computers that relies on networking
software to ensure accessibility by end users.

The first computer networks were designed with hardware as the main concern and the software
as an afterthought. This strategy no longer works due to the advent of software revolution. To
reduce the design complexity, most networks are organized as a series or hierarchy of layers or
levels. The numbers of layers, the name of each layer, the contents of each layer and the function
of each layer differ from network to network. Layer n on one machine communicates with the
layer n on another machine on the network using some rules known as the layer n protocol. A
protocol is an agreement between the communicating parties on how the communication is to
proceed. The entities comprising the corresponding layers on two communicating machines over
the network are called peers. In reality, no data is transferred from layer n on any two machines.
Instead, each data and control information is passed to the layer below. Additional information
including protocol control information may be appended by each layer to data as it travels from
higher to lower layers in the form of layer headers. Below layer 1 is the physical medium through
which actual communication occurs over communication channels. Network Software is needed
to ease the transaction of data through the different hierarchy of protocols between these different
layers efficiently.
 What are the reason for using layered protocols [3,2]

The reasons for using layered protocols is because it simplifies the design process as the function
of each layers and their interaction are well defined. Some of the reasons are listed below:-

i. The layered architecture provides flexibility to modify and develop network

services.
ii. Each layer performs different function.
iii. Redefines the way of convincing networks which leads to cost saving and
managerial benefits.
iv. Addition of new services and management of network infrastructure becomes easy.

What are headers and trails and how do they get added and removed? [5, 4]
Headers and trailers are control data added at the beginning and the end of each data unit at each
layer of the sender and removed at the corresponding layers of the receiver. They provide source
and destination addresses, synchronization points, information for error detection
Adding:
An obvious technique is to allocate memory that can hold what exists plus the piece to be added
and to copy each into its proper place. A variation on that is to allocate a block of memory and to
place each layer’s content in the block such that there is room at the beginning for headers that
will be added later lower in the stack

Removing:
Removing without copying is easy. One-layer passes content to the one above as a pointer or two.
One pointer can point to a status data area followed by content. With two pointers, one can point
to the incoming content, while the other points to status information about the information flow.

Differentiate between TCP/IP and OSI Model. [5,5,5,3,6]

OSI(Open System Interconnection) TCP/IP(Transmission Control Protocol / Internet

Protocol)
OSI is a generic, protocol independent standard, acting as TCP/IP model is based on standard protocols around
a communication gateway between the network and end which the internet has developed. It is a
user. communication protocol, which allows connection
of hosts over a connection.
In OSI model the transport layer guarantees the delivery In TCP/IP model the transport layer does not
of packets. guarantees delivery of packets. Still the TCP/IP
model is more reliable.
Follows vertical approach. Follows horizontal approach.
OSI model has a separate presentation layer and session TCP/IP does not have a separate presentation layer
layer. or session layer.
OSI is a reference model around which the networks are TCP/IP model is, in a way implementation of the
built. Generally it is used as a guidance tool. OSI model.
Network layer of OSI model provides both connections The network layer in TCP/IP model provides
oriented and connectionless service. connectionless service.
OSI model has a problem of fitting the protocols into the TCP/IP model does not fit any protocol.
model.
Protocols are hidden in OSI model and are easily replaced In TCP/IP replacing protocol is not easy.
as the technology changes.
OSI model defines services, interfaces and protocols very In TCP/IP, services, interfaces and protocols are not
clearly and makes clear distinction between them. It is clearly separated. It is also protocol dependent.
protocol independent.
It has 7 layers. It has 4 layers.

Distinguish between Client-Server Network and Peer-Peer Network [3]

BASIS FOR CLIENT-SERVER PEER-TO-PEER

COMAPAISON

Basic There is a specific server and specific Clients and server are not

clients connected to the server. distinguished; each node act as client

and server.
Service The client request for service and server Each node can request for services and

respond with the service. can also provide the services.

Focus Sharing the information. Connectivity.

Data The data is stored in a centralized server. Each peer has its own data.

Server When several clients request for the As the services are provided by several

services simultaneously, a server can get servers distributed in the peer-to-peer

bottlenecked. system, a server in not bottlenecked.

Expense The client-server are expensive to Peer-to-peer are less expensive to

implement. implement.

Stability Client-Server is more stable and scalable. Peer-to Peer suffers if the number of

peers increases in the system.

Explain the OSI model [3]

FIG:OSI model layers

o OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model that describes how
information from a software application in one computer moves through a physical
medium to the software application in another computer.
o OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular network function.
o OSI model was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in
1984, and it is now considered as an architectural model for the inter-computer
communications.
o OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller and manageable tasks. Each layer is
assigned a particular task.
o Each layer is self-contained, so that task assigned to each layer can be performed
independently.
o The OSI model is divided into two layers: upper layers and lower layers.
o The upper layer of the OSI model mainly deals with the application related issues, and
they are implemented only in the software. The application layer is closest to the end
 user. Both the end user and the application layer interact with the software applications.
An upper layer refers to the layer just above another layer.
o The lower layer of the OSI model deals with the data transport issues. The data link layer
and the physical layer are implemented in hardware and software. The physical layer is
the lowest layer of the OSI model and is closest to the physical medium. The physical
layer is mainly responsible for placing the information on the physical medium.

Why layering is important? [3,2]

Ans: The Reasons for a Layering in network are:-

Change: When changes are made to one layer, the impact on the other layers is minimized. If the
model consists of a single, all-encompassing layer, any change affects the entire model.

Design: A layered model defines each layer separately. As long as the interconnections between
layers remain constant, protocol designers can specialize in one area (layer) without worrying
about how any new implementations affect other layers.

Learning: The layered approach reduces a very complex set of topics, activities, and actions into
several smaller, interrelated groupings. This makes learning and understanding the actions of
each layer and the model generally much easier.

Troubleshooting: The protocols, actions, and data contained in each layer of the model relate
only to the purpose of that layer. This enables troubleshooting efforts to be pinpointed on the
layer that carries out the suspected cause of the problem.

Explain design issues for layers in details. [4]

A number of design issues exist for the layer to layer approach of computer networks. Some of
the main design issues are as follows:
Reliability
Network channels and components may be unreliable, resulting in loss of bits while data transfer.
So, an important design issue is to make sure that the information transferred is not distorted.
Scalability
Networks are continuously evolving. The sizes are continually increasing leading to congestion.
Also, when new technologies are applied to the added components, it may lead to incompatibility
issues. Hence, the design should be done so that the networks are scalable and can accommodate
such additions and alterations.

Error Control
Unreliable channels introduce a number of errors in the data streams that are communicated. So,
the layers need to agree upon common error detection and error correction methods so as to protect
data packets while they are transferred.
Resource Allocation
Computer networks provide services in the form of network resources to the end users. The main
design issue is to allocate and deallocate resources to processes. The allocation/deallocation should
occur so that minimal interference among the hosts occurs and there is optimal usage of the
resources.
Routing
There may be multiple paths from the source to the destination. Routing involves choosing an
optimal path among all possible paths, in terms of cost and time. There are several routing
algorithms that are used in network systems.
Security
A major factor of data communication is to defend it against threats like eavesdropping and
surreptitious alteration of messages. So, there should be adequate mechanisms to prevent
unauthorized access to data through authentication and cryptography.

Mention service primitives for implementing connection oriented service. [2]

There are five types of service primitives for implementing connection oriented service:-

1. LISTEN : When a server is ready to accept an incoming connection it executes the

LISTEN primitive. It blocks waiting for an incoming connection.
2. CONNECT : It connects the server by establishing a connection. Response is awaited.
3. RECIEVE: Then the RECIEVE call blocks the server.
4. SEND : Then the client executes SEND primitive to transmit its request followed by the
execution of RECIEVE to get the reply. Send the message.
5. DISCONNECT : This primitive is used for terminating the connection. After this
primitive one can't send any message. When the client sends DISCONNECT packet then
the server also sends the DISCONNECT packet to acknowledge the client.

Draw the architecture for Client/Server network model. Explain in details about P2P
network model with supportive examples.[4]
Ans: The architecture of Client-Server model is given below:
Fig: client-server model architecture
P2P network model:

Peer-to-peer (P2P) is a decentralized communications model in which each party has the same
capabilities and either party can initiate a communication session. Unlike the client/server model,
in which the client makes a service request and the server fulfills the request, the P2P network
model allows each node to function as both a client and server. In its simplest form, a peer-to-peer
(P2P) network is created when two or more PCs are connected and share resources without going
through a separate server computer. Most P2P programs are focused on media sharing. Peer-to-
peer is a feature of, for example, decentralized crypto currency block chains.

Fig: P2P architecture

Define Frame Relay in detail.[3]

Frame relay is a packet-switching telecommunication service designed for cost-efficient data
transmission for intermittent traffic between local area networks (LANs) and between endpoints
in wide area networks (WANs). Frame relay puts data in a variable-size unit called a frame and
leaves any necessary error correction (retransmission of data) up to the endpoints, which speeds
up overall data transmission.

It uses a technology called fast packet in which error checking does not occur in any intermediate
node of the transmission but done at the ends. It makes it more efficient than X.25, and a higher
process speed achieved (it can transmit over 2,044 Mbps).Another advantage is that you need less
powerful switching centers (nodes) and with less memory capacity than those needed by X25 (each
X25 switching center uses the receive-store-check-relay method, while Frame Relay does not need
checking or correcting errors).

If the traffic is hefty, with a large number of small packages, its performance is more excellent
than X25.

Some important features of frame relay are :

o Frame relay operates at a high speed (1.544 Mbps to 44.376 Mbps).Frame relay
operates only in the physical and data link layers. So it can be easily used in
Internet.
 It allows the bursty data.
 It has a large frame size of 9000 bytes. So it can accommodate all local area network
frame sizes.
 Frame relay can only detect errors (at the data link layer). But there is no flow control or
error control.

X.25 [4,3(with key features)]

A connection-oriented network is X.25, which was the first public data network. It was deployed
in the 1970s at a time when telephone service was a monopoly everywhere and the telephone
company in each country expected there to be one data network per country — theirs. To use
X.25, a computer first established a connection to the remote computer, that is, placed a
telephone call. This connection was given a connection number to be used in data transfer
packets (because multiple connections could be open at the same time). Data packets were very
simple, consisting of a 3-byte header and up to 128 bytes of data. The header consisted of a 12-
bit connection number, a packet sequence number, an acknowledgement number, and a few
miscellaneous bits. X.25 networks operated for about a decade with mixed success.
It works in 3 layers:
Physical Layer
a. Deals with physical interface between DTE and DCE.
b. Used Standard: X.21, RS232C
Frame Layer
a. Deals with logical transfer of data across the physical layer
b. Used Protocol : LAPB
Packet Layer
a. Deals with end to end communication
b. Used Protocol : X.25 PLP