8

Chapter
M E A S U R E M E N T P R I N C I P L E S

Spectral Density Logging Tool

The Spectral Density Logging Tool (SDLT) is designed to measure the electron density
and gamma ray absorption properties of a formation. Gamma rays are continuously
emitted from a chemical radioactive source in the tool and lose energy as they collide
with the electrons of atoms present in the formation. The measurement of gamma
rays returning to the tool is used to compute the bulk density (ρb) and photoelectric B B

factor (Pe) of the formation. The primary objectives of logging the SDLT are to
B B

determine formation porosity and lithology.

Applications
The bulk density (ρb) of a formation is a function of the density of the rock matrix,
B B

the amount of porosity present, and the density of fluids that fill the pore space.
Therefore, with a measurement of bulk density from the SDLT and assumed or
experimental values for the other variables, porosity can be determined from the
following equation:

ρ ma − ρ b
ΦD =
ρ ma − ρfl

where: ΦD B B = porosity derived from bulk density

ρma B B = density of rock matrix
ρb B B = bulk density of formation
ρfl B B = density of fluids filling the pore space

With knowledge of porosity (Φ) and true resistivity (Rt), the fraction of pore space B B

occupied by water (or water saturation) can be calculated using the Archie equation.

a Rw
Sw n = ×
Φm R t

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M E A S U R E M E N T P R I N C I P L E S

where: SwB B = water saturation of the uninvaded zone

n = saturation exponent
a = tortuosity factor
Φ = porosity
m = cementation exponent
Rw B B = formation water resistivity
Rt B B = true resistivity of the uninvaded zone

The ability of a formation to absorb gamma rays is strongly related to the average
atomic number (Z) of atoms present in that formation, which is dependent upon a
rock’s molecular composition. The photoelectric factor (Pe) measurement of the B B

SDLT can be used for determining rock type, even in complex lithologies.

Knowledge of lithology is vital when predicting the production qualities of a reservoir

and when designing completion programs. It also assists log analysts in determining
Archie variables such as tortuosity factor (a) and cementation exponent (m) if these
data are not known from core analysis or other sources.

Additional applications of the bulk density (ρb) and photoelectric factor (Pe)
B B B B

measurements of the SDLT include:

• Determination of volume of shale (VSH) when used in combination with

B B

another porosity measurement.

• Identification of gas-bearing formations when used in combination with the
Dual Spaced Neutron Tool (DSNT).
• Estimation of hydrocarbon density.
• Enhanced evaluation of shaly sandstone reservoirs.
• Determination of overburden pressure.
• Estimation of rock mechanical properties when used in combination with
acoustic waveform data.

Logging Conditions
The SDLT is capable of acquiring accurate data in most well conditions, including:

• Fresh water-based muds

• Saltwater-based muds
• Oil-based muds
• Air-drilled boreholes

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M E A S U R E M E N T P R I N C I P L E S

The SDLT cannot provide accurate data in cased holes.

This document addresses only the measurement principle of the latest generation
Spectral Density Logging Tool, the SDLT-D.

Physics of the Measurement

The measurement principle of the SDLT relates to the energy loss experienced by
gamma rays as they travel from their source, through the mudcake and formation, and
to the detectors of the tool. These gamma rays interact with the electrons of atoms
and are either scattered or absorbed, losing energy in each collision. Gamma rays that
return to the detectors of the tool, therefore, exhibit a wide range of energy levels
depending upon what type and how many collisions they suffered.

Gamma rays of different energy levels can be used to quantify the effects of their being
scattered and absorbed in the formation. Scattering of gamma rays is proportional to
the electron density (ρe) of the formation, while their absorption depends upon the
B B

average atomic number (Z) of the formation. By measuring the number of gamma
rays detected at different energy levels, it is possible to compute the bulk density (ρb) B B

and photoelectric factor (Pe) of the formation. B B

Gamma Ray Source

The SDLT employs a 1.5 Curie chemical source of cesium-137 to emit a continuous
stream of gamma rays. Cesium decays to barium through the emission of a beta
particle (electron). The barium product is left in an excited (or unstable) state.
137 137
55 Cs → 56 Ba (unstable )+ −1 β
The radioactive barium product then stabilizes itself by emitting a single gamma ray
with energy of 662 keV1 . TPF FPT

137
56 Ba (unstable )→13756 Ba (stable ) + γ (662 keV )
The gamma rays produced by this decay can be thought of as a continuous stream of
particles that are emitted at high energies into the formation. These gamma rays, upon
interacting with the electrons in the formation, will lose some of their initial energy.
The amount of such energy loss can be related to the physical characteristics of the
formation, including its density and lithology.

1 An electron volt (eV) is a unit of energy equal to the kinetic energy acquired by an electron passing through
TP PT

a potential difference of 1 volt. A gamma ray with an energy of 662 keV (kilo-electron volt) would have the
same striking power as an electron accelerated through a 662,000 volt potential.

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M E A S U R E M E N T P R I N C I P L E S

Energy Loss in Gamma Rays

Gamma rays emitted from the Cs-137 source have an initial energy of 662 keV. As
these gamma rays travel out through the formation they collide with the electrons of
atoms. With each collision, a gamma ray loses some of its energy and is deflected, or
scattered, along a different path of travel. Gamma rays undergo many such collisions
with some being scattered back to the detectors of the tool, while others are simply
scattered deeper into the formation and are undetectable. Ultimately, after a number
of these collisions and when the energy level of a scattered gamma ray drops below
about 100 keV, it may be absorbed by an electron. As a result of scattering and
absorption in the formation, a wide range of gamma ray energy levels are measured at
the tool’s detectors.

The amount of energy lost by a gamma ray in one collision depends in part upon
whether it collides with an outer shell electron or an inner shell electron of an atom.
Electrons are subatomic particles that orbit the nucleus of an atom in discrete spheres,
or shells. Each shell is characterized by a different binding energy, which is the
attractive force between all electrons within that shell and the nucleus of the atom.
The binding energy of inner shell electrons is the greatest and increases proportionally
to the atomic number (Z) of the nucleus, while the binding energy of outer shell
electrons decreases with greater distance from the nucleus.

Inner and outer electron shells of an atom.

T

At higher energy levels (> 100 keV), gamma rays interact with outer shell electrons of
the atoms. If the gamma ray energy is much greater than the electron’s binding energy,
then the electron takes on some of that energy and is ejected from its shell. The
gamma ray is scattered along a different path of travel, and at a lower energy level.
Such interactions with outer shell electrons are lithology-independent. The smaller binding
energy of an outer shell electron has a weak relationship to the atom’s atomic number
(Z). Therefore, the energy loss experienced by a gamma ray in its collision with an
outer shell electron is independent of the rock’s molecular composition.

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M E A S U R E M E N T P R I N C I P L E S

Gamma ray interaction with an outer shell electron.

T

At lower energies (< 100 keV), gamma rays are capable of interacting with inner shell
electrons of atoms. If the gamma ray energy is slightly greater than the electron’s
binding energy, then all of the gamma ray’s energy will be transferred to the electron.
The electron is ejected from its shell, but the gamma ray is absorbed and ceases to
exist. These interactions with inner shell electrons are lithology-dependent. The larger
binding energy of an inner shell electron has a strong relationship to the atom’s atomic
number (Z). Therefore, the energy loss experienced by a gamma ray when it is
absorbed by an inner shell electron does depend upon the rock’s molecular
composition.

Gamma ray interaction with an inner shell electron.

T

Compton Scattering
Compton scattering is the most important lithology-independent mechanism by which
gamma rays interact with electrons. Through this process, a higher energy (> 100 keV)
gamma ray collides with an outer shell electron and transfers some of its energy to that
electron. The electron is ejected from its shell and the gamma ray, having lost some of
its energy, is scattered along a different path of travel.

Numerous Compton events may result in a single gamma ray reaching a much lower
energy level before being detected. However, a gamma ray may suffer such extreme

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M E A S U R E M E N T P R I N C I P L E S

energy loss in multiple Compton events that it is absorbed before it can ever be
detected.

Compton scattering interaction with outer shell electron.

T

For sedimentary formations with low atomic number components, the probability that
a Compton even will occur is lithology-independent and proportional only to the
formation’s electron density, ρe (units: number of electrons/cm3). The greater the
B B P P

numbers of electrons present in the formation, the greater the likelihood that this type
of interaction will occur. Electron density (ρe) can be related to a formation’s bulk
B B

density, or ρb (units: grams/cm3), by the following equation:

B B P P

ρ b = 1.0704 ρ e − 0.1883

where: ρb B B = bulk density of formation (grams/cm3)

P P

ρe B B = electron density of formation (number of electrons/cm3) P P

Therefore, to obtain a measure of a formation’s bulk density (ρb), it is necessary to

B B

concentrate on those gamma rays detected by the tool at energy levels of greater than
100 keV.

Photoelectric Absorption
Photoelectric absorption is the most important lithology-dependent mechanism by
which gamma rays interact with electrons. During photoelectric absorption, a lower
energy (< 100 keV) gamma ray collides with an inner shell electron and transfers its
entire energy to that electron. The excited electron is ejected from its shell, but the
gamma ray ceases to exist (it is absorbed). Photoelectric absorption ensures that many
low energy gamma rays never reach the tool’s detectors; however, some low energy
gamma rays are not absorbed and are ultimately detected.

Photoelectric absorption interaction with inner shell electron.

T

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M E A S U R E M E N T P R I N C I P L E S

The probability that photoelectric absorption will occur is proportional to the atomic
number (Z) of the atom responsible for the absorption. For atoms with low atomic
numbers (e.g., those present in sedimentary formations), this probability is reflected by
the photoelectric factor (Pe), which is defined by the following equation:
B B

3.6
⎛Z⎞
Pe = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 10 ⎠

where: Pe B B = photoelectric factor (unitless)

Z = atomic number

The photoelectric factor (Pe) is proportional to the number of gamma rays measured
B B

within the Compton scattering range to the number of gamma rays measured within
the photoelectric absorption range.

gamma rays in Compton scattering energy range

Pe ∝
gamma rays in photoelectric absorption energy range

Therefore, to have a useful method of estimating lithology, it is necessary to measure a

wide range of gamma ray energies. Compositionally pure formations (e.g., pure quartz
sandstone, pure limestone, etc.) have characteristic values of Pe, depending upon their
B B

molecular compositions.

Typical Pe values for selected minerals.

T B B

Lithology Pe

Quartz (sandstone) 1.81

Calcite (limestone) 5.08
Dolomite 3.14
Anhydrite 5.05
Halite 4.65
Coal < 1.0

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M E A S U R E M E N T P R I N C I P L E S

Scintillation Detection
The SDLT employs two scintillation detectors to measure the amount and energy
level of scattered gamma rays. These detectors are positioned at different distances (or
spacings) from the gamma ray source, and are known as the short-spaced and long-
spaced detectors. A gamma ray reaching one of these detectors interacts with a man-
made crystal of sodium iodide (NaI) to create a tiny pulse, or scintillation, of visible light.
The NaI scintillation crystal is coupled to a photo-sensitive device, or photo-
multiplier tube (PMT), using optical grease that allows the passage of light. This
PMT consists of a photo-sensitive cathode, a series of dynodes at successively higher
potentials, and a collection anode.

Schematic of a scintillation detector.

T

The photo-sensitive cathode of the PMT emits electrons each time it is struck by a
light pulse passed from the scintillation crystal. These electrons pass through a high
voltage field to the first dynode where they have high enough energy to produce
several more secondary electrons. These secondary electrons are accelerated to the
next dynode in the series where additional multiplication takes place. The avalanche of
an ever-increasing number of secondary electrons is ultimately collected at the anode
of the PMT which then generates a small electrical pulse for each gamma ray detected.
The height of this pulse is proportional to the energy level of the detected gamma ray.

Gamma Ray Energy Spectrum

If a distribution of energy levels for each gamma ray detected could be plotted, then it
would appear as the gamma ray energy spectrum in the illustration on the following
page.

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M E A S U R E M E N T P R I N C I P L E S

Gamma ray energy spectrum recorded at a scintillation detector.

T

Measured gamma rays are sorted according to their energy levels into eight different
ranges, or windows, for each of the two detectors. The number of gamma rays
accumulated in each individual window during one second of time represents a count
rate. There are eight count rates measured for each of the two detectors (short-spaced
and long-spaced).

Gamma ray energy spectra and count rate windows for short-spaced and long-
T

spaced detectors.

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M E A S U R E M E N T P R I N C I P L E S

The eight count rate windows of each detector are often named using the following
convention:

W1 = Lithology (49 – 100 keV)

W2 = Peak (100 – 135 keV)
W3 = Density (135 – 200 keV)
W4 = Barite (200 – 500 keV)
W5 = Valley (500 – 615 keV)
W6 = Cesium-Low (615 – 662 keV)
W7 = Cesium-High (662 – 710 keV)
W8 = Cesium-Above (> 710 keV)

Only the count rates in windows W1 through W4 are used to process bulk density (ρb) B B

and photoelectric factor (Pe) measurements. The remaining count rates are used to
B B

compensate for shifts in the energy spectra that are caused by temperature variations
downhole.

Factors Influencing Detector Count Rates

Ideally, the count rates in windows W1 through W4 of each detector should only
provide information about the density and lithology of the formation. However,
because gamma rays must pass through mudcake during their journey from the source
to a detector, the effect of mudcake on the count rates cannot be ignored. Therefore,
variations in the four count rates (windows W1 through W4) of each detector can be
characterized in terms of five variables that describe the formation and mudcake.
These variables are:

1. formation density (ρ)

2. formation lithology (L)
3. mudcake density (ρmc) B B

4. mudcake lithology (Lmc) B B

5. mudcake thickness (tmc) B B

The count rate in each of the four windows of a detector will change as these physical
properties of the formation and mudcake vary. The changes in count rate (C) in each
window can be described by a non-linear equation of the following form:

ln (C ) = a 1 + a 2 ρ + a 3ρ 2 + a 4 ρ 3 + a 5 L + a 6 x 3 + a 7 x 4

where: ln(C)= natural log of the count rate

ai = constants related to source strength and gamma ray emission
B B

characteristics

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M E A S U R E M E N T P R I N C I P L E S

A total of eight count rate equations (one each for windows W1 through W4 of both
detectors) are solved simultaneously for the four unknowns, which include:

ρ = electron density of the formation (or ρe) B B

L = lithology factor of the formation

x3 = a factor related to the density contrast between formation and mudcake
B B

x4 = a factor related to the lithology contrast between formation and mudcake

B B

Bulk Density Computation

Once electron density (ρe) is derived from the count rates, it must be corrected for
B B

borehole diameter and mud weight. The count rate equations used to determine
electron density were modeled for an 8-inch borehole filled with fresh water.
Therefore, electron density will be in error unless the borehole diameter and mud
weight of the well in which the measurement is made are considered.

Variations in borehole diameter and mud weight adversely affect the number of
gamma rays returning to a detector, resulting in values of electron density that are
slightly in error. Drilling fluid additives such as hematite and barite compound this
effect (iron and barite are efficient gamma ray absorbers).

A minor correction is added to the electron density (ρe) measurement for borehole
B B

diameters and mud weights different than 8-inches and 8.33 pounds per gallon,
respectively.

Following the borehole diameter and mud weight correction, bulk density (ρb) is B B

derived from the electron density measurement by the following industry standard
equation:

ρ b = 1.0704 ρ e − 0.1883

where: ρb B B = bulk density of formation (grams/cm3) P P

ρe B B = electron density of formation (number of electrons/cm3)

P P

Density Correction for Stand-Off

The count rates of gamma rays within certain energy ranges, or windows, are used to
determine the bulk density (ρb) of the formation. This type of measurement could be
B B

performed with a single scintillation detector, but would require that detector to be in
direct contact with the formation at all times. In such a case, the count rates of gamma
rays within windows W1 through W4 would be proportional to the scattering and
absorption properties of only the formation.

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M E A S U R E M E N T P R I N C I P L E S

Hypothetical single-detector density tool in direct contact with formation.

T

Measured count rates would be proportional only to formation properties.

In open hole, different situations arise that cause a detector to not be in direct contact
with the formation. The presence of washout, rugose or irregular borehole conditions,
and mudcake all contribute to detector stand-off. Stand-off is defined as any physical
separation between a detector and the formation.

Examples of stand-off conditions in open hole.

T

Where stand-off is present, a detector is not in direct contact with the formation.
Therefore, the count rates of gamma rays within each window are dependent upon the
scattering and absorption properties of both the formation and the material—whether
drilling fluid or mudcake—filling the void between a detector and the formation.
Stand-off causes slight differences between the computed value of bulk density (ρb) of
B B

a formation and its true density. A correction (called density correction) is applied
real-time to the computed bulk density value in order to correct for the effects of
stand-off.

To help minimize and otherwise compensate for the effects of stand-off, the SDLT
employs two scintillation detectors. The long-spaced detector is mainly sensitive to
gamma ray scattering and absorption occurring within the formation. The short-spaced
detector, with its shallower depth of investigation, is more susceptible to the scattering
and absorption properties of any material creating stand-off. The dual scintillation

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M E A S U R E M E N T P R I N C I P L E S

detectors of the SDLT are mounted in a moveable pad that is deployed from the body
of the tool to ensure good contact with the borehole wall.

Deployable pad of the SDLT-D being removed from the mandrel for calibration.
T

Although the moveable pad does bring the detectors into contact with the borehole
wall, stand-off may still exist between the detectors and the formation because of
borehole rugosity or mudcake. In dramatic washouts, the pad (and, therefore, the
detectors) may lose contact with the borehole wall entirely.

An ideal condition would exist when there is no stand-off and the detectors are in
direct contact with the formation (or mudcake). In this case, the count rates of both
detectors would provide for an accurate measure of formation bulk density (ρb). B B

Because stand-off does not influence the count rates, density correction will be zero.

Dual detectors in direct contact with the formation. In this condition, density
T

correction will be zero.

In washouts, the SDLT pad loses contact with the borehole wall and drilling fluid is
introduced into the void between the detectors and the formation. The density of
drilling fluid is usually much less than the density of the formation. Therefore, in
washouts, the computed bulk density (ρb) of the formation will be less than its true
B B

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M E A S U R E M E N T P R I N C I P L E S

density. In this case, a positive correction would be applied to compensate for stand-
off created by the washout.

Washout results in a positive correction being applied to bulk density.

T

The magnitude of this positive correction depends upon the stand-off distance and
mud density. As stand-off density increases, both detectors become more sensitive to
the drilling fluid than to the formation, and the magnitude of the positive correction
increases.

Rugose borehole conditions exist when the drilling process has resulted in a formation
having a rough or irregular drilled surface. In these situations, the detectors cannot
consistently maintain direct contact with the formation and small amounts of drilling
fluid will exist between the detectors and the formation. This rugosity will result in a
positive correction; however, the magnitude of this positive correction will be much
smaller than for washouts because of the smaller stand-off distance.

Rugose boreholes result in a small positive correction being applied to ρb.

T B B

Permeable formations are characterized by the development of mudcake which also

serves to create stand-off between the detectors and the formation. The influence of
this stand-off (and, therefore, the severity of the correction applied) depends upon

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M E A S U R E M E N T P R I N C I P L E S

both the thickness of the mudcake (tmc) and the contrast between its density and the
B B

density of the formation. This contrast is quantified by the x3 term of the count rate
B B

equations.

In most normal drilling fluid cases, mudcake density is approximately equal to

formation density; therefore, little—if any—correction is applied to compensate the
computed bulk density (ρb) for mudcake stand-off effects.
B B

Normal mudcake results in a negligible correction being applied to ρb.

T B B

As the contrast between the density of the mudcake and the density of the formation
varies, the magnitude and direction of correction will change. In situations where
mudcake density is less than formation density (light-weight drilling fluids) a small
positive correction may be applied. However, where very density weighting additives
such as hematite or barite are added to the drilling fluid, the density of the mudcake
may be greater than the density of the formation. In these “heavy mud” cases, the
correction applied to compensate for mudcake stand-off will be negative.

Heavy muds result in negative stand-off correction being applied to ρb.

T B B

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M E A S U R E M E N T P R I N C I P L E S

CORP Curve
Errors in the computed bulk density (ρb) caused by stand-off are represented on a log
B B

by the CORP (correction plus) curve. Stand-off can be created by the presence of
washouts, rugose borehole conditions, and mudcake adjacent to permeable formations.
CORP may display a value that is less than, equal to, or greater than zero, depending
upon the density contrast between the stand-off material—either drilling fluid or
mudcake—and the formation. The magnitude of this correction depends upon the
stand-off distance.

The CORP curve is presented in track 3 of this neutron-density log.

T

It is important to realize that the bulk density (ρb) measurement appearing on a log has
B B

already been corrected for the effects of stand-off. Therefore, the CORP curve can be used
as a quality indicator of how much correction was required to compensate for the
effects of stand-off resulting from washout, borehole rugosity, or mudcake.

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M E A S U R E M E N T P R I N C I P L E S

Density Correction for Mudcake Lithology

Stand-off causes errors in the computed bulk density (ρb). These errors result from a
B B

contrast between the density of the formation and the density of the material creating
the stand-off (drilling fluid or mudcake). The effects of stand-off are compensated by
the application of CORP (correction plus).

Errors in the computed bulk density (ρb) can also result from a contrast between the
B B

lithology of the formation (L) and the lithology of the mudcake (Lmc). This contrast is B B

quantified by the x4 term of the count rate equations. In normal drilling fluids,
B B

mudcake lithology is very similar to formation lithology; therefore, there is little

contrast between the two, and the resulting error is small. However, in heavy drilling
fluids—particularly those weighted with barite—there may be significant contrast
between mudcake lithology and formation lithology. The resulting lithology-related
errors on the computed bulk density (ρb) must be considered separately from stand-off
B B

related errors.

Barite-weighted drilling fluid produces an extremely dense mudcake. The density of

this mudcake may be greater than that of the formation, resulting in a negative CORP
(stand-off correction, or correction plus).

The barite mudcake will also have a lithology effect because of barite’s ability to absorb
gamma rays. With barite in the mudcake, fewer low-energy gamma rays are counted in
windows W1 and W2. When barite is present, statistical accuracy is improved by
eliminating from the calculations windows W1 and W2 of the long-spaced detector
which is more susceptible to this reduction in count rates. Windows W1 and W2
count rates of the short-spaced detector are also influenced by this mudcake lithology
effect, although less severely than the long-spaced detector. As a result, an additional
negative correction is required to compensate bulk density (ρb) for the barite mudcake B B

and, therefore, bring it closer to the true density of the formation.

CORM Curve
Errors in the computed bulk density (ρb) caused by mudcake lithology are represented
B B

on a log by the CORM (correction minus) curve. Mudcake lithology usually only
presents a problem in barite-weighted drilling fluids. The magnitude of this correction
depends upon the lithology contrast between the formation and the mudcake. In the
presence of barite mudcake, CORM will display a value that is less than zero, the
magnitude of which is related to the barite concentration of the mudcake and mudcake
thickness.

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M E A S U R E M E N T P R I N C I P L E S

The CORM curve is presented in track 3 of this neutron-density log. Both CORM
T

and CORP are typically presented together.

It is important to realize that the bulk density (ρb) measurement appearing on a log has
B B

already been corrected for the effects of mudcake lithology. Therefore, the CORM curve
can be used as a quality indicator of how much correction was required to compensate
for the effects of lithology on bulk density values in barite mudcake.

Pe Computation
B B

A mudcake-corrected density is derived from the count rates of windows W1 through

W4 of both the short-spaced and long-spaced detectors using equations of the
following form:

ln (C ) = a 1 + a 2 ρ + a 3ρ 2 + a 4 ρ 3 + a 5 L + a 6 x 3 + a 7 x 4

The lithology factor (L) term of this equation can be related to the formation’s
photoelectric factor (Pe). However, the value of L derived directly from the count rate
B B

equations may not be very accurate because of the lithology contrast between the
formation and mudcake, and because of the effect of heavy mud. A better method of
determining L, and therefore Pe, is necessary. This is accomplished with the SDLT-D
B B

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M E A S U R E M E N T P R I N C I P L E S

by considering only the count rates from windows W1 and W4 (the Lithology and
Barite windows) of the short-spaced detector.

To determine L from the count rate of a particular window, the variables ρ, x3 and x4 B B B B

must be known. A mudcake-corrected density (ρ) has already been determined and
can, therefore, be used as input. The term x3 is a function of the density contrast (i.e., B B

stand-off) between the formation and mudcake, while the x4 term is a function of the B B

lithology factor contrast between the formation and mudcake.

The combined effects of L, x3 and x4 on the short-spaced Lithology and Barite count
B B B B

rates is determined by subtracting the first four terms (using mudcake-corrected

density, ρ, as input) from the two measured count rates.

ln (C ) = a 5 L + a 6 x 3 + a 7 x 4

The effect of stand-off (represented by x3) is accounted for by subtracting a portion of

B B

the Barite window from the Lithology window. A lithology correction (Lcorr) is then B B

calculated to account for the effects of the lithology contrast between the formation
and mudcake (represented by x4). This lithology correction depends upon what
B B

weighting agent (barite or hematite)—if any—is present in the drilling fluid.

Through this processing, a more accurate and mudcake-corrected lithology factor (L) is
derived. This value of L is then used to calculate a modified photoelectric factor
(Pem) by the following equation:
B B

Pem = (4.16 L − 0.464 ) + Tcorr

where: Pem = modified photoelectric factor (unitless)

B B

L = mudcake-corrected lithology factor

Tcorr = minor temperature correction for 60ºC and above
B B

The modified photoelectric factor (Pem), provided the tool is calibrated properly, is very
B B

close in value to the true Pe in most sedimentary rocks. This measurement is

B B

compensated for mudcake as well as for borehole diameter and mud weight. The
mudcake correction is valid for drilling fluids with and without barite (or hematite)
weighting agents, although the accuracy of the correction diminishes as the barite (or
hematite) concentration increases.

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M E A S U R E M E N T P R I N C I P L E S

Comparison of typical Pe values of selected minerals with Pem values determined

T B B

by the SDLT-D.

Lithology Pe Pem

Quartz (sandstone) 1.81 1.81

Calcite (limestone) 5.08 5.08
Dolomite 3.14 3.08
Anhydrite 5.05 5.05
Halite 4.65 4.86
Coal < 1.0 <0

Standardization of Units
The measurements acquired by the SDLT-D are raw count rates of gamma rays within
different energy ranges (or windows) at two different detectors. The natural log of the
count rates—or ln(C)—from windows W1 through W4 of each detector is processed
to yield bulk density (ρb) of the formation. The modified photoelectric factor (Pem) of
B B B B

the formation is computed from the natural log of the count rates from windows W1
and W4 of the short-spaced detector.

The ability to produce accurate values for ρb and Pe is guaranteed through calibration.
B B B B

The calibration routine also ensures that all SDLT-D tools measure the same response
in the same formation and borehole conditions.

The steps of the calibration routine for the SDLT-D appear to be quite similar to older
generations of the tool; however, the calibration itself it notably different. Unlike other
tools where calibration constants are applied to a raw measurement to convert it to
engineering units, the SDLT-D calibration determines calibration constants that are
then applied to the raw measurements in order to equate them with those of the standard
tool. Therefore, the objective of the SDLT-D calibration is to force the tool to
measure the same ln(C) in windows W1 through W4 as the standard tool measures in
the same material (aluminum and magnesium).

Two SDLT-D tools logged in the same formation and the same borehole conditions
may exhibit slightly different count rates. The differences in count rates—and,
therefore, ln(C)—measured by these two tools may depend on differences in:

1. source strength
2. detector spacing
3. collimation2 TPF FPT

2
TP Collimation is a characteristic of gamma ray emission whereby gamma rays are emitted in a single, or
PT

constrained direction. Collimation also refers to the fact that SDLT detectors accept gamma rays from a
narrowly constrained region of the formation.

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M E A S U R E M E N T P R I N C I P L E S

Differences in source strength result in variations of all count rates by the same factor
in all formations. Similarly, slight differences in collimation will cause variations of all
count rates by the same factor in all formations. Variations in detector spacing
determine the sensitivity of count rates to formation density. Detector spacing does
not affect count rate sensitivity to formation lithology, however.

To this point, the count rates of each energy window have been represented as cubic
functions of density.

ln (C ) = a 1 + a 2 ρ + a 3ρ 2 + a 4 ρ 3 + a 5 L + a 6 x 3 + a 7 x 4

Good estimates of these count rates can be achieved with the following linear
relationship:

[ln (C )CAL ] = A[ln (C )RAW ] + B

where: ln(C)CAL B B = natural log of calibrated count rate
A = calibration constant
ln(C)RAW B B = natural log of raw count rate
B = calibration constant

The SDLT-D is calibrated in an aluminum block and a magnesium block, both of

which have known values of bulk density (ρb) and photoelectric factor (Pe).
B B B B

Magnesium (large) and aluminum (small) blocks used in the SDLT-D calibration.
T

Both blocks have assigned values of ρb and Pe. B B B B

During the calibration process, ln(C)RAW of windows W1 through W4 from each

B B

detector is measured in these two blocks. The ln(C)RAW values are then compared to B B

standard ln(C) values determined for the standard tool from the known ρb and Pe B B B B

values of the blocks. This comparison yields both A and B calibration constants for
each of the windows. The calibration constant A reflects variations in sensitivity to
density. Its value should be near 1.0. The calibration constant B reflects changes in the
gain factor. Its value should be small (close to zero).

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M E A S U R E M E N T P R I N C I P L E S

The calibration constants A and B are then applied to their corresponding ln(C)RAW
B B

values of windows W1 through W4 from each detector using the following equation:

[ln (C )CAL ] = A[ln (C )RAW ] + B

where: ln(C)CAL B B = natural log of calibrated count rate
A = calibration constant
ln(C)RAW B B = natural log of raw count rate
B = calibration constant

This method then assures that the ln(C) measured by the SDLT-D in the aluminum
and magnesium blocks are identical to the corresponding ln(C) that would be
measured by the standard tool in the same blocks. This method guarantees that the
bulk density (ρb) and photoelectric factor (Pe) measurements of all SDLT-D tools will
B B B B

be identical to those of the standard tool as well as other SDLT-D tools in the same
formation and borehole conditions.

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