Raymond A.

Serway
Chris Vuille

Chapter 14
Sound
 Sound Waves
• Sound waves are longitudinal waves
• Characteristics of sound waves will help you
understand how we hear

Introduction
 Producing a Sound Wave
• Any sound wave has its source in a vibrating object
• Sound waves are longitudinal waves traveling
through a medium
• A tuning fork can be used as an example of
producing a sound wave

Section 14.1
 Using a Tuning Fork to Produce a Sound
Wave
• A tuning fork will produce a
pure musical note
• As the tines vibrate, they
disturb the air near them
• As the tine swings to the
right, it forces the air
molecules near it closer
together
• This produces a high density
area in the air
– This is an area of compression

Section 14.1
 Using a Tuning Fork, cont.
• As the tine moves
toward the left, the air
molecules to the right
of the tine spread out
• This produces an area
of low density
– This area is called a
rarefaction

Section 14.1
 Using a Tuning Fork, final

• As the tuning fork continues to vibrate, a succession of

compressions and rarefactions spread out from the fork
• A sinusoidal curve can be used to represent the longitudinal
wave
– Crests correspond to compressions and troughs to rarefactions

Section 14.1
 Categories of Sound Waves
• Audible waves
– Lay within the normal range of hearing of the human ear
– Normally between 20 Hz to 20 000 Hz
• Infrasonic waves
– Frequencies are below the audible range
– Earthquakes are an example
• Ultrasonic waves
– Frequencies are above the audible range
– Dog whistles are an example

Section 14.2
 Applications of Ultrasound
• Can be used to produce images of small objects
• Widely used as a diagnostic and treatment tool in
medicine
– Ultrasonic flow meter to measure blood flow
– May use piezoelectric devices that transform electrical energy into
mechanical energy
• Reversible: mechanical to electrical
– Ultrasounds to observe babies in the womb
– Cavitron Ultrasonic Surgical Aspirator (CUSA) used to surgically remove
brain tumors
– High-intensity Focused Ultrasound (HIFU) is also used for brain surgery
• Ultrasonic ranging unit for cameras

Section 14.2
 Speed of Sound in a Liquid
• In a fluid, the speed depends on the fluid’s
compressibility and inertia

– B is the Bulk Modulus of the liquid

– ρ is the density of the liquid
– Compares with the equation for a transverse wave on a
string

Section 14.3
 Speed of Sound, General

• The speed of sound is higher in solids than in gases

– The molecules in a solid interact more strongly
• The speed is slower in liquids than in solids
– Liquids are more compressible

Section 14.3
 Speed of Sound in a Solid Rod
• The speed depends on the rod’s compressibility and
inertial properties

– Y is the Young’s Modulus of the material

– ρ is the density of the material

Section 14.3
 Speed of Sound in Air

• 331 m/s is the speed of sound at 0° C

• T is the absolute temperature

Section 14.3
 Intensity of Sound Waves
• The average intensity I of a wave on a given surface is defined
as the rate at which the energy flows through the surface, ΔE
/Δt divided by the surface area, A

• The direction of energy flow is perpendicular to the surface at

every point
• The rate of energy transfer is the power
• SI unit: W/m2

Section 14.4
 Various Intensities of Sound
• Threshold of hearing
– Faintest sound most humans can hear
– About 1 x 10-12 W/m2
• Threshold of pain
– Loudest sound most humans can tolerate
– About 1 W/m2
• The ear is a very sensitive detector of sound waves
– It can detect pressure fluctuations as small as about 3
parts in 1010

Section 14.4
 Intensity Level of Sound Waves
• The sensation of loudness is logarithmic in the
human ear
• β is the intensity level or the decibel level of
the sound

• Io is the threshold of hearing

Section 14.4
 Intensity vs. Intensity Level
• Intensity is a physical quantity
• Intensity level is a convenient mathematical
transformation of intensity to a logarithmic
scale

Section 14.4
 Various Intensity Levels
• Threshold of hearing is 0 dB
• Threshold of pain is 120 dB
• Jet airplanes are about 150 dB
• Table 14.2 lists intensity levels of various
sounds
– Multiplying a given intensity by 10 adds 10 dB to
the intensity level

Section 14.4
 Spherical Waves
• A spherical wave
propagates radially
outward from the
oscillating sphere
• The energy propagates
equally in all directions
• The intensity is

Section 14.5
 Intensity of a Point Source
• Since the intensity varies as 1/r2, this is an inverse
square relationship
• The average power is the same through any spherical
surface centered on the source
• To compare intensities at two locations, the inverse
square relationship can be used

Section 14.5
 Representations of Waves
• Wave fronts are the
concentric arcs
– The distance between
successive wave fronts is
the wavelength
• Rays are the radial lines
pointing out from the
source and
perpendicular to the
wave fronts

Section 14.5
 Plane Wave
• Far away from the
source, the wave fronts
are nearly parallel
planes
• The rays are nearly
parallel lines
• A small segment of the
wave front is
approximately a plane
wave
Section 14.5
 Plane Waves, cont
• Any small portion of a
spherical wave that is
far from the source can
be considered a plane
wave
• This shows a plane
wave moving in the
positive x direction
– The wave fronts are
parallel to the plane
containing the y- and z-
axes
Section 14.5
 Doppler Effect
• A Doppler effect is experienced whenever
there is relative motion between a source of
waves and an observer.
– When the source and the observer are moving
toward each other, the observer hears a higher
frequency
– When the source and the observer are moving
away from each other, the observer hears a lower
frequency

Section 14.6
 Doppler Effect, cont.
• Although the Doppler Effect is commonly
experienced with sound waves, it is a
phenomena common to all waves
• Assumptions:
– The air is stationary
– All speed measurements are made relative to the
stationary medium

Section 14.6
 Doppler Effect, Case 1
(Observer Toward Source)
• An observer is moving
toward a stationary
source
• Due to his movement,
the observer detects an
additional number of
wave fronts
• The frequency heard is
increased

Section 14.6
 Doppler Effect, Case 1
(Observer Away from Source)
• An observer is moving
away from a stationary
source
• The observer detects
fewer wave fronts per
second
• The frequency appears
lower

Section 14.6
 Doppler Effect, Case 1– Equation
• When moving toward the stationary source, the
observed frequency is

• When moving away from the stationary source,

substitute –vo for vo in the above equation

Section 14.6
 Doppler Effect, Case 2 (Source in Motion)

• As the source moves

toward the observer
(A), the wavelength
appears shorter and the
frequency increases
• As the source moves
away from the observer
(B), the wavelength
appears longer and the
frequency appears to be
lower

Section 14.6
Doppler Effect, Source Moving – Equation

• Use the –vs when the source is moving toward

the observer and +vs when the source is
moving away from the observer

Section 14.6
 Doppler Effect, General Case
• Both the source and the observer could be moving

• Use positive values of vo and vs if the motion is

toward
– Frequency appears higher
• Use negative values of vo and vs if the motion is away
– Frequency appears lower

Section 14.6
 Doppler Effect, Final Notes
• The Doppler Effect does not depend on
distance
– As you get closer, the intensity will increase
– The apparent frequency will not change

Section 14.6