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LECTURE 1
Ethics and
Moral Philosophy INTRODUCTION:
MAN AS A MORAL AGENT
Jove Jim S. Aguas

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Man: Rational and Free Agent

• As human beings we are endowed with • Since we are rational and free agents, we are
rationality. Because of our reason, we can responsible for our actions and our
deliberate and make conscious decisions. responsibility is not only for our actions but
• We are also endowed with free will, through also for their consequences and the quality of
which we determine our own action, its course the choice we make.
and objectives.

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• The extent of our knowledge and freedom • The end of all these is our desire to live a well-
determine the extent of our responsibility,
lived life. As human beings we do not just
hence the greater the freedom and
want to live our lives, we wanted to live it well,
knowledge, the greater the responsibility.
as the saying goes:
• Because of human freedom and responsibility, “A well-lived life is a happy life.”
people are always concerned with what is
right and what is wrong. We contemplate on • Happiness and living well is related to the
what is the right thing to do and what is the good and those that we value in life.
bad thing to avoid.
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• The good, could either be a real and objective

Good and Value good or just an apparent good. What we
consider to be good could be real or genuine
• Good is objectively the goal or fulfillment of good, like health, or knowledge, which are
being man. It is the end or the object of the objectively good.
will – faculty of volition.
• Some things or objects which we consider to
• The good as the object of the will is be good are only apparent good, which means
considered to be the driving force of human that they may appear to be good, but in
action and human endeavors. The will when it reality are not. Vices for example may appear
recognizes the good drives or motivates us to to be good to some people but in reality they
act. are evil.
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• Objective value is independent of the

• Value is an assessment of worth. It is what an assessment of men, such value does not
individual or group deems to be useful, depend on the valuation or estimation of
significant or desirable; individuals or group of individuals. Whether
such value is recognized or not it remains to
• It constitutes a large part of who we are and be a value.
how we live. People, objects, places, events,
situations or occasions have values. • The value of objective good is independent of
the recognition or appreciation of man; good
• Values could either be objective or subjective. health and proper knowledge have objective
values.
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• Subjective values are those that are • Values have certain ranking or hierarchy, one
conferred by individuals on certain objects or value may be higher or more significant than
situation. others; some values have higher worth than
others.
• The subjective value is dependent on the
estimation or valuation of individuals, so that • There is an objective ranking of values, this
something may be valuable to one but not ranking is not dependent on the preference of
valuable to others. individuals.
• Material values are necessarily lower in rank
compared to spiritual values.
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• The value of persons is higher than the value • Only man can formulate and express values
which are generally shaped and formed by
of money, the value of education and
his experiences.
knowledge is higher than the value of
physical properties. • Values are inseparable from the endlessly
changing experiences of man’s life. A value
• The more spiritual the value is the higher it is may be material value, societal, aesthetic,
in the ranking of values and the more
religious or moral.
material the value is, the lower it is in the
ranking of values. • What we value in the realm of human
conduct is called moral values, like justice,
honesty, love etc.
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The Role of Human Experience

• Lived experience is the awareness on the part • Since one experiences himself and his own
of the individual that when he performs or person as the agent or cause of the act, then
does a certain action, he is aware that he is he also experiences himself as the efficient
the author of the act; that he is the agent of cause of the moral good or evil associated
action. This awareness or experience brings with the action.
with it a sense of responsibility for the moral
value of the action.

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Discussion Questions

1. Today most people value their freedom but

hardly take responsibility for their actions. Is
this a fair or correct statement or not? Why?
2. With great power comes great responsibility.
Do you agree? Why?
3. How do the things that we value influence our
sense of right and wrong?

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LECTURE 2
Ethics and
Moral Philosophy Nature of Ethics or
Moral Philosophy
Jove Jim S. Aguas

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Philosophy and Ethics • Areas or branches of philosophy include the

study of reality – metaphysics, the study of
• Philosophy – (philo – love; sophia – wisdom) correct thinking – logic, the study of
is concerned with the underlying causes and knowledge – epistemology, the study of the
meaning of reality including our existence morality human conduct – ethics.
and actions or human conduct. • Ethics is concerned with the question whether
a human action is good or bad, right or wrong,
moral or immoral.

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Ethics and Morality

• The term “ethics” from Greek ethos • A moral precept is an idea which driven by a
(character) is commonly used synonymously desire to do something good. An ethical code
with “morals” or morality hence being ethical is a set of rules that defines allowable actions
is equated with being moral. or correct behavior. Correct behavior is not
always the good behavior.
• Being moral is usually associated with one
value system and the desire to be good. Being • Hence the term ethical or moral both refers to
ethical has something to do with following the act or behavior although they have
certain rules or guidelines. difference references.

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• Morality refers only to human acts, that is,

actions which proceed from man’s rationality;
these are actions which are done with • If human actions are to be judged whether
knowledge, freedom and voluntariness. morally good or morally evil, then there
• Actions which do not have a rational must be something by which actions could
character can be considered amoral, they be measured as good or evil, this is what we
cannot be judged as morally good or morally refer as the norm or standard of morality.
evil.

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• Moral philosophy or ethics deals with the • Hence, it does not only to say that abortion is
norms or codes governing our conduct or evil, but also to give the reasons why it is evil.
act. It serves as a guide in determining what • Ethics as a philosophy is the attempt to
is good and right or bad and wrong. achieve a systematic understanding of the
• As the study or science of the morality of nature of morality and what it requires of us -
human acts, it deals with the issue whether how we ought to live and why.
an action is good or bad and the reasons why
a particular action is good or bad.

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• There are acts that are ethically neutral which

means that they do not have a moral value or • Some aspects of reality simply out of the
sense – they are called amoral; some people realm of morality and are therefore regarded
can also be called amoral if they are as nonmoral. Inanimate objects for example
indifferent to morality or the sense of right are nonmoral but our use of them can be
and wrong. moral or immoral like when we use a knife to
stab someone.

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• Manners or etiquette on the other hand is

• Morals is different from manners or concerned with something or an act or
etiquette. Morals is concerned with whether behavior is socially acceptable or follows a
something or an act or right or wrong in the certain social or cultural practice. It is more
moral sense based on the matter of taste or social
preference.
•Eating using hands may be bad manners for
some but for others it may be socially or
culturally acceptable.

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Origin of Morality
• Morality can be considered as having a • These possible explanations of the objective
origin of values are expressed in the
subjective or objective origin based on the “supernatural theory,” the theory of “natural
origin of value. law,” and “objectivism.”
• As to the objective origin there are three • As subjective, the origin of value is related to
possibilities for the origin of value: human beings. Without human beings,
1. Values are given by a supernatural being subjectivist theorists argue, there would be
2. Values are part of the fabric of nature no value.

3. Values are part of the “furniture” of the

world, independently of human beings
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Customary/Traditional and Reflective

Morality
1. Customary or traditional morality.
Traditional morality refers to the moral Traditional morality can become reflective
systems handed down through custom from and dynamic when those moral ideas that
generation to generation. We might call this are simply handed down and accepted are
static morality. subjected to analysis and criticism.
2. Reflective morality. Reflective morality
requires that moral ideas are carefully
examined and tested.
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Application of Morality

• Morality may be applied to four areas: 3. Individuality. Morality determined by

relation the individual has to him or herself.
1. Religion. Morality determined by relation
between human being and supernatural
4. Society. Morality determined by relation
being.
between human being and society.
2. Nature. Morality determined by relation
between human being and nature.

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Critical Question: Is morality a repressive • However, the fact that morality imposes
institution? certain “restrictions” does not make it
• The rightness or wrongness; or the goodness or repressive.
badness of an action is the focal point of • While morality imposes on us some rules or
morality. Morality sets standards by which we standards through which we determine
can measure or judge whether an action is good what is right and what is wrong and which
or bad. eventually shape our moral judgment and
• Many view morality as a repressive institution, a conduct, the moral wisdom by which we
set of rules which society and religion, parents judge an action is not imposed on us by
and the like impose on us to prevent us from others, but by ourselves in so far as we are
living our lives the way we wanted it to be lived. committed to attaining a kind of life that is
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well-lived.
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Discussion Questions
1. How important do you think is Ethics in your
would-be career?
2. In our modern world, do you think we need to
follow the traditional or the reflective type of
morality? Why?
3. Do you consider morality as oppressive?

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LECTURE 3
Ethics and
Moral Philosophy ETHICS, RELIGION AND LAW

Jove Jim S. Aguas

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Religion and Ethics

• Some religions provide ethical norms or rules
of conduct like the monotheistic religions.
• Religion and ethics may overlap and may
influence each other but they are different • Some ethical norms are outside the confines
and can be independent of each other. of religions and one can be ethical without
being religious.

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Ethics and Law

• Law is an ordinance of reason. • Natural law is the law of God as
understood by human reason.
• Law can be eternal, divine, natural or human.
• Eternal law is the expression of the God’s • Human law is the ordinance of man
which could either be legal – the law of
providence; it is an ordinance of God based
civil authority or ecclesiastical/canon –
on his divine intelligence.
the law of the Church.
• Divine law is the law of God as expressed in • One of the standards of Christian morality is
revelation and as such are expressed in the
the law.
Holy Scriptures
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Levels and Stages Moral

Kohlberg: Moral Reasoning Reasoning
• Children are "moral philosophers" they Levels and Stages Illustrative Behavior
develop moral standards of their own
• These standards do not necessarily come from Level I - Pre-conventional Morality
parents, but emerge from their cognitive
1. Punishment Orientation Obeys rules to avoid
interaction with their social environment. punishments.
• Kohlberg sought to determine whether there 2. Reward Orientation Conforms to obtain
are universal stages in the development of rewards to have favors
moral judgments. returned.
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Level III - Post-conventional Morality

Level II - Conventional Morality 5. Social-contract Actions are guided by

Orientation principles commonly agreed on
3. Good Boy/ Good Girl Conforms to avoid as essential to the public welfare;
Orientation disapproval of others. principles upheld to retain
respect of peers and self-respect.
4. Authority Orientation Upholds laws and social rules 6. Ethical Principle Actions are guided by
to avoid censure of authorities Orientation self-chosen ethical principles
and feelings of guilt about not (justice, dignity, equality);
doing one's duty. principles upheld to avoid self-
condemnation.

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Discussion Questions

1. Today most people tend to be more legalistic

than ethical, do you think it is better to be
legalistic than ethical? Why or why not?
2. Should ethics and religion be independent from
each other of should they go hand in hand?
3. What insights we can learn from the reasoning
of children?

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LECTURE 4
Ethics and
Moral Philosophy TYPES OF ETHICS

Jove Jim S. Aguas

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Types of Ethics Types of Ethics

Meta-ethicists distinguish two types of ethics: 2. Non-normative – either describes or
1. Normative - determines what moral evaluates moral attitudes or statements
standards to follow so that our actions • Descriptive/Scientific
may be morally right or good
• Meta-ethics
• General Normative Ethics
• Applied Normative Ethics

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NORMATIVE ETHICS • It attempts to determine what moral

standards to follow so that our actions may
1. General Normative Ethics be morally right or good.

• It is a reasoned search for principles of • It tries to defend a system of basic ethical

human conduct, including a critical study principles that presumably are valid for
of the major theories about what things everyone.
are good, what acts are right and what • The two broad categories: teleological
acts are evil. (consequential) and deontological (non-
consequential).
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2. Applied Normative Ethics • It uses the general ethical principles in an

attempt to resolve a specific moral
• It is an attempt to explain and justify problem or apply ethical principle to
positions on specific moral problems or situations.
issues, like capital punishment, abortion,
discrimination.
• Bioethics, environmental ethics,
professional ethics, legal ethics, business
ethics.

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NON-NORMATIVE ETHICS • Anthropologist and sociologist investigate

and describe moral attitudes, how moral
1. Descriptive or Scientific attitudes and codes differ from society to
• It is the scientific or descriptive study of society, and investigating and describing
morality which involves the factual the values and behaviors of different
investigation of moral behavior; societies.
concerned with how people do in fact • Two categories: absolutism and relativism.
behave.

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2. Meta-ethics • It is concerned with the meaning of such

• It is a highly technical discipline ethical terms like right, obligation,
investigating the meaning of ethical responsibility etc.
terms, including a critical study of how • It does not propose any moral principles or
ethical statements can be verified norms for action; it consists solely of
philosophical analysis.

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Three Meta-ethical positions: Three Kinds of Naturalism

1. Naturalism - maintains that ethical • Autobiographical naturalism — ethical
statements (statements with moral statements simply express the approval
valuation or assessment) can be translated or disapproval of the speaker. When he
into non-ethical statements, (statements says “Killing is bad,” he means he
without moral valuation or assessment). disapproves killing.

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2. Non-naturalism - ethical statement cannot

• Sociological naturalism - ethical statement be translated into a non- ethical form.
simply expresses the approval or Some ethical terms can only be defined in
disapproval of the majority. “Killing is bad.” terms of other ethical words. Hence
- The majority dislikes killing. statements like “King was right” can be
• Theological naturalism - ethical statement translated into other ethical statements
expresses a divine approval or disapproval. like “King’s action was proper.” Or “King’s
“Killing is bad. - God or some divine being action was good.”
disapproves killing. However, they cannot be verified as true or
false but can only be believed.
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3. Emotivism or Non-cognitivism - claims Discussion Questions

that ethical statements are used to evoke a
predetermined emotive response or to 1. What do you think the most crucial issue in
encourage a predetermined behavior, they Bioethics? Why?
can be used to make someone feel or
behave in a certain way. 2. From a meta-ethical perspective how should we
interpret the saying “Honesty is the best
Statement like “Cheating is bad” is meant policy?”
to say, “do not cheat.”

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LECTURE 5
Ethics and
Moral Philosophy CLASSIFICATION OF
ETHICAL THEORIES
Jove Jim S. Aguas

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Ethical Theories
• they also provide the reasons why a
• Ethical theories are set of principles that particular action or behavior is good or bad;
serve as the basis in determining the morality acceptable on unacceptable.
of human actions or conduct; we use or rely
on them in making moral judgment,
• Meta-ethicists distinguish two main
categories of ethical theories: the
teleological and deontological.

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Lecture 5.a
• The final determinant of the morality of an
A. Teleological Theories act is the comparative amount of good or the
comparative balanced of good over evil
• A teleological theory states that ultimate produced.
criterion or standard of what is morally right
or wrong or obligatory is the non-moral value
• The teleological theories are also called
consequentialist theories.
that is produced by an act or rule.

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1. Hedonism - the rightness of an action 2. Epicureanism - right action promotes

depends upon the amount and/or the mental or spiritual pleasure and minimizes
quality of physical pleasure it promotes or spiritual or mental pain. The ultimate good is
the amount of physical pain it avoids. what will give man mental serenity.

Hedonism equates good with physical or Epicureanism equates good with spiritual or
sensual pleasure and evil with physical pain mental pleasure and evil with spiritual or
or discomfort. mental anguish.

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Egoism may prefer unpleasant and painful

3. Egoism - an action is right insofar as it experiences and temporary sacrifice if these
promotes the self or personal interests of its will advance their long term happiness.
agent.
Egoist may prefer virtues like honesty,
An act or rule of action is right if and only if it
generosity for as long as these virtues are
promotes at least as great a balance of good
over evil for a person in the long run as compatible with their long term interest, it
practices these virtues.
Everyone should always act in his own self-
interest regardless of the interest of others, Egoism is not the same as hedonism. While
unless their interests also serve his. some egoists are hedonist, others may identify
Individuals have no natural duties to others. the good with knowledge, power or rational
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self-interests.
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4. Classic Utilitarianism - the rightness of an

action depends upon how useful or beneficial it Utility is equated with benefit, advantage,
is, as opposed to how useless or harmful it is. An pleasure, happiness and goodness.
action is good or right when it promotes the
greatest amount of happiness for the greatest The principle of greatest happiness states that
number of people. the ultimate end is an existence that is exempt
When we have to choose between alternative from pain and rich in enjoyment
actions, we have to choose the one with the
best overall consequences for everyone By happiness means the intended pleasure and
concerned. the absence of pain, by unhappiness, pain and
the privation of pleasure.
The ultimate moral principle is the principle of
utility.
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Analysis:
• The are two kinds of utilitarianism: The principle of utility may conflict with that of
1) Act Utilitarianism - everyone should justice. Utilitarianism tends to associates justice
perform that act that will bring about the with efficiency rather than fair play, it determines
greatest good over bad for everyone what is just by a calculation of total benefit, not
by appeal to merit.
affected by the act.
There is difficulty of formulating a satisfactory
2) Rule Utilitarianism - everyone should rule. It is difficult to design or imagine a situation
always follow the rules that will bring about wherein we can test the effectiveness of certain
the greatest number of good consequences rules. With so many exemptions that one need to
for everyone concerned. accommodate to certain rules, it is difficult to
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establish common rules of moral behavior
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Rule utilitarianism ignores what appear to be 5. Instrumentalism or Pragmatism - an action

blatant wrongs. Some rules even if they seemingly is right if it improves the existing situation,
produce the greatest good for the greatest remedies some deficiencies in it or resolves a
number of people still compromise the intrinsic specific problem.
value of the human individual.
Since Utilitarianism equates morality with The value of an action whether good or bad
usefulness for the greatest number of people then depends on the consequences, if the
actions that are directed to the minority no matter consequence is good then the action has a
how good they are become immoral because they moral worth.
are not useful or good for the majority.
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Discussion Questions
1. Do you think we should judge our actions based
on their consequences? Why?
2. What do you think is the most appropriate
teleological theory that we can apply to
euthanasia? Why?
3. In considering who should get priority in
medical care what possible teleological theory
can we apply?

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Lecture 5.b

B. Deontological Theories
Ethics and • A deontological theory denies what a
Moral Philosophy teleological theory affirms. It affirms that the
right or obligatory or good act is not always
dependent of certain non-moral value
produced or the outcome of an act or rule.
Jove Jim S. Aguas
• It is dependent on other considerations other
than the outcome, like the command of God
or the state.
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Morality is ultimately based on the commands

1. Divine Command Theory - rightness is or character of God, and that the morally right
established by God, who either establishes
action is the one that God commands or
general moral laws and standards or
requires. The specific content of these divine
prescribes and prohibits particular actions;
commands varies according to the particular
and action is good or right if it conforms to
religion and the particular views of the
these laws, prescriptions and prohibitions.
individual divine command theorist.

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2. Natural Law Theory - moral standards exist

According to St. Thomas , the natural law is
in the very fabric or nature of the universe;
the way that the human being
an action is right if it conforms to these
“participates” in the eternal law. The
natural moral laws.
precepts of the natural law are universally
God is the giver of the natural law. Man is binding by nature and that the precepts of
recipient of the natural law; the natural law the natural law are universally knowable by
constitutes the principles of practical nature.
rationality, those principles by which human
action is to be judged as reasonable or
unreasonable.
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4. Social Contract Theory - rightness is a

3. Natural Rights Theory - human beings share
function of rules and institutions
certain basic rights which oblige us to treat
established in a society and implicitly or
one another in certain ways. Human rights
explicitly agreed to by its members for the
are universal rights, they are inalienable and
purpose of peaceful cooperation and
they inhere in the person as a human being. harmonious co-existence.
These rights include the right to life, liberty
and property.

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In some way, the agreement of all

individuals subject to collectively enforced 5. Categorical Imperative – morality can be
social arrangements shows that those summed up in an imperative, or ultimate
arrangements have some normative commandment of reason, from which all
property (they are legitimate, just, duties and obligations derive. It is an
obligating, etc. absolute, unconditional requirement that
The members of some society have reason must be obeyed in all circumstances and is
to endorse and comply with the justified as an end in itself.
fundamental social rules, laws, institutions,
and/or principles of that society.
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Nothing was good in itself except a good will The unconditional moral principle
and the will is the uniquely human capacity commands that one's behavior should
to act according to the concept of law or accord with universalizable maxims which
principles. The moral principles require us to respect persons as ends in themselves; the
fulfill our duties simply because those duties obligation to do one's duty for its own sake
make valid claims on us. and not in pursuit of further ends

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6. Prima Facie Duties. There are moral 7. Virtue Ethics - One should seek to develop
guidelines that determine what we ought to the character traits known as virtues and act
do, prima facie duty is an obligatory duty, in accordance with them. Virtue theorists
for example fidelity or keeping promises. stress the importance of developing good
Other prima facie duties are reparation, habits of character, such as benevolence.
gratitude, non-injury, justice and self- Once a person had acquired benevolence,
improvement. for example, he will then habitually act in a
benevolent manner.

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Discussion Questions
1. Do you think we should judge our actions based
on deontological consideration? Why?
2. What do you think is the most appropriate
deontological theory that we can apply to
abortion? Why?
3. In considering who should get priority in
medical care what possible deontological
theory can we apply?

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Lecture 5.c

Other Theories
Ethics and Ethical Relativism

Moral Philosophy The moral rightness or wrongness of action varies

from one society or social group or culture to
another and that there are no absolute universal
moral standards binding on all men at all times.
Jove Jim S. Aguas
It holds that whether or not it is right for individual
to act in a certain way depends on or is relative to
the society or culture to which one belongs.
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Conventional Ethical Relativism

It is the view that there are no objective Cultural Relativism
moral principles that could be used to
It believes that cultures have different moral
determine the morality of human actions in a
codes.
particular social group.
Our sense of right and wrong differs from
All valid moral principles are justified by
culture to culture, for example the practice of
virtue of their social acceptance.
polygamy may be right in one culture and
Morality therefore has a social character; it is may be wrong in another.
relative to the accepted practices of a certain
group or society.
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Analysis:
• It does not follow that simply because there are
differences in cultures or in what society accepts as good
There is no universal moral law that governs or bad, there no longer a universal truth about morality.
all cultures and that should bound every • If some societies or people do not know the universal
culture to follow. moral truth it does not mean that there is no moral
truth.
Therefore, there is no objective standard that
can be used to judge one social code as better • There are some moral rules that societies and cultures
have in common and adhere to because they are
than the other. necessary for society and culture to exist.
• What may be relative is the interpretation and
application of those moral principles in a particular
culture or society.
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Ethical Subjectivism
Our moral judgments are based on our feelings and It could lead us to conflict and contradiction
nothing more; there is no such thing as objective when sentiments or feelings conflict. Whose
right or wrong. sentiments or feelings should prevail if there
Whatever moral judgment we make, we are only are conflicting sentiments?
expressing our personal feelings and our emotions,
nothing more. Feelings and sentiments are transitory.
Hence, morality is based primarily on our feelings, It could not account for reason in ethics, one
emotions and prejudices.
must present reasons or else he is not making
An action is good if it arouses in us a good feeling or a a sensible moral judgment.
positive emotion; one thing is good if we feel good
about it and one thing is bad if we feel bad about it.
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Ethical Egoism Each person ought to pursue his own self-

It holds that everyone must always do what interest exclusively and individuals have no
will promote his own greatest good. natural duties to others. It is one’s moral duty
to promote one’s own interest. Accordingly,
An act or rule of action is right if and only if it there is only one ultimate principle of conduct,
promotes at least as great a balance of good the principle of self-interest.
over evil for a person in the long run as
Ayn Rand, the proponent of rational ethical
Everyone should always act in his own self- egoism stresses that as rational human beings
interest regardless of the interest of others, we must act on our rational self-interest and
unless their interests also serve his. not think about the interest of others.
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The consequences of actions are not always

Analysis: certain. It is difficult to determine what would
It is inconsistent and cannot provide solutions be good consequences for others, and there is
to conflict of interests. What happens when the danger of determining the social worth of
everybody wants to promote his or her self- individuals.
interest?
Some actions despite their good
It tends to be arbitrary because it assigns consequences are in themselves morally
greater importance on one’s interest than that
objectionable. Some acts may involve
of others when there is no general difference
between oneself and others. There is the danger injustice, lying, violating a rule, but may result
of falling into a system where people will simply to some good consequences like increase
be manipulated by others just to promote their sales, getting things done, even helping the
own self-interest. needy.
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Discussion Questions

1. In determining the moral or ethical value or

character of our action, do you think we should
also consider its social character? Why?
2. In a world that is rapidly changing do you think
moral values and principles are still relevant?
Why?
3. Given the current pandemic that we are
experiencing, what valuable insight have you
learned from the different theories?

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Lecture 6
Ethics and
Moral Philosophy CHRISTIAN ETHICS

Jove Jim S. Aguas

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The Christian Ethics

Introduction • Self-interests are always self-serving and
There are moral laws and these laws are may marginalize the interests of others.
constant and universal, they do not change. • What is useful is not always moral. What is
The standards by which we judge the morality useful to one may not be useful to others;
of a particular action do not change, regardless persons can be the object of use, the
of culture, social acceptance, sentiments, self- usefulness of a person cannot be the
interest and utility. What is socially or culturally standard of morality particularly in human
accepted is not always moral. relations.
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• Christian Ethics asserts that there are universal The Norms of Morality
and unchanging moral principles from which
we based the morality of our actions. There are two norms or standards of morality:
• First of all there is the precepts of God which Conscience – last practical judgment of
human reason can understand. There might be reason
differences in the way men understand these
precepts but they do not invalidate the • the proximate norm of morality
universality of God’s precepts. The Laws (Divine, natural and human laws)
• Second there are teachings in the Scriptures ordinance of reason
which serve as our moral guide and the
teachings of Christ himself. • ultimate norm of morality.
• Third is the teachings of the Church.
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• Our conscience is the one that initially tells us The Christian Virtues
that an action is good or bad, it is the one that
bothers us when we have done something. • Virtues are good habits and habits are
permanent dispositions to do or act in certain
• The Laws are the ultimate standards by which ways. Habits are formed through repeated
we judge the morality of an action. actions.
• We are always advice to follow the law. The • For example, honesty is a virtue or a good
divine and natural laws ultimately determine habit which disposes a person to tell the truth.
the rightness or wrongness of an action. One because honest by repeatedly telling the
• An action therefore is moral if it is in truth. One an act becomes permanent it
becomes second nature to the person.
accordance with our conscience and the law.
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• There are two sets of virtues: the cardinal • Prudence - also described as wisdom, the
and theological virtues. ability to judge between actions with regard
to appropriate actions at a given time
• The cardinal virtues: Prudence, Justice,
Temperance, and Courage (or Fortitude). • Justice - also considered as fairness, the most
extensive and most important virtue[20]
The cardinal virtues are so called because
they are regarded as the basic virtues • Temperance - also known as restraint, the
required for a virtuous life. practice of self-control, abstention, and
moderation tempering the appetition
• The three theological virtues, are Faith, • Courage/fortitude - forbearance, strength,
Hope, and Love (or Charity). They are endurance, and the ability to confront fear,
called theological because their proper uncertainty, and intimidation.
object is God or eternal life with God.
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• Faith - belief in God, and in the truth of His Discussion Questions

revelation as well as obedience to Him.
• Hope - expectation of and desire of
receiving; refraining from despair and 1. Do you believe in the universality of moral
capability of not giving up. The belief that principles? Why?
God will be eternally present in every 2. Conscience is a significant part of our moral
human's life and never giving up on His character, how can we develop a good
love. conscience?
• Charity - a supernatural virtue that helps 3. What is the virtue that is most applicable in
us love God and our neighbors, the same your would-be career in the medical field?
way as we love ourselves.
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