C~"'APTE.

Our world is filled with oscillations in which objects move back and
forth repeatedly. Many oscillations are merely amusing or annoying, but many
others are dangerous or financially important. Here are a few examples: When a
bat hits a baseball, the bat may oscillate enough to sting the batter's hands or
even to break apart. When wind blows past a power line, the line may oscillate
("gallop" in electrical engineering terms) so severely that it rips apart, shutting
off the power supply to a community. When an airplane is in flight, the turbulence
of the air flowing past the wings makes them oscillate, eventually leading to metal
fatigue and even failure. When a train travels around a curve, its wheels oscillate
horizontally ("hunt" in mechanical engineering terms) as they are forced to turn
in new directions (you can hear the oscillations).
When an earthquake occurs near a city, buildings may be set oscillating so
severely that they are shaken apart. When an arrow is shot from a bow, the feathers
at the end of the arrow manage to snake around the bow staff without hitting it be-
cause the arrow oscillates. When a coin drops into a metal collection plate, the coin
oscillates with such a familiar ring that the coin's denomination can be determined
from the sound. When a rodeo cowboy rides a bull, the cowboy oscillates wildly as
the bull jumps and turns (at least the cowboy hopes to be oscillating).
The study and control of oscillations are two of the primary goals of both
physics and engineering. In this chapter we discuss a basic type of oscillation
called simple harmonic motion.

1 Simple Harmonic Motion

Figure 15-1a shows a sequence of "snapshots" of a simple oscillating system, a par-
ticle moving repeatedly back and forth about the origin of an x axis. In this section
we simply describe the motion. Later, we shall discuss how to attain such motion.
One important property of oscillatory motion is its frequency, or number of
oscillations that are completed each second. The symbol for frequency is j, and its
SI unit is the hedz (abbreviated Hz), where
1 hertz = 1 Hz = 1 oscillation per second = 1 S-l. (15-1)
Related to the frequency is the period T of the motion, which is the time for one
complete oscillation (or cycle); that is,

T=y.1 (15-2)

Any motion that repeats itself at regular intervals is called periodic motion
or harmonic motion. We are interested here in motion that repeats itself in a
particular way - namely, like that in Fig. 15-1a. For such motion the displacement
386
 SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION 387

A particle oscillates left The speed

and right in simple is zero at the The speed is greatest
harmonic motion. extreme points. at the midpoint.
-.\'m 0 -XI/1 0 +.\'11/
1 1 1 1 1
---1
1---------+-
- - - - - - - ( t -

--:1---------+:---,-.:---~<F( +
t= 0 t= 0 --II---------+I-------,~ '-
1 1 ~~"
---11---------+-----~'~~F:'-I-
r
1 1
1 1 1 __11--------+1--,,-,v<1---'),,----+1-
_...JI'-_ _ _ _ _ _ ,(;~--------'I- --1'-----<l--;~,31;------~1:--
t= T/4
_-;:---r:~,------,--------------,:r--
--+--{)-----+--------+-I
t= T/4
-.: <1---(i'---i-:
~<r-CP'-----+II-------+--:
--------i:-
t= T/2 I
--i-C~-----+---------+-I
--II-----(Xl-----~-------IC_
1
t= 3T/4 - - 1 1 - - - - - - - - , , ) , - - - - - - - 1 1 -
1

1
t= T/2
+(;}-i>----+:-------t-:
_/

j s)--P-+j--:::;-.:------1j-
t = 3T/4 - - I I - - - - - - - - t ) - - - l > " - v - - - - - t l -
__I<----_ _ _ _ _ _-'--_ _ I',;,,___-l-I_ --1<-----------1-1- - - }1---!>----I-1-
_,I-------,_ _ _ _ _ _i-I- - - - - C i , +
_-1--_ _ _ _ _ _+1_ _ _ _ _ _1":'-
----;11----------;-:- - - - - :J-4-
t= T t= T 1
1 :
fi--
"'[" _---'---_ _ _ _ _ _----'--I _ _ _----"-<v <Ft:: ~
o +X1I/ o +Xm

(a) (b)

Rotating the figure reveals

that the motion forms a
Fig. 15-1 (a)Asequenceof cosine function.
"snapshots" (taken at equal time
intervals) showing the position of This is a graph of the motion,
X}I/
a particle as it oscillates back and with the period T indicated.
forth about the origin of an x axis,
between the limits +Xm and - X m •
(b) The vector arrows are scaled
to indicate the speed of the parti-
cle. The speed is maximum when
the particle is at the origin and
zero when it is at ::'::xm . If the time 0- --
(d)
t is chosen to be zero when the The speed is zero at
particle is at +X,," then the parti- extreme points.
cle returns to +xm at t = T, where
T is the period of the motion. The
motion is then repea ted. (c) o i - - - - > " - - - - - - - - , , f - - - - Time (I)
Rotating the figure reveals the
-Xm - --
motion forms a cosine function of The speed is greatest
time, as shown in (d). (e) The at x= O.
speed (the slope) changes. (c)
o T (e)

x of the particle from the origin is given as a function of time by

x(t) = x l1l cos( wt + cp) (displacement), (15-3)

in which x ll1 , w, and cp are constants. This motion is called simple hal'monic motion
(SHM), a term that means the periodic motion is a sinusoidal function of time.
Equation 15-3, in which the sinusoidal function is a cosine function, is graphed in
Fig. 15-1d. (We get that graph by rotating Fig. 15-1a counterclockwise by 90°.)
The quantities that determine the shape of the graph are displayed in Fig. 15-2
with their names. We now shall define those quantities.
388 15 OSCILLATIONS

Displacemnt The quantity XIII' called the amplitude of the motion, is a positive constant
at time t whose value depends on how the motion was started. The subscript 111 stands for
~ Ph~se~ maximum because the amplitude is the magnitude of the maximum displacement
X(t) = XIIlCOS(OJt+¢) of the particle in either direction. The cosine function in Eq. 15-3 varies between

Nl1PC~~ Angular
!
Phase
the limits ±1; so the displacement x(t) varies between the limits ±xlll •
The time-varying quantity (wt + 4» in Eq. 15-3 is called the phase of the
motion, and the constant 4> is called the phase constant (or phase angle). The
frequency constant value of 4> depends on the displacement and velocity of the particle at time t = O.
or phase For the x(t) plots of Fig. 15-3a, the phase constant 4> is zero.
angle
To interpret the constant w, called the angular frequency of the motion, we
Fig. 15-2 A handy reference to the first note that the displacement x(t) must return to its initial value after one
quantities in Eq.15-3 for simple harmonic period T of the motion; that is, x(t) must equal x(t + T) for all t. To simplify this
motion.
analysis, let us put 4> = 0 in Eq. 15-3. From that equation we then can write
XIII cos wt = X/11 cos w(t + T). (15-4)
The cosine function first repeats itself when its argument (the phase) has
increased by 27r rad; so Eq. 15-4 gives us
w(t + T) = wt + 27r
or wT = 27r.

The amplitudes are different,

but the frequency and
period are the same.
x

X 'III
;:: Xm
OJ
S
"
u
oj 0
-a
0"" -XIII
-x '/II

(a)

The amplitudes are the

same, but the frequencies
and periods are different.
x

...
Q
OJ .\'11/
S
OJ
u
oj
0
-aen
0 -.\"/1/

Fig. 15-3 In all three cases, the blue

curve is obtained from Eq.15-3 with cp = O. (b)
(a) The red curve differs from the blue
This negative value
curve only in that the red-curve amplitude
x shifts the cosine
X~1l is greater (the red-curve extremes of
displacement are higher and lower). (b) curve rightward.
The red curve differs from the blue curve
;:: ,\'11/

only in that the red-curve period is T' = TI2 "S

OJ
U
oj
0
(the red curve is compressed horizontally).
(c) TIle red curve differs from the blue ~ -XII/
0
curve only in that for the red curve cp =
This zero gives a
-7T/4 rad rather than zero (the negative
(r) regular cosine curve.
value of cp shifts the red curve to the right).
 1 . SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION 389

Thus, from Eq.15-2 the angular frequency is

21T
w= y= 2n!. (15-5)

The SI unit of angular frequency is the radian per second. (To be consistent,
then, cp must be in radians.) Figure 15-3 compares x(t) for two simple harmonic
motions that differ either in amplitude, in period (and thus in frequency and
angular frequency), or in phase constant.

JfCHECKPOINT 1
A particle undergoing simple harmonic oscillation of period T (like that in Fig. 15-1) is
°
at -xm at time t = 0. Is it at -XIII' at +X,," at 0, between -XIII and 0, or between and
+xm when (a) t = 2.00T, (b) t = 3.50T, and (c) t = 5.25T?

By differentiating Eq. 15-3, we can find an expression for the velocity of a particle
moving with simple harmonic motion; that is,
dx(t) d
vet) = -dt - = -d [Xm cos(wt +
t
cp)]

or vet) = -WXI/l sin(wt + cp) (velocity). (15-6)

Figure 15-4a is a plot of Eq. 15-3 with cp = O. Figure 15-4b shows Eq. 15-6, x
also with cp = O. Analogous to the amplitude Xm in Eq. 15-3, the positive ~
v
+Xm
Extreme
quantity WXI/l in Eq.15-6 is called the velocity amplitude vl1l • As you can see in S
v
u values
0
Fig. 15-4b, the velocity of the oscillating particle varies between the limits .!:l here
~
±vl/l = ± wXI/l' Note also in that figure that the curve of vet) is shifted (to the 6 mean ...
left) from the curve of x(t) by one-quarter period; when the magnitude of the
V
displacement is greatest (that is, xU) = xm ), the magnitude of the velocity is +(OXm
zero
least (that is, vet) = 0). When the magnitude of the displacement is least (that ~
'0 values
is, zero), the magnitude of the velocity is greatest (that is, V I1l = wx",). 0 0
~ here
-WXm and ...

a
o +W2xlll
Knowing the velocity vct) for simple harmonic motion, we can find an expres- 0
'p extreme
cO
sion for the acceleration of the oscillating particle by differentiating once I-<
v 0 I values
more. Thus, we have, from Eq. 15-6, v
dv(t) d . -<~ -OJ
2.
"//I
here.
aCt) = ----;tt = dt [-wx lIl sm(wt + cp)] (c)

or aCt) = - W2XIIl cos( wt + cp) (acceleration). (15-7) Fig. 15-4 (a) The displacement x(t) of a
particle oscillating in SHM with phase an-
Figure 15-4c is a plot of Eq.15-7 for the case cp = O. The positive quantity ufXI/l in Eq. gle cjJ equal to zero. The period T marks one
15-7 is called the acceleration amplitude al/l; that is, the acceleration of the particle complete oscillation. (b) The velocity vet)
varies between the limits ±alll = ±w2xlIP as Fig. 15-4c shows. Note also that the accel- of the particle. (c) The acceleration aCt) of
the particle.
eration curve aCt) is shifted (to the left) by ~ Trelative to the velocity curve vet).
We can combine Eqs.15-3 and 15-7 to yield

aCt) = -w 2x(t), (15-8)

which is the hallmark of simple harmonic motion:

In SHM, the acceleration is proportional to the displacement but opposite in sign,

and the two quantities are related by the square of the angular frequency.
390 H OSCILLATIONS

Thus, as Fig. IS-4 shows, when the displacement has its greatest positive value, the
acceleration has its greatest negative value, and conversely. When the displace-
ment is zero, the acceleration is also zero.

1 The Force Law for Simple Harmonic Motion

Once we know how the acceleration of a particle varies with time, we can use
Newton's second law to learn what force must act on the particle to give it that
acceleration. If we combine Newton's second law and Eq. IS-8, we find, for sim-
ple harmonic motion,
F = ma = -(mui)x. (IS-9)
This result-a restoring force that is proportional to the displacement but oppo-
site in sign-is familiar. It is Hooke's law,
F= -lex, (IS-lO)
for a spring, the spring constant here being
k = mw 2 • (1S-11)
We can in fact take Eq.lS-l0 as an alternative definition of simple harmonic
motion. It says:

Simple harmonic motion is the motion executed by a particle subject to a force that is
proportional to the displacement of the particle but opposite in sign.

The block-spring system of Fig. IS-S forms a lineal' simple hal'monic

oscillatol' (linear oscillator, for short), where "linear" indicates that F is pro-
portional to x rather than to some other power of x. The angular frequency w of
x the simple harmonic motion of the block is related to the spring constant k and
the mass m of the block by Eq.lS-11, which yields
Fig. 1 5-5 A linear simple harmonic os-
cillator. The surface is frictionless. Like the
particle of Fig. 15-1, the block moves in sim- w=ff (angular frequency). (IS-12)
ple harmonic motion once it has been ei-
ther pulled or pushed away from the x = 0 By combining Eqs. IS-S and IS-12, we can write, for the pel'iod of the linear
position and released. Its displacement is oscillator of Fig.lS-S,
then given by Eq.15-3.

T = 27T
'iT
rm (period). (1S-13)

Equations IS-12 and IS-13 tell us that a large angular frequency (and thus a small
period) goes with a stiff spring (large k) and a light block (small m).
Every oscillating system, be it a diving board or a violin string, has some
element of "springiness" and some element of "inertia" or mass, and thus resem-
bles a linear oscillator. In the linear oscillator of Fig. IS-S, these elements are
located in separate parts of the system: The springiness is entirely in the spring,
which we assume to be massless, and the inertia is entirely in the block, which we
assume to be rigid. In a violin string, however, the two elements are both within
the string, as you will see in Chapter 16.

2
Which of the following relationships between the force F on a particle and the particle's
position x implies simple harmonic oscillation: (a) F = -5x, (b) F = -400x 2 ,
(c) F = lOx, (d) F = 3x 2?
 THE FORCE LAW FOR SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION 391

Block-spring SHM, amplitude, acceleration, phase constant

A block whose mass m is 680 g is fastened to a spring whose Calculation: Thus, we have
spring constant k is 65 N/m. The block is pulled a distance
V I11 = wXIII = (9.78 rad/s)(O.l1 m)
x = 11 cm from its equilibrium position at x = 0 on a fric-
tionless surface and released from rest at t = O. = 1.1 m/s. (Answer)
(a) What are the angular frequency, the frequency, and the This maximum speed occurs when the oscillating block is rush-
period of the resulting motion? ing through the origin; compare Figs. 15-4a and 15-4b, where
you can see that the speed is a maximum whenever x = O.
(d) What is the magnitude am of the maximum acceleration
of the block?
The block-spring system forms a linear simple harmonic
oscillator, with the block undergoing SHM.

Calculations: The angular frequency is given by Eq. 15-12: The magnitude am of the maximum acceleration is the accel-
eration amplitude w2xl11 in Eq. 15-7.
W=ff= 65N/m
0.68 kg = 9.78 rad/s Calculation: So, we have
= 9.8 rad/s. (Answer) am = w 2x m = (9.78 rad/s)2(0.11 m)
The frequency follows from Eq. 15-5, which yields = 11 m/s 2 • (Answer)
This maximum acceleration occurs when the block is at the
f = ~ = 9.78 rad/s = 1.56 Hz = 1.6 Hz. (Answer) ends of its path. At those points, the force acting on the
27r 27r rad
block has its maximum magnitude; compare Figs. 15-4a and
The period follows from Eq. 15-2, which yields 15-4c, where you can see that the magnitudes of the dis-
placement and acceleration are maximum at the same times.
T- 71 - 1
1.56 Hz = 0.64 s = 640 ms. (Answer) (e) What is the phase constant cp for the motion?

(b) What is the amplitude of the oscillation? Calculations: Equation 15-3 gives the displacement of the
block as a function of time. We know that at time t = 0,
the block is located at x = X m . Substituting these initial
conditions, as they are called, into Eq. 15-3 and canceling Xm
With no friction involved, the mechanical energy of the spring- give us
block system is conserved. 1 = cos cpo (15-14)
Taking the inverse cosine then yields
Reasoning: The block is released from rest 11 cm from
its eqUilibrium position, with zero kinetic energy and the cp = 0 rad. (Answer)
elastic potential energy of the system at a maximum. Thus, (Any angle that is an integer mUltiple of 27r rad also satisfies
the block will have zero kinetic energy whenever it is Eq.15-14; we chose the smallest angle.)
again 11 cm from its equilibrium position, which means it
(f) What is the displacement function x(t) for the
will never be farther than 11 cm from that position. Its
spring - block system?
maximum displacement is 11 cm:
x lll = 11 cm. (Answer) Calculation: The function x(t) is given in general form by
Eq. 15-3. Substituting known quantities into that equation
(c) What is the maximum speed vm of the oscillating block, gives us
and where is the block when it has this speed? x(t) = xm cos(wt + cp)
= (0.11 m) cos[(9.8 rad/s)t + 0]
= 0.11 cos(9.8t), (Answer)
The maximum speed VIII is the velocity amplitude WXIII in Eq.15-6. where x is in meters and t is in seconds.

Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS

392 OSCILLATIONS

Finding SHM phase constant from displacement and velocity

At t = 0, the displacement x(O) of the block in a linear oscil- Calculations: We know wand want <p and x l1l • If we divide
lator like that of Fig. 15-5 is -8.50 cm. (Read x(O) as "x at Eq. 15-16 by Eq. 15-15, we eliminate one of those unknowns
time zero.") The block's velocity v(O) then is -0.920 mis, and reduce the other to a single trig function:
and its acceleration a(O) is +47.0 m/s 2•
v(O) -wx",sin <p
(a) What is the angular frequency w of this system? ----"'----'--- = - w tan <p.
x(O) XmCOS <p
Solving for tan <p, we find
With the block in SHM, Eqs. 15-3, 15-6, and 15-7 give its dis- v(~ -Q~Omh
placement, velocity, and acceleration, respectively, and each tan <p = - wx(O) = - (23.5 rad/s)( -0.0850 m)
contains w.
= -0.461.
Calculations: Let's substitute t = 0 into each to see This equation has two solutions:
whether we can solve anyone of them for w. We find
<p = -25° and <p = 180° + (-25°) = 155°.
x(O) = X Il1cos <p, (15-15)
Normally only the first solution here is displayed by a calcu-
v(O) = wx", sin <p, (15-16) lator, but it may not be the physically possible solution. To
and a(O) = w2x", cos <p. (15-17) choose the proper solution, we test them both by using them
In Eq. 15-15, w has disappeared. In Eqs. 15-16 and 15-17, we to compute values for the amplitude x m• From Eq.15-15, we
know values for the left sides, but we do not know Xm and <p. find that if <p = -25°, then
However, if we divide Eq. 15-17 by Eq. 15-15, we neatly elim- x(O) -0.0850 m
inate both X IIl and <p and can then solve for was Xm = cos <p = cos( -250) = -0.094 m.
_ ) _ a(O) _ 47.0 m/s 2 We find similarly that if <p = 155°, then Xm = 0.094 m.
w - x(O)- -0.0850m Because the amplitude of SHM must be a positive constant,
= 23.5 rad/s. (Answer) the correct phase constant and amplitude here are
(b) What are the phase constant <p and amplitude x ll1 ? <p = 155° and Xm = 0.094 m = 9.4 cm. (Answer)

Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS

Energy in Simple Harmonic Motion

In Chapter 8 we saw that the energy of a linear oscillator transfers back and forth
between kinetic energy and potential energy, while the sum of the two-the
mechanical energy E of the oscillator-remains constant. We now consider this
situation quantitatively.
The potential energy of a linear oscillator like that of Fig. 15-5 is associated
entirely with the spring. Its value depends on how much the spring is stretched or
compressed - that is, on x(t). We can use Eqs. 8-11 and 15-3 to find

(15-18)

Caution: A function written in the form cos 2 A (as here) means (cos A)2 and is not
the same as one written cos A 2, which means cos(A 2).
The kinetic energy of the system of Fig. 15-5 is associated entirely with the
block. Its value depends on how fast the block is moving- that is, on vet). We can
use Eq. 15-6 to find
(15-19)