NUCLEAR PHYSICS

NUCLEAR STRUCTURE
● Nucleons: proton + neutron
● Atomic number: number of proton
● Mass number: number of nucleons
● Number of nucleons = number of protons + number of neutrons
● Number of electrons = number of protons (in neutral atoms)
ATOMIC MASS UNIT
The atomic mass unit is defined as exactly 1/12 the mass of a neutral 12C atom.

1 u = 1.660 539 × 10−27 kg

Size of Nuclei
● Electron diffraction has been used to probe the structure of the
nucleus. Using electrons of very short wavelength, we can
determine not only the size of the nucleus but learn about its
internal structure as well.
● Both the mass and volume of the nucleus are proportional to the
number of nucleons.
● Most nuclei are approximately spherical in shape
BINDING ENERGY
1) The strong force
a) One of the four fundamental forces (along with gravity, electromagnetism, and weak force)
b) The strong force holds the nucleons together in the nucleus
c) Unlike gravity and the electromagnetic forces, the strong force is extremely short range
2) The binding energy EB of a nucleus is the energy that must be supplied to
separate a nucleus, a system of bound protons and neutrons, into individual,
free protons and neutrons. Since the nucleus is a bound system, its total energy
is less than the energy of Z protons and N neutrons that are far apart and at
rest.
BINDING ENERGY
The mass of a particle is a measure of its rest energy—its total energy in a reference
frame in which it is at rest

E0 = m c2

Since the rest energy of a nucleus is less than the total rest energy of Z protons and
N neutrons, the mass of the nucleus is less than the total mass of the protons and
neutrons. The difference, called the mass defect Δm, comes about because we would
have to add energy to a nucleus to break it up into Z individual protons and N
individual neutrons.
MASS DEFECT AND BINDING ENERGY
Ass

Where:
BINDING ENERGY CURVE
● In small nuclides there are not
enough nucleons for all to fully
bind since the average number of
nearest neighbors is small.
Increasing the number of nucleons
leads to a larger binding energy
per nucleon, up to a point, because
the average number of nearest
neighbors is increasing.
BINDING ENERGY CURVE
● Once nuclei reach a certain size, all
nucleons except those on the surface
have as many nearest neighbors as
possible. Adding more nucleons
doesn’t increase the average binding
energy per nucleon due to the strong
force very much, but the Coulomb
repulsion keeps adding up since it is
long range. Thus, above A ≈ 60,
adding more nucleons decreases the
average binding energy per nucleon.
EXAMPLE
Calculate the total binding energy and the binding energy per nucleon for Fe (mass
number 56, atomic number 26) the most common stable isotope of iron!

(492,26 MeV; 8,79 MeV)

NUCLEAR RADIATION
● Background radiation
○ Natural environment has low levels of
radiation from natural sources.
○ Measure radiation using a Geiger-Muller (GM)
tube.
○ Radiations level are often reported in counts
per second, and this unit is called the
becquerel (Bq)
○ Usually from naturally radioactive gases in
the atmosphere, particularly Radon.
○ Most naturally radioactive place on Earth is
Rasmar, Iran, where the dosage can be more
than 200 times the global average.
RADIOACTIVITY
● Nuclides can be divided into two broad categories. Some are stable; others are
unstable, or radioactive.
● An unstable nuclide decays —takes part in a spontaneous nuclear reaction—by
emitting radiation.
● Scientists studying radioactivity soon identified three different kinds of radiation
emitted by radioactive nuclei; they were named alpha rays, beta rays, and gamma rays.
● When a nuclear decay occurs, the radiation particle emitted will leave the nucleus
carrying kinetic energy.
● As the particle travels, it will ionise particles in its path and losing some of kinetic
energy.
● When all kinetic energy is transferred, the radiation particle stops and is absorbed by
the substance that it is in at that moment.
RADIOACTIVITY
● Larger nuclides:
○ Large Coulomb repulsion
○ Tends to have an excess of
neutrons (N>Z)
● The largest stable nuclides
have about 1.5 times as many
neutrons as protons.
RADIOACTIVITY
● Alpha rays are the least penetrating; they can only make it through a few
centimeters of air and are completely blocked by human skin, thin paper, and
other solids. Beta rays can travel farther in air—about a meter typically—and
can penetrate a hand or a thin metal foil. Gamma rays are much more
penetrating than either alpha or beta rays.
RADIOACTIVITY
RADIOACTIVITY
Dangers of nuclear radiation: ionising radiations can interact with the particles that human
cells consist of. There may be so much ionisation that it causes the cells to die.Where there
is less ionisation, the molecules of DNA in the cells may change slightly. These DNA
mutations can cause cells to have an increased tendency to become cancerous.
ALPHA DECAY
● Alpha particles are composed of
two protons and two neutrons, the
same as helium nucleus.
● Relatively large particle with
positive charge (+2e), so it is
highly ionising.
● As it ionises so much, it quickly
loses its kinetic energy and is easily
absorbed.
ALPHA DECAY
● In alpha decay, the original (parent) nuclide is converted to a “daughter” by the
emission of an α particle.

● Emission of α particle is the most common type of radioactive decay for large
nuclides (Z>83)
EXAMPLE
Polonium-210 decays via α decay. Identify the daughter nuclide!

(lead-206)
BETA DECAY
● A beta particle is an electron
emitted at high speed from the
nucleus when a neutron decays into
a proton.
● Much less ionising than an alpha
particle, and can penetrate much
further.
BETA DECAY
● Beta particles are electrons or positrons (β- or β+)

● It must be carefully noted that the electron emitted in β decay is not an orbital
electron. Instead, the electron is created within the nucleus itself.
GAMMA DECAY
● Gamma rays are high energy, high
frequency, electromagnetic
radiation.
● These photons have no charge and
no mass and so will rarely interact
with particles in their path (they are
the least ionising nuclear radiation).
● We can reduce their energy using
several centimetres of lead or
several metres of concrete.
GAMMA DECAY
● Gamma ray emission does not change the structure of a
nucleus emitting it, but carries away energy, so the
nucleus must drop energy level in order to emit the
gamma ray.
● Alpha and beta decay do not always leave the daughter
nucleus in its ground state. Sometimes daughter nucleus
must emits gamma ray photons until it reaches the ground
state.
RADIOACTIVE DECAY
EXAMPLE
Calculate the maximum kinetic energy of the beta particle emitted during the decay

of ! (2.822 MeV)
RADIOACTIVE DECAY RATE AND HALF-LIVES
● Radioactive decay is spontaneous and random.
● For each second that it exists, there is a particular probability that the nucleus
is decay.
● This probability is called the decay constant λ
● The chance that a particular nucleus will decay is not affected by factors outside
the nucleus such as temperature or pressure. Each nucleus decay entirely
independently.
RADIOACTIVE DECAY RATE AND HALF-LIVES
● Number decaying per second called activity (A) is proportional to the number
of nuclei in the sample (N).

● The minus sign in this formula indicates the number of nuclei in the sample, N,
is decreasing with time.
EXAMPLE
The decay constant for carbon-14 λ = 3.84 x 10-12 /s. What is the activity of a
sample of 100 billion atoms of carbon-14?

0.384 Bq
RADIOACTIVE DECAY RATE AND HALF-LIVES
● The formula for the rate of decay of nuclei is a differential equation.
● This equation can be solved to give a formula for the number of nuclei.

N = N0e-λt
Where N0 is the initial number of nuclei within a sample.
EXAMPLE
If our sample of 100 billion carbon-14 atoms were left for 300 years, how many
carbon-14 atoms would remain?

9.64 x 1010 atoms

HALF-LIFE
● Half-life (t1/2) is the time taken for half of the nuclei of that nuclide within a
sample to decay.
● Mathematically, the half-life can be found by putting N = ½ N0 into the decay
equation:

● Rearranging this also gives us:

HALF-LIFE
● Start with initial activity.
● Decrease with equation:
A=A0e-λt
● From 800 Bq to 400 Bq: 70 seconds
● From 400 Bq to 200 Bq: 80 seconds
● Not identical due to the random
nature of radioactive decay and
other errors.
● Should analyze from different parts
and average the results.
LOGARITHMIC HALF-LIFE ANALYSIS
● To improve on the curving graph, we can analyse the experimental data to
generate a straight-line graph so our best-fit line will be less uncertain.
● Considering data from measuring activity of a sample over time:

A = A0 e-λt

ln A = ln A0 - λ t

ln A = -λ t + ln A0

ln N = -λ t + ln N0
EXAMPLE
● Calculate decay constants for the following isotopes!
○ Radium-226; half-life = 1602 years
○ Stronium-90; half-life = 28.8 years
○ Cobalt-60; half-life = 5.3 years
EXAMPLE
● If the cellar in a house in Nova Scotia, Canada contained 6.5 billion atoms of
radon-222 gas, with decay constant λ = 2.10 x 10-6 /s, how many radon gas atoms
would there be one day later?
NUCLEAR FUSION
● If we take some light nuclei and force
them to join together, the mass of the
new heavier nucleus will be less than
the mass of the constituent parts, as
some mass is converted into energy.
● Not all of this energy is used as binding
energy for the new larger nucleus, the
energy will be released from this
reaction.
● The binding energy per nucleon
afterwards is higher than at the start.
● This is the process of nuclear fusion.
NUCLEAR FUSION
● Energy radiated by the sun and other stars is produced by nuclear fusion.
● Due to the steep slope of the binding energy per nucleon curve at low mass
number, fusion can be expected to release significantly more energy per nucleon
than fission.

● Stars acts as factories to form heavier nuclides from lighter nuclides.

● Most of the fusion reactions produce helium from hydrogen.
● Nuclides all the way up to the peak of the binding energy curve.
● Heavier nuclides are less tightly bound than iron and nickel, so fusion reactions
no longer release energy.
NUCLEAR FUSSION
● Proton-proton cycle (in stars)

● Scientist have not yet successfully maintained a controlled nuclear fusion

reaction.
○ To overcome electrostatic repulsion, requires temperatures of many million kelvin (108 K).
○ Very high density to sustain the collisions of protons.
EXAMPLE
The proton-proton chain nuclear fusion reaction effectively takes four protons and
converts them into a helium-4 nucleus and two positrons (which have the same mass
as electrons). Calculate the energy released in this reaction!

(24.7 MeV)
NUCLEAR FISSION
● A large nucleus breaks up into two smaller
nuclei with the release of some neutrons and
energy.
● Fission reactions can be started when the
nucleus absorbs another particle which makes
it unstable.
● A very large nuclei have smaller binding
energy per nucleon than nuclides of
intermediate mass.
NUCLEAR FISSION
● Fission can be induced by an incident neutron, proton, deuteron, alpha particle,
or photon.
● Fission due to the capture of slow neutron allows the possibility of a chain
reaction.
EXAMPLE
Calculate the energy released in the following fission reaction:

(173 MeV; 1.67 x 1013 J)