Republic of the Philippines

APAYAO STATE COLLEGE

COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION

Course Title : Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

Course Code : Prof Ed 14
Teacher : Associate Professor V REMA BASCOS-OCAMPO, PhD
Students : BSEd-2A, BSEd-2B, BEEd-2

Week 1

Learning Objectives:
 Categorize the 14 psychological principles that deal with the learners and the learning
process
 Get the results of the metacognitive questionnaire and analyze the students’ strengths
and weaknesses

Overview: Facilitating Learning

Preamble

The learner-centered psychological principles provide an essential framework to be

incorporated in new designs for curriculum and instruction, assessment systems for
evaluating educational goal attainments, as well as for the systemic redesign of professional
development programs and educational system structures.
The principles are directed to teachers, instructors, and others involved in designing or
implementing instruction. They contribute to understanding effective strategies that can
address problems of low levels of academic achievement.

Learner-Centered Psychological Principles

Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors (6 Principles) Motivational and Affective Factors (3 Principles)

14 Learner-Centered Principles

Individual Difference Factors (3 Principles)

Developmental and Social Factors (2 Principles)
Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors
1. Nature of the learning process
2. Goals of the learning process

Page 1 of 88
3. Construction of knowledge
4. Strategic thinking
5. Thinking about thinking
6. Context of learning

Motivational and Affective Factors

1. Motivational and emotional influences on learning
2. Intrinsic motivation to learn
3. Effects of motivation and effort

Developmental and Social Factors

1. Developmental influences on learning
2. Social influences on learning

Individual Differences Factors

1. Individual differences in learning
2. Learning and diversity
3. Standards and assessment

Metacognition
 It refers to higher order thinking which involves active control over the cognitive
processes engaged in learning.
 Awareness of the process of learning

According to Flavell (1979, 1987), metacognition consists of both metacognitive

knowledge and metacognitive experiences or regulation.

Metacognitive knowledge – refers to acquired knowledge about cognitive processes, that can
be used to control cognitive processes.

Metacognition – refers to the active monitoring and consequent regulation and orchestration
of processes in relation to the cognitive data on which they bear usually on service of some
concrete goal or objective. In short it is “cognition about cognition” or “thinking about
thinking.”

Three (3) categories in which Flavell divides metacognitive knowledge:

1. Person Variable
2. Task Variable
3. Strategy Variable

Metacognitive Strategies
 Refer to methods used to help students understand the way they learn; in other
words, it means processes designed for students to ‘think’ about their ‘thinking’.

Strategies that Improve Metacognition

1. Teach students how their brains are wired for growth
2. Give students practice recognizing what they don’t understand.
3. Provide opportunities to reflect on coursework.
4. Have students keep learning journals.
5. Use a “wrapper” to increase students’ monitoring skills.

Page 2 of 88
6. Consider essay vs. multiple-choice exams
7. Facilitate reflexive thinking.

Activity 1—Wk 1
1. Define metacognition
2. How do you apply metacognition in your everyday school activities?
a. In doing your homework
b. Strategies before the examination
c. In doing your project
3. What difficulty have you encountered in applying metacognition?
4. What is mnemonics? Research on the use of mnemonics in learning. Cite different ways
of using and give your own examples.
5. This hand out is just an outline of the topics in Facilitating Learning for week 1. Enrich
your knowledge on these by reading related articles in the internet. Submit at least 2
websites visited.

Week 2

Learning Objectives:
 Explain the theories of human development
 Discuss the major contributions of each theory in the learners’ development
 Cite some application of these human development theories and learning theories in
the classroom setting.

Understanding the Learners

A theory is a set of ideas intended to explain facts that is suggested or presented true,
and needs to be proven true. Theories will somehow help the teachers understand how to
handle the different behaviors of the learners.

Sigmund Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory

Sigmund Freud – was a Viennese physician who developed the theory of development by
trying to help emotionally troubled adults. His theory was described as a psychosexual theory
of development, which asserts that parents had a crucial role in managing their children’s
sexual and aggresive drives during the first few years of life in order to develop properly.

Five (5) stages of Freud’s psychosexual development theory:

1. Oral Stage (birth to 1 year)
2. Anal Stage (1-3 years)
3. Phallic Stage (3-6 years)
4. Latency Stage (6-12 years)
5. Genital Stage (12 years onward)

Figure 2.1 Source of Pleasure

Psychosexual Stages
Page 3 of 88
Oral Location of the libido (source of pleasure)
The mouth-sucking, swallowing etc.
 The anus – withholding or expelling faeces

Phallic The penis or clitoris – masturbation

Latent Little or no sexual motivation present

The penis or vagina- sexual intercourse

Genital

Figure 2.2. Fixations

Oral

Anal

Phallic

Genital
Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory

Erikson – was an ego psychologist who emphasized the role of culture and society and the
conflicts that can take place within the ego itself. According to Erikson, the ego develops as it
successfully rises that are distinctly social in nature. These involve establishing a sense of
trust in others, developing a sense of identity in society and helping the next generation
prepare for the future.

Table 2.1 Summary Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Development

Stage Basic Conflict Important Events Outcome

Infancy (birth to 18 Trust vs. Mistrust Feeding Children develop a
months) sense of trust when

Page 4 of 88
 caregivers provide
reliability, care and
affection. A lack of this
will lead to mistrust.
Children need to
develop a sense of
personal control over
physical skills and a
Early Childhood (2 to 3 Autonomy vs. Shame sense of independence.
Toilet Training
years) and Doubt Success leads to
feelings of autonomy,
failure results in
feelings of shame and
doubt.
Children need to begin
asserting control and
power over the
environment. Success
in this stage leads to a
Preschool (3 to 5 years) Initiative vs. Guilt Exploration sense of purpose.
Children who try to
exert too much power
experience disapproval,
resulting in a sense of
guilt.
Children need to cope
with new social and
academic demands.
School Age (6 to 11
Industry vs. Inferiority School Success leads to a
years)
sense of competence,
while failure results in
feelings of inferiority.
Teens need to develop
a sense of self and
personal identity.
Success leads to an
Adolescence (12 to 18 Identity vs. Role
Social Relationships ability to stay true to
years) Confusion
yourself, while failure
leads to role confusion
and a weak sense of
self.
Young adults need to
form intimate, loving
relationships with other
Young Adulthood (19 people. Success leads
Intimacy vs. Isolation Relationships
to 40 years) to strong relationships,
while failure results in
loneliness and
isolation.
Middle Adulthood (40 Generativity vs. Work and Parenthood Adults need to create
to 65 years) Stagnation or nurture things that
will outlast them, often
by having children or
creating a positive

Page 5 of 88
 change that benefits
other people. Success
leads to feelings of
usefulness and
accomplishment, while
failure results in
shallow involvement in
the world.
Older adults need to
look back on life and
feel a sense of
fulfilment. Success at
Ego Integrity vs.
Maturity (65 to death) Reflection on Life this stage leads to
Despair
feelings of wisdom,
while failure results in
regret, bitterness and
despair.

Activity 1-Wk 2
1. Cite some application of the above-mentioned human development theories and learning
theories in the classroom setting.
2. This hand out is just an outline of the topics in Facilitating Learning for week2.Enrich
your knowledge on these by reading related articles in the internet. Submit at least 2
websites visited.

Week 3

Continuation of Chapter 2

Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory

Jean Piaget, a Swiss scholar who studied children’s intellectual development during
the 1920’s believed that children are neither driven by undesirable instincts nor moulded by
environmental influences. Piaget and his followers believed children as constructivist, that is,
as curious active explorers who respond to the environment according to their understanding
of its essential features.

Four (4) major periods in which Piaget’s intellectual development of a child is divided into:
1. Sensorimotor period-
2. Preoperational period
3. Concrete operation period
4. Formal operation period

Table 2.2 Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

Stage Characteristics
Sensorimotor (birth to 2 years) Differentiates self from objects

Page 6 of 88
 Recognizes self as agent of action and begins to
act intentionally e. g. pulls a string to set
mobile in motion or shakes a rattle to make a
noise.
Preoperational (2-7 years) Learns to use language and to represent object
by images and words.
Thinking is still egocentric has difficulty taking
the viewpoint of others.
Classifies objects by a single feature: e. g.
groups together all the red blocks regardless of
shape, or all the square blocks regardless of
color.
Concrete operational (7-11 years) Can think logically about objects and events.
Achieves conservation of number (age 6), mass
(age 7) and weight (age 9).
Classifies object according to several features
and can order them in series along a single
dimension such as size.
Formal operational (11 years and up) Can think logically about abstract proposition
and test hypotheses systematically.
Becomes concerned with the hypothetical, the
future, and ideological problem.

Table 2.3 Piaget’s Key Ideas

Adaptation The ability to adapt to the world through assimilation and
accommodation.
Assimilation The process by which a person incorporates the new learning with the
previously learned cognitive structures.
Accommodation The process in which a person changes or modifies the previously
learned in order to adapt to the new experience.
Classification The ability to group objects together on the basis of common features.
Conservation The realization that objects or set of objects stay the same over when
they are changed about or made to load differently.
Decentration The ability to focus not only on one characteristic of an object and
considers other features.
Egocentrism The belief that you are the center of the universal and everything
revolves around you not moral selfishness just an early stage of
psychological development.
Equilibration
Schema or scheme The representation in the mind of a set of perception, ideas, and or
actions which go together.

Activity 1 Wk 3

Differentiate the four (4) major periods in which Piaget’s intellectual development of a child
is divided into. Cite your reference (bibliography of books used or websites where related
articles are downloaded from and date of retrieval) for your answers.

Lev Vygotsky’s Social Development Theory

Page 7 of 88
 Lev Vygotsky is a Russian psychlogist who gives emphasis on the fundamental role
of social interaction in the devlopment of cognition, and that community plays a central role
in the process of “making meaning”. Thus, he developed the sociocultural approach to
cognitive development.

Important features
1. Cognitive development varies across culture and it is the reason why he placed more
emphasis on culture affecting or shaping cognitive development.
2. Cognitive development stems from social interactions from guided learning within the
zone of proximal development as children and their partners co-construct knowledge.
He believed that the environment in which children grow up will influence how they
think and what they think about.
3. Cognitive development results from an internalization of language.
4. Adults are important source of cognitive development. Adults transmit their culture’s
tools of intellectual adaptation that children internalize.

Two (2) main principles of Vygotsky’s Theory

1. More knowledgeable other (MKO)
2. Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

Activity 2 Wk 3

Differentiate the two (2) main principles of Vygotsky’s theory. Cite your reference
(bibliography of books used or websites where related articles are downloaded from and date
of retrieval) for your answers.

Vygotsky and Language

According to Vygotsky, language plays two critical roles in cognitive development:
1. It is the major means by which adults transmit information to children.
2. Language itself is a powerful tool of intellectual adaptation.

Vygotsky (1987) differentiates three forms of language:

1. Social speech (2 years) which is external communication used to talk to others;
2. Private speech (3 years) which is directed to the self and serves as an intellectual
function which goes underground diminishing in audibility as it takes on a self-
regulatory and transformed into a;
3. Silent inner speech (7 years). Inner speech is to a large extent thinking in pure
meaning.

In addition, Vygotsky notes that private speech does not merely accompany a child’s
activity but acts as a tool used by the developing child to facilitate cognitive processes such
as overcoming task obstacles, enhancing imagination thinking, and conscious awareness. He
further stated that private speech is a product of an individual’s social environment.

Application of Vygotsky’s Theories of Development in the Classroom

Page 8 of 88
 1. There is reciprocal teaching which is used to improve student’s ability to learn from
text. In this method, teacher and students collaborate in learning and practice four key
skills: summarizing, questioning, clarifying, and predicting.
2. Also, Vygotsky’s theory is relevant to instructional concepts such as “scaffolding”
and “apprenticeship”, in which a teacher or more advance peers help to structure or
arrange a task so that a novice can work on it successfully.
3. Vygotsky’s theories also feed into current interest in collaborative learning,
suggesting that group members should have different levels of ability so more
advanced peers can help less advanced members operate without their zone of
proximal development (ZPD).

Lawrence Kohlberg’s Moral Development Theory

Lawrence Kohlberg was a professor at Harvard University. He became famous for his
work beginning in the early 1970’s. He started as a developmental psychologist and then
moved in the field of moral education. He was particularly well-known for his theory of
moral development which he popularized, through research studies (Barger, 2000). His
theory of moral development was dependent on the studies of a Swiss psychologist, Jean
Piaget and the American philosopher, John Dewey.

Kohlberg believed that people progress in their moral reasoning through a series of
stages. The moral development by each successive generation is very significant to society.
Although moral standards may vary from culture to culture, every society has devised rules
that the constituents must obey in order to remain members in good standing.

When Lawrence Kohlberg expanded on Piaget’s studies of moral development, he

made moral dilemmas that were appropriate for older children. Thus in 1963, he developed
the description of three levels and six stages of moral reasoning; (Barger, 2000)
1. Level One-Preconventional Morality (0-9 years)
Stage 1: Punishment-Obedience Orientation (toddler to 7 years)
Stage 2: Instrumental Relativist Orientation (preschool to school age)
2. Level Two: Conventional Morality (9-20 years)
Stage 3: Good boy- Nice Girl Orientation
Stage 4: Law and Order Orientation
3. Level Three: Postconventional Morality (after age 20)
Stage 5: Social Contract Dimension
Stage 6: Universal Ethic Principle Orientation
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Activity 3 Wk 3
1. Differentiate the three levels and six stages of moral reasoning developed by
Kohlberg. Cite your reference (bibliography of books used or websites where related
articles are downloaded from and date of retrieval) for your answers.
2. Choose one theory of human development (from what was tackled in Chapter 2) and
present it using a graphic organizer.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Page 9 of 88
Week 4

Chapter 3

Learning Objectives:
 Define learning using metaphors
 Explain the different types of learning
 Compare and contrast the different theories of learning
 Cite some applications and implications of the learning theories in the classroom
setting
 State the types and qualities of knowledge

Understanding Learning and Knowledge Acquisition

Defining Learning

Learning- is a reflective process, wherein the learner either develops new insights and
understanding or changes his mental process (Ornstein, 1992), so constructed learning
combines both deductive thought (general to specific) and inductive thought (specific to
general).

- is an act of acquiring new knowledge or modifying and reinforcing existing

knowledge, behavior, skills, values or performance and may involve synthesizing different
types of information. Learning is not compulsory, it is contextual. It does not happen all at
once, but build upon and is shaped by previous knowledge. Learning therefore may be
viewed as a process rather than a collection of factual and procedural knowledge.
1. Learning is a process inferred from relatively stable changes in behavior that result
from practice or interaction with and adaptation to the environment (Goodwin and
Klaustmeir, 1975).
2. It involves a particular kind of change, “the development of new association as a
result of experience” (Good and Grophy, 1977).
3. Learning is the modification of an organism’s behavior as a result of maturation and
environmental experiences (Gavison and Wagoon, 1972).

Metaphors of Learning

Examples:
 Learning is the sea. A learner is a ship.
 Learning is farming and a learner is a farmer.
 Learning is a game, and a learner is a player.
 Learner is music notes, and a learner is a composer.
 Learning is an exploration, a learner is an explorer.

Page 10 of 88
  A learner is a bud, which will grow up extremely fast if you give it enough sunshine
and water.

Types of learning
1. Sensory learning
2. Cognitive learning
3. Affective learning

Activity 1 Wk 4

1. Differentiate the types of learning. Cite your reference (bibliography of books used or
websites where related articles are downloaded from and date of retrieval) for your
answers.

Theories of Learning

BEHAVIORIST PERSPECTIVE

The term “behaviorism” was coined by John B. Watson (1913). He insisted that in
this theory, the focus should be on the measurable and observable behaviors.

Behaviorism is a school of thought in psychology based on the assumption that

learning occurs through interactions with the environment. Two other assumptions of this
theory are that the environment shapes behavior and that taking internal mental states such as
thoughts, feelings and emotions into consideration is useless in explaining behavior.

The principles of the behaviorist theory largely came from Ivan Pavlov, Edward
Thorndike, and Burrhus F. Skinner.

Classical Conditioning of Ivan Pavlov

One of the best-known aspects of behavioral learning theory is classical conditioning.

Discovered by the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov, classical conditioning is a learning
process that occurs through associations between an environmental stimulus and a naturally
occurring stimulus.

Classical conditioning is where the behavior becomes a reflex response to an

antecedent stimulus. This was noticed by Pavlov when he saw that a dog came to associate
the delivery of food with a white lab coat or with the ringing of a bell by salivation even
where there is no sight or smell of food. Classical conditioning regard this form of learning to
be the same whether in dogs or in humans. In the school, the learner is sometimes
conditioned to associate particular object with the teachers. So when they encounter the
object, they are also reminded of the teacher. Such is an example of classical conditioning.
It is important to note that classical conditioning involves placing a neutral signal
before a naturally occurring reflex. In Pavlov’s classic experiment with dogs, the neutral
signal was the sound of a tone and the naturally occurring reflex was salivating in response to

Page 11 of 88
food. By associating the neutral stimulus with the environmental stimulus (the presentation of
food), the sound of the tone alone could produce the salivation response.

Basic principles of the classical conditioning process:

1. The Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
2. The Unconditioned Response (UR)
3. The Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
4. The Conditioned Response (CR)

Activity 2 Wk 4

1. Differentiate the basic principles of the classical conditioning process. Cite your
reference (bibliography of books used or websites where related articles are
downloaded from and date of retrieval) for your answers.

In Ivan Pavlov’s experiment using the dog and the bell to make the dog salivate, he also had
the following findings:

1. Stimulus Generalization. Once the dog has learned to salivate at the sound of the bell,
it will salivate at other similar sounds.
2. Extinction. If you stop pairing the bell with the food, salivation will eventually stop in
response to the bell.
3. Spontaneous Recovery. Spontaneous recovery is the re-emergence of a response that
had been previously conditioned.
4. Discrimination. The dog could learn to discriminate between similar bells and discern
which bell would result in the presentation of food and which would not.
5. Higher-Order Conditioning. Once the dog has been conditioned to associate the bell
with food, another unconditioned stimulus, such as a light may be flashed at the same
time that the bell rings. Eventually the dog will salivate at the flash of the light
without the sound of the bell.

Operant conditioning of Burrhus F. Skinner

Operant conditioning- is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments
for behavior. Through operant conditioning, an association is made between a behavior and a
consequence for that behavior.

Skinner used the term operant to refer to any “active behavior that operates upon the
environment to generate consequences” (1953). In other words, Skinner’s theory explained
how we acquire the range of learned behaviors we exhibit each and everyday.

Components of operant conditioning

Reinforcement- is any event that strengthens or increases the behavior it follows.

Two (2) kinds of reinforcers:

1. Positive reinforcer
2. Negative reinforcer

Page 12 of 88
Punishment- is a consequence intended to result in reduced responses.
Two (2) kinds of punishment:
1. Positive punishment
2. Negative punishment

Shaping- is also known as successive approximations. It is a method that assist you in setting
goals for the behavior of a certain student. Shaping will provide guidance and direction for
your behavior change program, and will help you assess its effectiveness. It can assist you in
changing a deviant behavior or creating an appropriate behavior that is not yet in the
student’s repertoire. Shaping is used in the classroom when the teacher wants the student to
engage in a certain desirable behavior that is, at present, infrequently or never displayed by
him.

Thorndike’s Connectionism

Edward Lee Thorndike (1898) formulated the theory of connectionism also called
stimulus-response theory. The learning theory of Thorndike represents the original S-R
framework of behaviorist psychology. Learning is the result of associations forming between
stimuli and responses. Such associations or “habits” become strengthened or weakened by the
nature and frequency of the S-R pairings.

The S-R theory was trial and error learning in which certain responses come to
dominate others due to rewards. The hallmark of Connectionism (like all behaviorist theories)
was that learning could be adequately explained without referring to any unobservable
internal states.

Laws of learning in which Thorndike expressed the principles of connectionism:

1. Law of effect
2. Law of readiness
3. Law of exercise

Principles:
1. Learning requires both practice and rewards (laws of effect/exercise).
2. A series of S-R connections can be chained together if they belong to the same action
sequence (law of readiness).
3. Transfer of learning occurs because of previously encountered situations.
4. Intelligence is a function of the number of connections learned.

Social Learning Theory of Albert Bandura

According to Albert Bandura (1977), people learn through observing other’s behavior,
attitude and the outcomes of these behaviors. He believes that most human behavior is
learned observationally through modelling; from observing others, one forces an idea of how
ne behavior are performed, and on later accounts this coded information serves as a guide for
action. Social learning theory explains human behavior in terms of continuous reciprocal
interaction between cognitive, behavioral, and environmental influences.

Three (3) core concepts at the heart of social learning theory:

1. People can learn through observation.

Page 13 of 88
 Three (3) basic models of observational learning identified by Bandura:
i. A live model, which involves an actual individual demonstrating or
acting out a behavior.
ii. A verbal instructional model, which involves descriptions and
explanations of a behavior.
iii. A symbolic model, which involves real or fictional characters
displaying behaviors in books, movies, television programs, or
online media.
2. Mental states are important to learning.
3. Learning does not necessarily lead to a change in behavior
Steps in the observational learning and modelling process:

1. Attention
2. Retention
3. Motoric reproduction
4. Motivation

Activity 3 Wk 4
1. Differentiate the following:
a. 2 kinds of reinforcers,
b. 2 kinds of punishment ,
c. laws of learning in which Thorndike expressed the principles of
connectionism, and
d. steps in the observational learning and modelling process
Cite your reference (bibliography of books used or websites where related articles are
downloaded from and date of retrieval) for your answers.

Week 5

Continuation of Chapter 3

COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE

Gestalt Theory

-“The whole is greater than the sum of all its parts.” The focal point of this theory is
on perception and how people assign meanings to visual stimuli.

Page 14 of 88
 Wolfgang Kohler, Kurt Koffka, and Max Wertheimer were the principal proponents
of Gestalt Theory which emphasized higher-order cognitive processes in the midst of
behaviorism. The focus of Gestalt theory was the idea of “grouping”, which means
characteristics of stimuli cause us to structure or interpret a visual field or problem in a
certain way (Wertheimer, 1922).
 Law of Proximity- Things that are close to one another are perceived to be more
related than things that are spaced farther apart. (See Fig. 3.4 A)
 Law of Similarity- Things that are similar are perceived to be more related than things
that are dissimilar. (See Fig. 3.4 B)
 Law of Closure- When looking at a complex arrangement of individual elements, we
tend to look for a single, recognizable pattern. (See Fig. 3.4 C)
 Law of Continuity- Elements arranged on a line or curve are perceived to be more
related that elements not on the line or curve. (See Fig. 3.4 D)
 Law of Pragnanz- People will perceive and interpret ambiguous or complex images as
the simplest form possible. (See Fig. 3.4 E)

Fig. 3.4 Gestalt Laws

Principles

1. The learner should be encouraged to discover the underlying nature of a topic or

problem (i.e., the relationship among the elements).
2. Gaps, incongruities, or disturbances are an important stimulus for learning.
3. Instruction should be based upon the laws of organization: proximity, closure,
similarity and simplicity.

Gagné’s Conditions of Learning

Page 15 of 88
 “Learning is something that takes place inside a person’s head-in the brain.” –Robert
Gagné.

Important terms in this lesson:

Activities- anything that students are expected to do in order to learn, practice, apply,
evaluate, or in any other way respond to curricular content (Brophy and Alleman, 1991).

Instructional theory- is defined as identifying methods that will best provide the conditions
under which these activities can be carried out and the learning goals can be attained
(Reigeluth, 1983).

Gagné incorporated three major components:

1. taxonomy of learning outcomes
2. conditions of learning
3. nine events of instruction

Robert Gagné’s theory support the following ideas:

1. Learning causes an observable change in the learner.
2. Skills should be learned one at a time.
3. Each new skill learned should build on previously acquired skills.
4. Learning and knowledge are both hierarchical in nature.

Taxonomy of Learning

Robert Gagné’s taxonomy of learning categorizes learning into five major types of
learning capabilities: intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, verbal information, attitude, and
motor skills.

Fig. 3.5 Taxonomy of Objectives

Intellectual Skills Problem solving, discriminations, concepts, principles
Cognitive Strategy Meta-cognition- strategies for problem solving and thinking
Verbal Information Facts of knowledge
Attitude Actions that a person chooses to complete
Motor Skills Behavioral physical skills

Gagné & Driscoll (1988) developed the following conditions of learning with standard verbs
to correspond to the learning outcomes:
1. Verbal information: state, recite, tell, declare
2. Intellectual skills
A. Discrimination: discriminate, distinguish, differentiate
B. Concrete concept: identify, name, specify, label
C. Defined concept: classify, categorize, type, sort (by definition)
D. Rule: demonstrate, show, solve (using one rule)
E. Higher order rule: generate, develop, solve (using two or more rules)
3. Cognitive strategy: adopt, create, originate
4. Motor skill: execute, perform, carry out
5. Attitude: choose, prefer, elect, favor

Nine Events of Instruction

1. Gaining attention

Page 16 of 88
 2. Tell the learners the learning objective
3. Stimulating recall of prior learning
4. Presenting the stimulus. Display the content.
5. Providing learning guidance
6. Eliciting performance
7. Providing feedback
8. Assessing performance
9. Enhancing retention and transfer to other contexts

Benjamin S. Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy

Fig. 3.7 Comparison of the Old and Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy of Objectives

Table 3.1 The New Version of Bloom’s Taxonomy with Examples

Page 17 of 88
Page 18 of 88
Guthrie’s Contiguity Theory
Contiguity theory or law of contiguity and one trial learning are ideas introduced in
1920s by American philosopher, mathematician and psychologist Edwin Ray Guthrie in
collaboration with Stevenson Smith. Law of contiguity states that a close temporal
relationship between a stimulus and a response is the only necessary condition for an
association between the two to be established.
Guthrie attempted to explain learning through association of stimuli with responses.
Learning, in terms of behavior, is a function of the environment. According to Guthrie,
learning is associating a particular stimulus with a particular response. This association,
however, will only occur if stimuli and responses occur soon enough one after another (the
contiguity law). The association is established on the first experienced instance of the
stimulus (one trial learning). Repetitions or reinforcements in terms of reward or punishment
do not influence the strength of this connection. Still, every stimulus is a bit different, which
results in many trials in order to form a general response. This was, according to Guthrie, the
only type of learning identifying him not as reinforcement theorist, but contiguity theorist.
More complex behaviors are composed of a series of movements (habits), where each
movement is a small stimulus-response combination. These movements are actually what are
being learned in each one trial learning rather than behaviors. Learning a number of moves
forms an act (incremental learning). Unsuccessful acts remain not learned because they are
replaced by later successfully learned acts. Other researchers like John Watson studied whole
acts just because it was easier, but movements are, according to Guthrie what should actually
be studied.
Forgetting occurs not due to time passage, but due to interference. As time passes,
stimulus can become associated with new responses. Three different methods can help in
forgetting an undesirable old habit and help replacing it.
Fatigue method- using numerous repetitions, an animal becomes so fatigued that it is unable
to reproduce the old response, and introduces a new response (or simply does not react).
Threshold method- first, a very mild version of the stimulus below the threshold level is
introduced. Its intensity is then slowly increased until the full stimulus can be tolerated
without causing the undesirable response.
Incompatible stimuli method- the response is “unlearned” by placing the animal in a situation
where it cannot exhibit the undesirable response.

Page 19 of 88
 In Guthrie’s own words, “we learn only what we ourselves do.” Learning must be
active, but as such must involve both teacher’s and students’ activity in order to relate
stimulus with a response within a time limit. Guthrie also applied his ideas to treatment of
personality disorders.
Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
Sternberg (1988, 1997) focuses on three main components of intelligence:
1. Practical intelligence- relates to how you react to your environment and your ability to
adapt to it or change it to suit to your needs. Practical intelligence is the ability to
thrive in the real world. You might compare practical intelligence to common sense or
street smarts. It involves the ability to understand how to deal with everyday tasks.
(street smart)
2. Creative or Experiential intelligence- relates to the way a person approaches new
information or a new task. You may also hear creative intelligence referred to as
experiential intelligence. It involves a person’s ability to apply their existing
knowledge to new problems.
Two (2) categories of creative intelligence:
a. Novelty- concerns how a person reacts the first time he encounters
something new.
b. Automatization- concerns how a person learns to perform repeated tasks
automatically.
3. Analytical or Componential intelligence- relates how a person processes and analyzes
information. It is similar to traditional definitions of intelligence quotient (IQ) and
academic achievement. (book smart)

Fig. 3.8 Sternberg Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Kohler’s Insight Learning Theory

Wolfgang Kohler was the proponent of insight learning theory with his famous
experiment with chimpanzees in 1917. Insight learning occurs when a new behavior is
learned through cognitive processes rather than through interactions with the outside world.

Page 20 of 88
In humans, insight learning occurs whenever the solution to a problem suddenly appears,
even if previously no progress was being made.
Insight should not be confused with heuristics. An insight is realizing a new behavior
to solve a problem, while a heuristic is a mental shortcut to help process a large amount of
information.
Gaining insight is a gradual process of exploring, analyzing and restructuring
perceptions until a solution is arrived at.
Insight learning happens regularly in our everyday lives and all around us. The
inventions and innovations are oftentimes the result of insight learning. We have all
experienced the sensation of insight learning which is sometimes called a “eureka” or “aha”
moment.

The Process of Insight Learning

1. Surveying relevant conditions of the presented stimulus and seeking their relationship.
2. Determining the instrumental value of a tool either object or information, as a means
of solving a problem or achieving a goal.
3. “Eureka” experience (Aha!)

Bruner’s Constructivism & Discovery Learning

The theoretical framework of Bruner is based on the theme that learners construct
new ideas or concepts based upon existing knowledge. Bruner (1966) stated that learning is
an active process and the features of the process include selection and transformation of
information, decision making, generating hypotheses, and making meaning from information
and experiences.
His theory emphasized the significance of categorization in learning. “To perceive is
to categorize, to conceptualize is to categorize, to learn is to form categories, to make
decisions is to categorize.” The concept of discovery learning implies that students construct
their own knowledge for themselves (also known as a constructivist approach).
He introduced the ideas of readiness for learning. Bruner (1960) argued that schools
waste time trying to match the complexity of subject material to a child’s cognitive stage of
development. This means students are held back by teachers as certain topics are deemed too
difficult to understand and must be taught when the teacher believes the child has reached the
appropriate state of cognitive maturity.
Bruner also introduced spiral curriculum. Spiral curriculum refers to the idea of
revisiting basic ideas over and over, building upon them and elaborating to the level of full
understanding and mastery. Bruner explained how this was possible through the concept of
the spiral curriculum. Therefore, subjects would be taught at levels of gradually increasing
difficulty (hence the spiral analogy). Ideally, teaching this way should lead to children being
able to solve problems by themselves.
Bruner believed that intuitive and analytical thinking should both be encouraged and
rewarded. He believed the intuitive skills were under-emphasized and he reflected on the
ability of experts in every field to make intuitive leaps.

Four Features of Bruner’s Theory of Instruction

1. Predisposition to learn. This feature specifically states the experiences which move
the learner toward a love of learning in general, or of learning something in particular.
2. Structure of knowledge. It is possible to structure knowledge in a way that enables
the learner to most readily grasp the information.
3. Modes of representation: visual, words, symbols.

Page 21 of 88
 4. Effective sequencing. No one sequencing will fit every learner, but in general, it
should be in increasing difficulty.

Three Modes of Representation

Modes of representation are the way in which information or knowledge are stored and
encoded in memory.
1. Enactive (action-based)- is from birth to first year when a person learns about the
world through actions on physical objects and the outcomes of these actions.
2. Iconic (image-based)- occurs during one to six years of age where learning can be
obtained through using models and pictures.
3. Symbolic (language-based)- in which the learner develops the capacity to think in
abstract terms.

Fig. 3.10 The three modes of representation

Implications of Bruner’s Theory in the Classroom

For Bruner (1961), the purpose of education is not to impart knowledge, but instead to
facilitate a child’s thinking and problem solving skills which can then be transferred to a
range of situations. Specifically, education should also develop symbolic thinking in children.
He adopts a different view and believes a child (of any stage) is capable of
understanding complex information: “We begin with the hypothesis that any subject can be
taught effectively in some intellectually honest form to any child at any stage of
development”.
The role of the teacher should not be to teach information by rote learning, but instead
to facilitate the learning process. This means that a good teacher will design lessons that help
student discover the relationship between bits of information. To do this a teacher must give
students the information they need, but without organizing for them. The use of the spiral
curriculum can aid the process of discovery learning.

Page 22 of 88
Fig. 3.11 The comparison between cognitive and behaviorist theories

Activity 1 Week 5
Which among the learning theories has impact in your own learning experience? Explain
briefly. (10 pts.)
________________________________________________________________

Weeks 6-7

Chapter 4 COGNITIVE AND METACOGNITIVE FACTORS IN LEARNING

Learning Objectives
 State the cognitive processes that result to learning
 Differentiate the expert learners from novice learners
 Value and appreciate the significance of metacognition
 Discuss how metacognitive approaches and strategies may be used in the classroom

Cognitive and Metacognitive Processes in Learning

Cognitive Processes in Learning

Page 23 of 88
Cognitive- is the process of acquiring and understanding knowledge through our thoughts,
experiences, and senses.

Information Processing Theory (George Miller, 1967)

- Is an approach to the cognitive development of human being, which

deals with the study and the analysis of the sequence of events that
occur in a person’s mind while receiving some new piece of
information.

Information processing involves:

1. Encoding- information is sensed, perceived and attended to.
2. Storage- information is stored for either brief or extended period of time.
3. Retrieval- information is recalled whenever needed.

Information Processing Model

There is a fixed structure that the information processing theory follows, and it is
divided into the following four parts.
1. The store model- This is a breakdown of the model which states that the information
that has been received can be stored in any of the processing units, or the channels
through which it passes. These channels are the sensory register, short-term memory
and long term memory.
2. The sensory register- This is that part of the mental processing unit that receives all
information and then stores it temporarily or permanently.
3. Short-term memory- That part of the sensory register where the information is stored
temporarily. Once the decision has been made regarding the information, the
information will either be discarded or transferred to the long-term memory.
4. Long-term memory- The part where all the information is permanently stored. It can
be retrieved later as and when the need arises.

Miller has provided two theoretical ideas that are fundamental to cognitive
psychology and the information processing framework. The first concept is chunking and the

Page 24 of 88
capacity of short-term memory. He presented the idea that short-term memory could only
hold5-9 chunks of information (seven plus or minus two) where a chunk is any meaningful
unit. A chunk could refer to digits, words, chess positions, or people’s faces. The concept of
chunking and the limited capacity of short term memory became a basic element of all
subsequent theories of memory.

The second concept is TOTE (Test-Operate-Test-Exit) which was proposed by Miller,

Galanter & Pribram. They suggested that TOTE should replace the stimulus-response as the
basic unit of behavior. In a TOTE unit, a goal is tested to see if it has been achieved and if not
an operation is performed to achieve the goal; this cycle of test-operate is repeated until the
goal is eventually achieved or abandoned. The TOTE concept provided the basis of many
subsequent theories of problem solving (example, GPS) and production systems.
The classic example of a TOTE is a plan for hammering a nail. The Exit Test is
whether the nail is flush with the surface. If the nail sticks up, then the hammer is tested to
see if it is up (otherwise it is raised) and the hammer is allowed to hit the nail.

Principles
1. Short-term memory (or attention spam) is limited to seven chunks of information.
2. Planning (in the form of TOTE units) is a fundamental cognitive process.

Page 25 of 88
 3. Behavior is hierarchically organized (e. g., chunks, TOTE units).

Metacognitive Processes in Learning

Metacognitive processes enhance learning by guiding students’ thinking and by

helping the learner follow a wise course of action. Improved metacognition can facilitate both
formal and informal learning.
According to Malamed (2012), metacognition is a regulatory system that helps a
person understand and control his/her own cognitive performance.
For easy understanding and remembering, many theorists categorize the
metacognitive processes into two:
1. Knowledge of cognition has three components:
 Knowledge of the factors that influence one’s own performance;
 Knowing different types of strategies to use for learning; and
 Knowing what strategy to use for a specific learning situation.
2. Regulation of cognition involves:
 Setting goals and planning;
 Monitoring and controlling learning;
 Evaluating one’s own regulation (assessing results and strategies used).

Novice and Expert Learners

Table 4.1 The difference between novice and expert learners

Page 26 of 88
Prior Knowledge
- Refers to the combination of the learners’ pre-existing attitudes,
experiences and knowledge. Most of the time, prior knowledge is the
foundation for new learning (Pusateri, 2013).

Roles of Prior Knowledge in Learning

1. Prior knowledge affects how the learners perceive new information.

2. Prior knowledge affects how easily students make connections for new information.
3. Prior knowledge affects instruction if it is deliberately used in the presentation of new
information.
4. Prior knowledge comes in diverse forms.

Conceptual Change in Learning

Conceptual change- is a process of transition from ordinary ways of perceiving, directing

attention; conceptualizing, reasoning and justifying slowly learners transform prior
knowledge to accommodate new scientific ideas (Posner, Strike, Henson & Gentzog, 1982).

Learning as a Conceptual Change in Education

From the conceptual change learning point of view, the learners need to be able to
make different representations of entities to make difficult concepts intelligible (Treagust, D.
Durt R. 2008). Training always involves different representational techniques such as voice,
writings, gestures, etc. to communicate ideas to students. Representations are ways to
communicate ideas.

Conceptual Change in Education

Teaching from conceptual change primarily involves:

1. Uncovering students preconceptions about on particular topic on phenomenon
2. Using various techniques to help students change their conceptual framework

Types of Knowledge

1. Situational knowledge- is knowledge about situations as they typically appears in a

particular domain. Example of situational knowledge could be knowing that a rough
surface means a frictional force, which acts against motion or knowing that these are
other forces working on the blocks than a normal force from the plane.
2. Conceptual knowledge- is static knowledge about facts, concepts, and principles that
apply within a certain domain.
3. Procedural knowledge- contains actions or manipulations that are valid within a
domain.
4. Strategic knowledge- helps students organize their problem-solving process by
directing which stages they should go through to reach a solution.

Qualities of Knowledge

Page 27 of 88
Level of knowledge:

1. Deep-level knowledge- is associated with comprehension and abstraction, with

critical judgment and evaluation.
2. Surface-level knowledge- is associated with reproduction and role learning trial and
error, and a lack of critical judgment.

Transfer of Learning

Transfer of learning- is the dependency of human conduct, learning or performance on prior

experience. The notion was originally introduced as “transfer of practice” by Edward Lee
Thorndike & Robert S. Woodworth.
- Solomon and Perkins (1992) also defined transfer of learning as the
ability to take what one has learned in one context and use it in a new
instance.

Types of Transfer of Learning

1. Near Transfer. It refers to transfer between very similar contexts. This is also referred
to as specific transfer. Example for this is answering questions in math exams which
are similarly structured from questions one answered in their assignment; the transfer
is very specific or near.
2. Far Transfer. This refers to the transfer between contexts that on appearance seem
remote and alien to one another. In far transfer, tasks may look completely different,
but are actually “conceptually” similar. This is also known as general transfer.

Table 4.2 The Conditions and Principles of Transfer with their Implications to Education

Page 28 of 88
 3. Positive Transfer. Positive transfer occurs when learning in one context, improves
performance in some other contexts. For instance, speaker of Spanish would find it
easier to learn Mexican language than Japanese.
4. Negative Transfer. Negative transfer occurs when learning in one context impacts
negatively on performance in another. For example, learners commonly assimilate a
new language’s phonation to crude approximation in their native tongue and use word
orders carried over from their native tongue.

Learning Strategies

Learning strategies are ways of learning. Good learners use these strategies to make their
learning more efficient. According to Weinstein, et. al. (1996) there are two types of learning
strategies namely: strategies for planning how to learn and strategies for learning.

Strategies for Planning How to Learn

Page 29 of 88
 1. Advance Organization- Doing a preview of what you are going to learn.
2. Directing Attention- This means paying attention to studying something and not doing
other things.
3. Selective Attention. This means studying things that you can remember more easily.
4. Self-management- This is understanding the conditions that help you learn and
organize them.
5. Advance Preparation- This is planning and preparing all the things that you need for
learning.
6. Self-monitoring- Correcting yourself if you make a mistake.
7. Delayed Production- When you first start to learn something new, know first the basic
before putting it into action.
8. Self-evaluation- is self-assessment or testing.
9. Self-reinforcement- This means giving yourself a reward when you have successfully
learned something.
10. Working alone or with other people- Find out reason for working alone or with other
people.

Strategies for Learning

1. Grouping- Putting things in groups and in order will help you build a framework for
learning.
2. Imagery- This means making pictures in your mind to help you remember things.

Page 30 of 88
Page 31 of 88
Page 32 of 88
Page 33 of 88
Page 34 of 88
Page 35 of 88
________________________________________________________________

Activity 1 Weeks 6-7

1. Are you an expert learner or a novice learner? Explain your answer (5 pts.).
2. What are the challenges that you met which affect your transfer of learning (10 pts.)?
________________________________________________________________

Chapter 5

MOTIVATIONAL AFFECTIVE FACTORS IN LEARNING

Learning Objectives:

1. Define and discuss what motivation is

2. Discuss the four major processes on how self-efficacy beliefs produce diverse effects
3. Explain how the goal setting theory of information affects the performance of students

Motivational and Affective Factors in Learning

Motivation- Psychologists define motivation as an internal state that arouses, directs, and
maintains behavior over time.
Motivation is derived from the Latin word “motivus” which means “to move”.
Movement is an idea about motivation as something that gets people going, keeps them
working and help to complete the task.

Types of Motivation

1. Intrinsic Motivation- is the self-desire to seek out new things and new challenges, to
analyze one’s capacity, to observe and to gain knowledge. According to Whyte, Ryan,

Page 36 of 88
 & Deci (2000) intrinsic motivation reflects the desire to do something because it is
inherently interesting or enjoyable. The urge or desire to do something comes from
within because it either brings them pleasure and thinks it is important or feel that
what they are learning is significat.
Advantage: Intrinsic motivation can be long-lasting and self-sustaining. It leads to
promote student learning focused on the subject matter.
Disadvantage: Efforts of fostering intrinsic motivation can be slow to affect behavior
and can require special and lengthy preparation.

2. Extrinsic motivation- comes from the influences outside of the individual in the form
of reward or punishment. People who are extrinsically motivated will do certain
activity and may not enjoy doing the activity. They just do it in exchange of rewards.
Advantage: The use of extrinsic constraints such as the threats of punishment against
performing an activity has been found to increase one’s intrinsic interest in that
activity.
Disadvantage: Extrinsic rewards can lead to overjustification and a subsequent
reduction in intrinsic motivation. There are times that the provision of extrinsic
rewards might reduce the desirability of an activity.

Strategies that Support Motivation in the Classroom

1. Messages of accountability and high expectations. Example: The teacher asks

students to have parents review and sign some assignments.
2. Teacher communicates importance of work. Example: “We need to check it for at
least 1 minute, which means looking over it carefully.”
3. Clear goals/directions. Example: The teacher explains exactly how the students are to
separate into groups and complete their nominations for their favorite book.
4. Connections across the curriculum. Example: The teacher relates the concept of ratios
in math to compare/contrast skills in reading.
5. Opportunities to learn about and practice dramatic arts. Example: after studying about
historical figures, students write and produce their own plays.
6. Attribution to efforts. Example: During a word game, the teacher says to a student,
“Did you study last night?” The student nods. “See how it helps?’
7. Encouraging risk=taking. Example: “I need a smiling face. Someone I haven’t called
on yet. I need a risk-taker.”
8. Use games and play to reinforce concept or review material. Example: During a math
lesson using balance, students spend 5 minutes weighing the favorite toy they were
asked to bring in that day.
9. Home-school connections. Example: As part of math science unit, a recycling activity
asks families to keep a chart of everything they recycle in a week.
10. Multiple representations of a task. Example: The teacher uses 4 ways to teach
multiplication: “magic multipliers’” sing-along multiplication facts, whole-class flash
card review, “Around-the-World” game.
11. Positive classroom management, praise, private reprimands. Example: “Thumbs up
when you are ready to work. Row 3 has thumbs up. I like the way row 3 is waiting
patiently.
12. Stimulating creative thought. Example: “We are going to use our imaginations today.
We are going to take a trip to an imaginary theatre in our heads.”
13. Opportunities for choice. Example: Students can choose to use prompts for their
journal writing or pick their own topic.

Page 37 of 88
 14. Teacher communicates to students that they can handle challenging tasks. Example:
“This is hard stuff and you are doing great. I know adults who have trouble with this.”
15. Value students-communicate caring. Example: The teacher allows a new student to sit
with a buddy for the day.

Strategies that Weaken Motivation to Learn

1. Attributions to intellect rather than effort. Example: When students remark during a
lesson, “I’m stupid”, the teacher says nothing, then replies, “Let’s have someone who
is smart.”
2. Teacher emphasizes competition rather than working together. Example: The teacher
conducts a poetry contest where students read poems to the class and the class
members hold up cards with scores rating how well each student performed.
3. No scaffolding for learning a new skill. Example: The teacher is loud and critical
when students have trouble: “Just look back in the glossary and don’t miss it because
you are lazy to look it up.”
4. Ineffective/negative feedback. Example: “Does everyone understand?” A few
students say yes and the teacher moves on.
5. Lack of connections. Example: A day before Bonifacio Day, the teacher leads a brief
discussion about Andres Bonifacio, then, the remainder of the activities are about
Juan Luna.
6. Easy tasks. Example: The teacher provides easy work and “fun” activities that teach
little.
7. Negative class atmosphere. Example: “Excuse me, I said page number. If you follow
and listen, you would know”.
8. Punitive classroom management. Example: The teacher threatens bad grades if
students do not look up words in the glossary.
9. Work that is much too difficult. Example: The teacher assigns independent math work
that only one or two students can do.
10. Slow pacing. Example: The pace is set for the slowest students-others finish and have
nothing to do.
11. Emphasis on finishing, not learning. Example: The teacher communicates the purpose
is to finish, not learn or use the vocabulary.
12. Sparse, unattractive classroom. Example: There are no decorated bulletin boards,
maps, charts, or displays of student work.
13. Poor planning. Example: Missing handouts force the teacher to have large instead of
smaller work groups.
14. Public punishment. Example: All students stand, and the teacher reads a list of those
who finished the assignments and they sit down. The teacher gives public lecture on
responsibility to those left standing.

Theories on Factors Affecting Motivation

Bandura’s Self-Efficacy Theory

Self-efficacy- refers to an individual’s belief in his/her capacity to execute behavior necessary

to produce specific performance or attainments (Bandura, 1977, 1986, 1997). The higher
sense of self-efficacy, the greater intrinsically motivated the learners are.

Factors Affecting Self Efficacy

Page 38 of 88
 1. Experience or “Enactive Attainment”. The experience of mastery is the most
important factors determining a person’s self-efficacy. Success raises self-efficacy,
while failure lowers it.
2. Modeling or “Vicarious Experience”. Modeling is expressed as, “if they can do it, I
can do it as well.”
3. Social Persuasion. Social persuasion generally exhibited as direct encouragement or
discouragement from another person.
4. Physiological Factors. Perceptions of distress, shakes, aches, pains, fatigue, fear, etc.
in oneself can markedly alter self-efficacy.

Attribution Theory

-states that in their own effort to make sense of their own behavior or performance,
individuals are motivated to discover its underlying causes. Attributions are perceived causes
of outcomes.

Bernard Weiner (1992) identified three dimensions of causal attributions:

1. Locus, whether the cause is internal or external to the actor;

2. Stability, the extent to which the cause remains the same or changes;
3. Controllability, the extent to which the individual can control the cause

The best strategies for teachers to use in helping students who are not doing good in
class, as recommended by educational psychologists, is by providing students with a planned
series of achievement experiences with modeling, information about strategies, practice, and
feedback. The teachers need to help students to concentrate on the task at hand rather than
worrying about failing, discover their mistakes or by analyzing the problem to discover
another approach, and attribute their failure to a lack of effort than lack of ability (Brophy,
1998).
The Expectancy Theory of Motivation

-This theory is a model of behavioral choice which explains why individuals choose one
behavioral option over others. It does not attempt to explain what motivates individuals, but
rather how they make decisions to achieve the end they value (porter, 1968 & Vroom, 1964)

Expectancy Theory is comprised of these components:

1. Expectancy is the perceived likelihood that effort will lead to performance. The
variables affecting the Individual’s Expectancy perception are self-efficacy, goal
difficulty, and control.
Examples:
 If I spend more of time reviewing on Facilitating Learning, will it improve
my grade on the final exam?
 If I design my portfolio more than anybody else in the class, will I be more
productive?
2. Instrumentality is the perceived likelihood that performance will lead to desired
rewards. Variables affecting the individual’s instrumentality for outcomes are trust,
control, policies.
Example:

Page 39 of 88
  If I get a high score on tomorrow’s final exam in Facilitating Learning, will I
get a grade higher than 2.0?
3. Valance is the value of expected rewards to the individual. Variables affecting the
individual’s valance for outcomes are values, needs, goals, preferences, and sources
of motivation.
Examples:
 How much do I really want the grade of 1.0 in English?
 How important is it to me to be the most valuable player of the year?

Goal Orientation Theory of Learning

Goal theory- proposes that all human actions and behaviors are motivated by a goal. Goals of
learning are thought to be a key factor influencing the level of a student’s intrinsic
motivation. It proposes that all human beings are more motivated to act when there is a
reward at the end of the performance of a task or behavior. However, the reward should be
clearly stated. The end state can be the reward in itself.
Goal setting theory is all about studying what motivates a person to accomplish
anything whether great or small.
In goal theory, there are three main hypotheses that are seen to determine individual
motivation. These are:
 Nature of the goal
 Self-assessed ability
 Goal achieving behavior
Some individuals have a view of their result that focuses on improving performance
in relation to past achievement. These people do not compare themselves or their
performance to others.
Other individuals view the results they attain in relation to the results that others
attain.

Bandura’s Self-regulation Theory

Self-regulation (SRT)- is the process of activating and sustaining thoughts, behaviors, and
emotions in order to reach goals. Bandura (1991) summarizes self-regulation as setting goals
and mobilizing the efforts and resources needed to reach those goals. When the goals involve
learning, we talk about self-regulated learning. Self-regulated learners are “metacognitive,
motivated to learn, and strategic.”

What Influences Self-Regulation?

1. To be self-regulated learners, students need knowledge about themselves, the subject,

the task, strategies for learning, and the contexts in which they will apply their
learning. “Expert” students know about themselves and how they learn best.
2. Self-regulated learners are motivated to learn. They find many tasks in school
interesting because they value learning, not just performing well in the eyes of others.
They believe their own intelligence and abilities are improvable.
3. Volition is an old-fashioned word for will-power. The more technical definition is
protecting opportunities to reach goals. Self-regulated learners know how to process
themselves from distractions-where to study, so they will not be interrupted. Volition
is deliberate and effortful, but with practice it can become more automatic- a habit or
a “work ethics” (Corno, 2011).

Page 40 of 88
Teaching Students to be More Self-regulating

Self-regulating learners engage in four types of activities:

1. Analyzing the task
2. Setting goals and designing plans
3. Engaging in learning
4. Adjusting their approach to learning

Self-regulated learners are successful because they control their learning environment.
They exert this control by directing and regulating their own actions toward their learning
goals. Self-regulated learning should be used in three different phases of learning. 1st phase is
during the initial learning; 2nd phase is when troubleshooting a problem encountered during
learning; and the 3rd phase is when they are trying to teach each other (Palincas & Brown,
1984).

Teaching Ideas to Motivate Students

Expectations. Teachers should set reasonable objectives for every lesson that allow their
students to progress in the classroom. Expect students to achieve the objectives and they will.
Uplifting. Keep the atmosphere in the classroom positive and uplifting.
Praise. Positive reinforcement is a tried and true method of teaching students new material.
Variation. Because everyone learns differently, you will need to vary the means by which
students earn rewards.
Success. Motivate students by showing them that they can be successful in the classroom.
Relevance. Show students how and what they are learning matters in life.
Engaging Questions. Lead in with questions that will get the students talking.
Problem Solving. Teaching students how to overcome challenges is another important factor
in keeping them motivated.
Teamwork. This is one of the most important factors in motivating students. When they work
together to succeed at a common goal, it will help them to bond and work well together in the
future.
Incorporate Different Learning Styles. Use a variety of teaching strategies in the classroom to
facilitate the lesson.
Rewards and Privileges. Rewards and privileges are great motivational tools for hard work.
Examples of privileges or rewards:
 Lunch with the teacher allows students to come back to the classroom and eat
lunch with the teacher.
 A token-based economy is a great reward system that lets students earn points
or “tokens” that can be cashed in for prizes, such as pencils or notepads.

Ways How Teachers Reward Performance, Effort, and Improvement

Using Praise Effectively

Contingent praise- depends on student performance of well-defined behaviors. This is
given for the right answers and appropriate behaviors.
Specificity- means that the teacher praises students for specific behaviors, not for
general goodness.
Teaching Students to Praise Themselves

Page 41 of 88
 -It has been found out that students who learn to praise themselves increases academic
success.
Using Grades as Incentives
-The grading system that most schools use serves three different functions at the same
time: evaluation, feedback, and incentive.
________________________________________________________________

Activity 1 Weeks 8-9

1. If you were a teacher, how would you motivate your students? Why?
________________________________________________________________

Week 10

Republic of the Philippines

APAYAO STATE COLLEGE
COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION

Midterm Examination in Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

Name: _____________________________________ Score: ____________________

Course & Year: ______________________________ Date: _____________________

I. A. Directions: In 3-5 sentences, answer the following questions (5 pts. each):

1. How can learners develop facilitative learning among themselves?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________.

2. How can teachers facilitate student’s learning?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

Page 42 of 88
 ___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________.

3. How can the theories on learners’ development help explain the different aspects of the
learners’ development?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________.

B. Directions: In 1-2 sentences, explain the following metaphors of learning (3 pts. each).

1. Learning is the sea. A learner is a ship.

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________.
2. Learning is farming and a learner is a farmer.

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________.

3. Learning is a game, and a learner is a player.

Page 43 of 88
 ___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________.

4. Learning is music notes, and a learner is a composer.

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________.

5. Learning is an exploration, a learner is an explorer.

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________.

Prepared by:

REMA BASCOS-OCAMPO
Associate Professor V

Page 44 of 88
 Week 11

Chapter 6

DIMENSIONS OF LEARNING

Learning Objectives:
1. Identify the five dimensions of learning.
2. Discuss how children and adults learn.

Developmental Dimensions of Learning

1. Confidence and Independence. We experience growth and development when

learners’ confidence and independence become congruent with their actual abilities,
and skill, content knowledge, use of experience and reflectiveness about their own
learning.
2. Knowledge and Understanding. This is the most familiar dimension focusing on the
“know-what” aspect of learning. It refers to the “content” knowledge gained in a
particular subject area.
3. Skills and Strategies. Skills and strategies represent the “know-how” aspect of
learning. When we speak of “performance” or “mastery”, it means that learners have
developed skills and strategies to function successfully in certain situations.
4. Use of Prior and Emerging Experience. The use of prior and emerging experience
involves learners’ abilities to draw on their own experience and connect it to their
work.
5. Reflection. Reflection refers to the developing awareness of the learner’s own
learning process, as well as more analytical approaches to the subject being studied.

How Children Learn

The individual’s existing knowledge is called the learner’s cognitive structure.

David Ausubel (2000) was one of the pioneers in developing a theory to help explain
and understand how people learn and build their cognitive structure. Concept mapping was
based in part on his ideas. A fundamental distinction that Ausubel made was the difference
between rote learning and meaningful learning.
In rote learning or simple memorization, the learner makes no effort to integrate new
knowledge with relevant prior knowledge held in cognitive structure. Consequently, rote

Page 45 of 88
learning does little to help build a person’s knowledge structure. In meaningful learning, the
learner seeks ways to connect or integrate new concepts or ideas with related ideas he has in
cognitive structure. Thus, it is not only new knowledge is added to cognitive structure, but
existing ideas are refined, sharpened, and sometime corrected.
Ausubel’s theory is sometimes called a constructivist theory of learning and it is now
widely accepted as the way people learn (Novak & Gowin, 1984; Bransford, Brown, &
Cocking, 1999). This is shown in Fig. 6.1.
Concept maps can help learners and teachers by making explicit relevant concepts the
learner has in any domain of knowledge.

Fig. 6.1 The Key Concepts and Propositions Regarding Learning

How Adults Learn

The field of adult learning was pioneered by Malcolm Knowles as he identified the
following characteristics of adult learners:
 Adults are autonomous and self-directed. The teacher must involve adult learners and
give them freedom to direct themselves. They can assume responsibility for
presentation and group leadership.
 Adults have accumulated a foundation of life experience and knowledge that may
include work-related activities, family responsibilities and previous education.
 Adults are goal-oriented.
 Adults are relevancy-oriented. Learning has to be applicable to their work, to their life
or other responsibilities to be of value to them.
 Adults are practical. Presentation of lesson through theory and concept makes the
lesson boring to an adult, so the teacher should present the lesson through situation
wherein they could learn later that knowing the theory or concept will be useful to
them.
 As to all learners, adults need to be shown respect. Instructors must acknowledge the
wealth of experiences that adult participants bring to the classroom.

Situated Learning Theory

Page 46 of 88
is a matter of creating meaning from the real activities of daily living where learning occurs
in a pro-social but informal setting.
A situated learning experience has four major premises guiding the development of
classroom activities (Anderson, Resler, and Simon, 1996)
 Learning is grounded in the actions of everyday situation or in how learning occurs
everyday;
 Knowledge is acquired situationally and transfer only to similar situations;
 Learning is the result of a social process encompassing ways of thinking, perceiving,
problem solving, and interacting in addition to declarative and procedural knowledge;
and
 Learning is not separated from the world of action but exists in robust, complex,
social environments made up of actors, actions and situations.

________________________________________________________________

Activity 1 Week 11
1. As future teachers, how can you build confidence and positive expectations among
the learner? Explain (15 pts.).
________________________________________________________________

Week 12

Chapter 7
SOCIAL DIMENSIONS OF LEARNING

Learning Objectives:

1. Identify the four pillars of education.

2. Discuss the importance of the four pillars of education.

Social Dimensions of Learning

Four Pillars of Education (as recommended by UNESCO)

1. Learning to Know. Learning to know implies learning how to learn by developing

one’s concentration, memory skills and ability to think.
Every individual has hidden talents such as:
a. Memory
b. Reasoning
c. Imagination
d. Physical ability
e. Aesthetic sense
f. Aptitude to communicate
2. Learning to do. Learning must transform certified skills into personal competence.
Personal competence includes life skills like:
 Social behavior
 Personal initiatives
 Willingness to take risk
 Communication skills

Page 47 of 88
  Adaptability
 Social responsibility
 Leadership skills
3. Learning to live together. Education should help in inculcating a spirit of empathy in
students so that it can have a positive effect on their social behavior throughout their
lives.
Values to be developed amongst students:
 Non-violence
 Cooperation
 Selfless attitude
 Developing values
 Accepting human diversity
 Instill an awareness of the similarities and interdependence of all
people
4. Learning to be. The aim of development is the complete fulfillment of man and his
development in a holistic way as an individual, member of a family and community,
and as a responsible citizen.
According to Alvin Toffler (1980) “The illiterate of the 21 st century will not be
those who cannot read or write, but those who cannot learn, unlearn and relearn”?

Being a Good Communicator

Key aspects of communication:

1. Speaking skills
2. Listening skills
3. Non-verbal communication

Speaking skills

Speaking skills strategies:

 Speaking with the class and students

o Using grammar correctly
o Selecting vocabulary that is understandable and appropriate for the level of
your students
o Speaking at an appropriate pace, neither too rapidly nor too slowly
o Applying strategies to improve students’ ability to understand what you are
saying, such as emphasizing key words, rephrasing, or monitoring students’
comprehension
o Being precise in your communication by avoiding using vague expressions
o Using good planning and logical thinking skills as underpinning of speaking
clearly with your class
 “You” and “I” Messages. “You” messages are undesirable messages in which the
speakers appear to judge people and place them in a defensive position.
 Being assertive. There are four styles involved in how people deal with conflict:
aggressive, manipulative, passive, or assertive.

Page 48 of 88
 o People who use an aggressive style are demanding, abrasive, and act in hostile
ways.
o People who use a manipulative style try to get what they want by making
people guilty or sorry for them.
o People who use a passive style are non-assertive and submissive.
o People with an assertive style express their feelings, ask for what they want,
and say “no” to things they don’t want.

Barriers to Effective Verbal Communication (Gordon, 1970)

 Criticizing. Harsh, negative evaluations of another person generally reduce

communication.
 Name-calling and labelling. These are ways of putting down the other person.
 Advising. It is talking down to others while giving them a solution to a problem.
 Ordering. Commanding another person to do what you want is often not effective
because it creates resistance.
 Threatening. Threats are intended to control the other person by verbal force.
 Moralizing. This means preaching to the other person about what he or she should do.

Listening skills

Good listeners actively listen. Active listening means giving full attention to the
speaker, focusing on both the intellectual and the emotional content of the message.

Strategies for Developing Active Listening Skills (Santrock and halone, 2002)

 Pay careful attention to the person who is talking. Maintain good eye contact and lean
forward slightly when another person is speaking to you.
 Paraphrase. State in your own words what the other person has just said.
 Synthesize themes and patterns. A good active listener puts together a summary of the
main themes and feelings the speaker has expressed over a reasonable long
conversation.
 Give feedback in a competent manner. Verbal and non-verbal feedback give the
speaker an idea of how much progress the speaker is making in getting a point across.

Non-verbal Communication

 Facial expressions and eye communication.

 Touch.
 Space.
 Silence.
________________________________________________________________

Activity Week 12

In an A4 bondpaper size, make a collage of the four pillars of education (30 pts.).
________________________________________________________________

Page 49 of 88
Week 13

Chapter 8
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN LEARNING

Learning Objectives:

1. Compare the different theories of intelligence.

2. Differentiate thinking and learning styles.
3. Identify the diversity among learners in accordance to their thinking and learning
styles.
4. Answer the learning style questionnaire and reflect with their own learning styles.

Page 50 of 88
Page 51 of 88
Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences

Page 52 of 88
Page 53 of 88
Page 54 of 88
Page 55 of 88
Page 56 of 88
Page 57 of 88
Page 58 of 88
Page 59 of 88
Page 60 of 88
Page 61 of 88
Page 62 of 88
Page 63 of 88
___________________________________________________________________________
Activity 1 Week 13
1. Show the different learning styles with the use of graphic organizers (30 pts).
___________________________________________________________________________

Weeks 14 & 15

Chapter 9
FACILITATING LEARNING WITH SPECIAL CHILDREN

Learning Objectives:

1. Describe the learners who are gifted or genius.

2. Classify the learning disabilities of the learners and discuss how to handle them.
3. List down and explain different suggested activities that will help learners who are:
a. gifted or genius?
b. with learning disabilities
c. with physical, hearing, visual and behavioral disabilities?

Page 64 of 88
Page 65 of 88
Page 66 of 88
Page 67 of 88
Page 68 of 88
Page 69 of 88
Page 70 of 88
Page 71 of 88
Page 72 of 88
Page 73 of 88
Page 74 of 88
Page 75 of 88
Page 76 of 88
Page 77 of 88
___________________________________________________________________________

Activity 1 Weeks 14 & 15

1. How does the SPED program differ from a regular classroom in terms of equipment,
class size, staff to child ratio, teaching methods, and other factors? How is it the same
as a regular classroom (30 pts.)?
___________________________________________________________________________

Weeks 16 & 17

Chapter 10
UNDERSTANDING THE LEARNING SITUATION

Learning Objectives:

1. Discuss the qualities of an effective teacher in terms of:

a. professional knowledge and skills; and
b. commitment and motivation
2. Explain the importance of classroom management.
3. Demonstrate the different classroom management by arranging the classroom.
4. Describe how to create a positive classroom environment.

Page 78 of 88
Page 79 of 88
Page 80 of 88
Page 81 of 88
Page 82 of 88
Page 83 of 88
Page 84 of 88
Page 85 of 88
Page 86 of 88
Page 87 of 88
___________________________________________________________________________

Activity 1 Weeks 16 & 17

1. What different characteristics do you have to become successful teacher in the future
(10 pts.)?
2. What classroom rules and regulations will you establish when you become a
classroom teacher (10 pts.)?
3. Why do teachers need to establish classroom rules? routinary activities? (10 pts.)
4. In your opinion or based from your perception, what particular management style
would fit your characteristics right now? (10 pts.)
___________________________________________________________________________

Reference: Facilitating Learning in the 21st Century by Fe P. Fernandez et. al.

Page 88 of 88