Chapter

 4:  Cell  Division  and  Reproduc6on

Does  not  contain  DNA  func/on,  RNA  and  protein  synthesis,  does  not  contain  selec/ve  breeding  and  cloning  (4.3)

4.1  –  Cell  Division  and  Gene2c  Material

− All  new  cells  come  from  exis/ng  cells  so  traits  =  pass  on  gene6c  material  from  parent  cell  to  daughter  cell.
Gene6cs:  How  the  gene/c  info  of  living  organisms  =  passed  from  one  genera/on  to  next

Cell  Theory:
1. All  living  things  are  composed  of  one  or  more  cells
2. Cells  are  the  smallest  units  of  living  organisms
3. New  cells  come  only  from  pre-­‐exis/ng  cells  by  cell  division  

The  Cell  Cycle:

− Cells  reproduce  through  growth  +  division  process  called  the  cell  cycle
− Soma6c  cells  go  through  cell  cycles
Soma6c  cells:  body  cells  of  plants  and  animals  excluding  reproduc/ve  cells
− Cell  cycle  =  con/nuous  produc/on  of  new  cells
− 3  func/ons  of  cell  division:
1. Growth  of  organism
2. Repair  of  damaged  /ssues  and  organs
3. Maintenance  to  replace  dying/dead  cells
− Dura/on  of  cell  cycle  depends  on  type  of  cell
o Healthy  ac/vely  dividing  animal  cells  =  12-­‐24  hrs.

Stages  of  the  Cell  Cycle:

1. Interphase:  Cell  carries  out  normal  func/ons,  grows,  and  duplicates  gene/c  material  in  prepara/on  for  next  
stage  of  cycle.  Longest  stage.
2. Mitosis:  Stage  when  cell’s  nucleus  +  gene/c  material  divide.  NUCLEAR  DIVISON
3. Cytokinesis:  Begins  near  end  of  mitosis,  involves  division  of  cell  cytoplasm  +  crea/on  of  new  cell.

− Cycle  checkpoints  monitor  growth  

o Ensure  that  cycle  con/nues  when  it  should
o If  something  interferes  with  signals  =  uncontrolled  growth
o EX:  Cancer  =  uncontrolled  ,  cancerous  cells  keep  dividing  =  mass  cells  =  tumour

Interphase:
− Cell  grows,  develops  into  mature,  func/oning  cell,  duplicates  DNA,  and  prepares  for  division.
G1        (Growth  1)   − Major  growth  period  of  cell
− Cell  synthesize  new  molecules  in  prepara/on  for  next  phase  in  cell  cycle
S              (Synthesis) − Cellular  DNA  =  copied  /  replicated
− DNA  exists  in  uncondensed  fibres  called  chroma2n
− Cells  that  complete  this  phase  enter  GS
G2        (Growth  2) − Final  phase  of  interphase
− Cell  synthesizes  more  molecules  prior  to  mitosis/cell  division

Mitosis:
− Cell’s  copied  gene/c  material  separates  cell  prepares  to  split  into  2
− Key  idea  of  mitosis  =  separate  cell’s  replicated  DNA  accurately
o Allow  cell’s  gene/c  informa/on  to  be  passed  into  new  cells  intact  =  2  iden/cal  cells
PROPHASE:
− Cell  chroma/n  condense  into  chromosomes  which  contain  DNA
o Each  DNA  contains  2  copies  (because  of  replica/on  in  interphase)
− Nuclear  membrane  breaks  down
− Nucleolus  disappears
− Spindle  fibres  form  at  centrosomes  and  move  to  opposite  sides  of  cell.
METAPHASE:
− Spindle  fibres  guide  chromosomes  to  equator  of  cell.
− Spindle  fibres  reach  opposite  sides  of  cell,  a_ach  to  centromere  of  each  chromosome
ANAPHASE:
− Centromere  splits  apart,  sister  chroma/ds  separate  from  each  other
− Separated  sister  chroma/ds  now  =  chromosomes
− Spindle  fibres  shorten,  pull  the  chromosomes  to  opposite  sides
− @  end  of  anaphase,  one  complete  set  of  chromosomes  =  gathered  @  each  pole  of  cell
TELOPHASE:
− Chromosomes  have  reached  opposite  poles  of  cell
− Chromosomes  start  to  unwind  into  less  visible  chroma/n
− Spindle  fibres  break  down
− Nuclear  membrane  forms  around  new  set  of  chromosomes
− Nucleolus  reforms  within  each  nucleus.

Cytokinesis:
− Division  of  cytoplasm
− Indenta/on  forms  in  cell  membrane  along  equator  of  cell.
o Indenta/on  deepens  un/l  cell  =  pinched  in  2
o Cytoplasm  divides  equally  btwn  2  halves  of  cell
o Ends  with  separa/on  of  2  gene/cally  iden/cal  daughter  cells
o Daughter  cells  are  now  in  G1  of  interphase
Animal  cells:    Cytokinesis  =  by  microfilaments  that  pinch  cytoplasm
Plant  cells:    Plant  cell  =  rigid  cell  wall  covering  membrane,  can’t  be  pinched,  too  strong.  Instead,  new  structure  
called  cell  plate  forms  btwn  2  daughter  nuclei.  Cell  walls  then  form  on  both  sides  of  cell  plate.  When  new  cell  wall  =  
complete  =  2  gene/cally  iden/cal  plant  cells.
Prokaryo6c  cells:    No  nucleus,  do  cell  division  with  binary  fission.  When  DNA  =  duplicated,  both  copies  a_ach  to  the  
membrane.  When  cell  membrane  grows,  a_ached  DNA  molecules  =  pulled  apart.  

The  Structures  of  Gene/c  Material:

DNA
− =  deoxyribonucleic  acid  
− Nucleic  acid  containing  sugar  caller  deoxyribose  =  5  carbon  atoms
− Made  up  of  long  stands  that  form  shape  called  double  helix
− During  most  of  cell  cycle  DNA  =  strands  of  chroma/n  fibre
− When  mitosis  begins,  chroma/c  condenses=  dis/nct  chromosomes
− A  polymer,  made  of  monomers  =  nucleo/des
− Individual  units  of  each  strand  of  DNA  =  nucleo/des
Nucleo/de:
1. Sugar  molecule:  deoxyribose
2. Nitrogen  base:  A,T,C,G
3. Phosphate  group

SUGAR  PHOSPHATE  BACKBONE:

− Sugar  +  phosphate  always  same  but  base  changes
− Since  S  and  P  =  constant,  they  form  backbone  
for  bases  to  hang  on.  =  Sugar  phosphate  backbone
− Most  living  cells,  DNA  =  double-­‐stranded  molecule,  2  strands  =  parallel

NITROGENOUS  BASE  (4):

− 2  categories:
o Pyrimidines  =  1  ring  of  atoms
§ C  -­‐    cytosine
§ T  -­‐  thymine
o Purines  =  2  rings  of  atoms
§ A-­‐    ademine
§ G-­‐  guanine
− Certain  nitrogen  bases  pair  up  with  others:
o A  always  with  T
o C    always  with  G
− Pyrimidines  always  with  purines  =  complimentary  base  pairs
− If  DNA  muta/on  /  gene/c  muta/on,  =  change  in  nucleo/de  sequence  
Genome:  Complete  DNA  sequence  in  every  cell  of  organism

− Type  of  bonding  involved  in  base  pairing  =  hydrogen  bonds

− Weak  enough  so  that  molecule  can  be  pulled  apart  when  cell  divides  
− Strong  enough  to  hold  DNA  strands  together

REPLICATION:
− When  DNA  =  replicated  during  interphase,  double  helix  unwinds,  each  strand  of  DNA  =  template  for  new  strand
− When  DNA  =  copied,  each  new  double-­‐strand  of  DNA  molecules  contains  one  original  strand  +  one  new
− =  Semi  conserva6ve  because  DNA  molecule  conserves  half  of  original  DNA.

Chromosomes  are  Paired:

− #  of  individual  chromosomes  in  cell  varies  btwn  species
− #  doesn’t  reflect  complexity  of  organ
− Human  soma/c  cells  =  46  chromosomes  =  23  pairs
o Each  pair  =  1  from  mom,  1  from  dad
o 23rd  chromosome  pair  =  sex  chromosomes
Sex  Chromosomes:    an  X  or  Y  chromosome,  determines  the  gene/c  sex  of  an  organism
Human  Female  =  XX
Human  Male  =  XY
− Remaining  22  =  autosomes
Autosomes:  Chromosome  that  is  not  involved  in  determining  sex  of  organism

− Chromosomes  =  paired  based  on  sharing  similar  characteris/cs

Homologous  Chromosomes  Contain  Alleles:

Homologous  Chromosomes:  Pairs  of  chromosomes  that  appear  similar  in  terms  of  length,  centromere  loca/on,  +  
banding  pa_ern
 − Not  iden/cal  with  each  other,  carry  different  genes  for  same  traits  (hair  color,  eye  color  etc.)
− =  Allele
Allele:  Different  form  of  the  same  gene.
Gene:  Sec/ons  of  DNA  that  contain  gene/c  informa/on  for  the  inheritance  of  specific  traits

Examining  Chromosomes:  The  Karyotype:

Karyotype:  Par/cular  set  of  chromosomes  that  an  individual  has
− To  prepare,  cell  sample  =  collected  +  treated  to  stop  cell  division  during  metaphase  of  mitosis
− Sample  =  stained,  makes  banding  pa_ern  on  chromosomes  visible
− Chromosomes  =  sorted  +  paired
− Autosomes  =  numbered  1  –  22,  sex  chromosomes  labelled  as  X  or  Y
− Y  chromosome  =  smaller  than  X  chromosome.

4.2  Sexual  Reproduc2on:

− When  soma/c  cells  =  reproduced  by  mitosis,  new  daughter  cells  have  same  gene/c  info  as  parents
Asexual  Reproduc6on:  Reproduc/on  that  only  needs  1  parent  (e.g.  bacteria)
− If  mitosis  =  only  way  of  make  more  cells,  we  would  be  exact  clones  of  ourselves
− Except  for  iden/cal  twins,  no  person  =  exact  gene/c  copy  of  other
Sexual  Reproduc6on:  Reproduc/on  that  needs  2  parents  and  produces  gene/cally  dis/nct  offspring

Haploid  and  Diploid  Cells  in  Sexual  Reproduc/on:

− Sexual  Repro  =  fusion  of  male  repro  cell  +  female  repro  cell
Gametes:  Male/female  reproduc/ve  cells.  Male  gamete  =  sperm.  Female  gamete  =  ovum
Zygote:    Result  of  when  the  2  gametes  fuse
Fer6liza6on:  In  humans,  the  joining  of  male  and  female  haploid  gametes

− Because  2  gametes  =  zygote,  gametes  must  have  half  #  of  chromosomes  as  parent  cells  =  haploid
Haploid:  Cell  that  has  half  number  of  chromosomes  as  parent  cell.  Haploid  number  of  chromosomes  in  species  =  n  
(n  also  describes  the  pairs  of  chromosomes  in  an  organism)
Diploid:  Cells  that  contain  pairs  of  chromosomes  (includes  all  soma/c  cells)  

− Human  gametes  =  haploid  →  n  =  23  chromosomes  

− Aler  fer/liza/on  zygote  cell  =  diploid  →  2n  chromosomes    (  n  from  female,  n  from  male)
− Diploid  number  in  humans  =  46
− When  2  human  gametes  combine  =  23  pairs  of  homologous  chromosomes
− See  page  169  figure  4.12

Meiosis  –  Producing  Haploid  Gametes:

− Process  that  produces  gametes  with  haploid  #  of  chromosomes  =  meiosis
Meiosis:  Cellular  process  that  produces  cells  containing  half  the  #  of  chromosomes  as  the  parent  cell
− 2  outcomes:
1. Gene/c  Reduc/on:  Produces  daughter  cells  with  half  the  #  of  chromosomes  of  parent  cell
2. Gene/c  Recombina/on:  Different  alleles  =  combined  =  offspring  that  are  gene/cally  different  from  one  
another  /  parents  =  gene/c  varia/on  in  popula/on

INTERPHASE
− Cells  that  will  divide  by  meiosis  go  through  growth/synthesis  phase  before  divide
− =  replica/on  of  chromosomes
− @  start  of  meiosis,  cell  contains  duplicated  chromosomes

PHASES  OF  MEIOSIS

− Prophase,  metaphase,  anaphase,  Telophase  X  2
− 2  cycles  of  4  phases  →  meiosis  I,  meiosis  II
MEIOSIS  I:

PROPHASE  1
− Each  pair  of  homologous  chromosomes  (1  from  each  parent)  lines  up  side  by  side)  =  synapsis
Synapsis:  The  aligning  of  homologous  chromosomes
− @  synapsis,  homologous  chromosomes  =  held  /ghtly  together  along  their  lengths
− Exchange  gene/c  informa/on  =  gene/c  diversity
− Centrosomes  move  to  poles  of  cell,  spindle  apparatus  forms
METAPHASE  1
− Pairs  of  homo  chromosomes  line  up  along  equator  of  cell  (they  have  now  exchanged  genes)  
− Spindle  fibres  a_ach  to  centromere  of  each  homologous  chromosome
ANAPHASE  1
− Homologous  chromosomes  separate,  move  to  opposite  pose  of  cell
− Sister  chroma/ds  =  s/ll  held  together  so  centromeres  don’t  split  like  in  mitosis
− Result  =  single  chromosome  (2  sister  chroma/ds)  from  each  homologous  pair  moves  to  each  pole  of  cell.  
o Homologous  pair  =  2  chromosomes
− Chromosome  number  =  2n  (diploid  )  to  n  (haploid)
TELOPHASE  1
− Homologous  chromosomes  begin  to  uncoil
− Spindle  fibres  disappear
− Cytokinesis  takes  place
− Nuclear  membrane  forms  around  each  group  of  homologous  chromosomes  =  2  cells
− Each  new  cell  =  haploid

MEIOSIS  II:
− Phases  =  similar  to  phases  of  mitosis
− Difference  =  cell  that  undergoes  division  in  meiosis  II  =  haploid  instead  of  diploid
METAPHASE  2:
− Haploid  #  of  chromosomes  line  up  @  equator  
ANAPHASE  2:
− Sister  chroma/ds  =  pulled  apart  @  centromeres  by  spindle  fibres,  chromosomes  move  to  opposite  sides  of  cell
TELOPHASE  2:
− Chromosomes  reach  poles
− Nuclear  membrane  +  nuclei  reform

At  the  end  of  meiosis  II,  Cytokinesis  occurs  =  4  haploid  cells  with  n  #  of  chromosomes
See  page  171  figure  4.13  for  diagram
Comparison  of  Mitosis  and  Meiosis:
− Mitosis  =  1  set  of  division  phases  =  2  diploid  daughter
cells  that  are  iden/cal
− Meiosis  =  2  sets  of  divisions  =  4  haploid  daughter  
cells  that  are  not  iden/cal
− Meiosis  =  important  for  humans  because  =  gene/c
varia/on  =  gene/c  diversity

Gamete  Forma/on  in  Animals:

Spermatogenesis:  the  process  of  producing  male  
male  gametes  (sperm)  in  mammals
Oogenesis:  process  of  producing  female  gametes  (eggs)  
in  mammals

Spermatogenesis:
− Most  male  animals,  meiosis  takes  place  in  testes
− Process  starts  with  diploid  cell  called  
spermatogonium
− @  puberty,  spermatogonia  reproduce  by  mitosis
− These  cells  go  through  meiosis  make  4  haploid  cells
− Aler  meiosis  2,  cell  develops  into  mature  sperm
− Nucleus  +  other  molecules  =  organized  into  “head”
of  sperm
− Midsec/on  holds  mitochondria  
− Tail  =  flagellum  for  locomo/on
− See  page  173  figure  4.15

Oogenesis:
− Most  female  animals,  meiosis  =  ovaries
− Oogenesis  stars  with  diploid  cell  called  oogonium
− Before  birth,  oogonia  reproduce  by  mitosis,  start  meiosis,  but  stop  @  prophase  1
− Meiosis  I  will  con/nue  for  1  cell  each  month  @  beginning  of  puberty
− Oogenesis  involves  unequal  division  of  cytoplasm
o Cell  that  gets  more  cytoplasm  aler  1st  division  con/nues  through  meiosis  I  and  II  =  viable  egg
o =    more  nutrients  will  support  zygote  aler  fer/liza/on
o Other  smaller  cell    =  polar  body,  will  degenerate
− Final  stages  of  meiosis  II  not  completed  un/l  fer/liza/on  by  sperm  cell  occurs
− When  meiosis  II  =  complete,  mature  egg  +  another  polar  body  =  produced.
− Haploid  nucleus  of  the  egg  cell  fuses  with  haploid  nucleus  of  sperm  cell  to  complete  fer/liza/on
o =  diploid  zygote
Mul/ple  Births:
− If  more  than  1  egg  =  released  =  more  than  one    baby  @  once
Fraternal  Twins:  2  eggs  released,  both  are  fer/lized  =  twins  that  are  like  siblings
Iden/cal  Twins:  Single  zygote  divides  into  2  separate  bodies  in  first  few  days  of  development  =  gene/cally  iden/cal  
twins

The  Importance  of  Meiosis  for  Gene/c  Varia/on:

− Outcome  of  meiosis  forms  gene/cally  dis/nct  haploid  gametes  (mitosis  =  iden/cal)
− Each  diploid  cell  has  2  copies  of  each  chromosome  (one  from  mom,  one  from  dad)
− Gene/c  varia/on:
o crea/on  of  gametes  that  carry  different  combina/ons  of  maternal  /  paternal  chromosomes  =  
independent  assortment
o exchange  of  gene/c  material  between  maternal  and  paternal  chromosomes  in  crossing  over

Independent  Assortment:
− @  metaphase  1,  homologous  pairs  line  up  along  equator  of  cell
− Chromosomes  from  mom/dad  =  oriented  on  random  sides  of  pole,  some  facing  this  way,  some  that
− Orienta/on  of  chromosomes  =  independent  of  orienta/on  of  others
− Depending  on  how  chromosomes  line  up,  number  of  different  combina/ons  of  chromosomes  =  found  in  
gametes
See  figure  4.18  on  page  175
− Number  of  gene/cally  dis/nct  gametes  produced  from  diploid  cell  =  2n
− (n  =  #  of  chromosome  pairs  in  diploid  cell)
− Humans  produce  223  or  8388608  gene/cally  dis/nct  gametes

Crossing  Over:
− During  prophase  1  (synapsis),  non-­‐sister  chroma/ds  of  homologous  chromosomes  exchange  pieces  of  
chromosome
Crossing  over:  exchange  of  chromosomal  segments  between  a  pair  of  homologous  chromosomes
− can  occurs  @  several  points  along  non-­‐sister  chroma/ds
− sec/on  of  chromosome  that  =  crossed  may  have  thousands  of  genes
− Result  =  individual  chromosomes  have  some  stuff  from  mom  and  some  from  dad
− =  gene/c  diversity  of  gametes  produced

Errors  During  Meiosis:

− 2  processes  that  =  gene/c  varia/on,  (independent  assor,  +  crossing)  =  poten/al  chromosomal  abnormali/es
− Errors  that  occur  during  meiosis  =  gametes  that  don’t  survive
− If  survive  +  fer/lized  =  zygote
− Every  cell  in  offspring  =  from  one  zygote  cell,  all  cells  in  offspring  will  contain  the  error
− 2  types  of  chromosomal  errors  in  meiosis:
1. Changes  in  chromosome  structure
2. Changes  to  chromosome  number

Errors  Caused  by  Changes  in  Chromosome  Structure:

− When  cross  over,  chemical  bonds  that  hold  DNA  in  chromosome  =  broken  +  reformed
− Some/mes  chromosome  no  reform  proper
− Or  non-­‐homologous  pairs  cross  over  =  chromosome  that  has  genes  no  normally  on  that  chromosome

Error  in  Chromosome   Descrip6on Example  of  Gene6c  Disorder

Structure
Dele/on Piece  of  chromosome  =  deleted Cri  du  Chat  
Dele/on  in  chromosome  5.  
Duplica/on Sec/on  of  chromosome  appears  2  or  more   Charcot-­‐Marie-­‐Tooth  Disease
/mes  in  a  row. Duplica/on  on  chromosome  17
Inversion A  sec/on  of  a  chromosome  =  inverted     FG  Syndrome
(upside  down) Inversion  of  X  chromosome
Transloca/on A  segment  of  one  chromosome  becomes   Chronic  Myelogenous  Leukemia
a_ached  to  a  different  chromosome Transloca/on  between  chromosome  9  and  
22

Errors  Caused  by  Changes  in  Chromosome  Number:

− When  homologous  chromosome  pairs  /  sister  chroma/ds  don’t  separate  proper  =  non-­‐disjunc/on
Non-­‐disjunc6on:  Failure  of  homologous  chromosome  pairs  /  sister  chroma/ds  to  separate  during  meiosis  
o occurs  in  anaphase  I  or  II  of  meiosis
o Anaphase  1:  occurs  when  homologous  chromosome  pairs  do  not  separate  to  opposite  poles
§ Instead  1  whole  pair  =  pulled  toward  same  pole
o Anaphase  2:  occurs  when  sister  chroma/ds  no  separate  to  opposite  poles
§ both  sister  chroma/ds  =  pulled  to  same  pole
§ produces  gametes  that  have  too  few  /  too  many  chromosomes

Gene/c  Disorders  Associated  with  Chromosome  Number:

− Many  gene/c  disorders  =  incorrect  #  of  chromosomes
− Down  Syndrome  =  extra  piece  on  chromosome  21
− This  incidence  o  non-­‐disjunc/on  increases  with  maternal  age

Trisomies  and  Monosomies:

Monosomy:  Loss  of  chromosome  due  to  non-­‐disjunc/on  (missing  one  chromosome  of  a  homologous  pair)
Trisomy:  Gain  of  extra  chromosome  due  to  non-­‐disjunc/on  (most  common  in  21,  18,  13,  sex  chromo)  
Condi6ons Syndrome Number  of  Live  Births
Trisomy  21 Down 1  in  800
Trisomy  18 Edward 1  in  18  000
Trisomy  13 Patau 1  in  15  000
XXY Klinefelter 1  in  1000  males
XYY Jacobs 1  in  1000  males
XXX Triple  X 1  in  1500  females
X Turner 1  in  5000  females

Prenatal  Gene/c  Tes/ng:

− =  test  performed  on  fetus  (baby  developing  in  womb)to  find  gene/c-­‐based  abnormali/es
− Before  only  for  women  in  hi-­‐risk  situa/ons
o women  35+  yrs
 o women  with  family  history  of  gene/c  disorders
− Now,  doctor  can  let  any  women  go
− Ethical  dilemmas:  could  end  pregnancy,  discrimina/on  against  ppl  with  disabili/es

Prenatal  Tes/ng  Procedures:

− Blood  tests  +  ultrasound  can  give  info  about  poten/al  physical  +  chromosomal  abnormali/es  =  non-­‐invasive
− Non-­‐invasive  because  do  not  require  direct  sampling  of  fetal  cells
− Invasive  test  =  collect  DNA  from  sample  of  fetus  (EX:  Amniocentesis,  Chorionic  Villus  Sampling)

4.3  Reproduc2ve  Strategies  and  Technologies:

Reproduc/ve  Strategies  in  Agriculture:
Ar6ficial  Insemina6on:  Sperm  is  collected  and  concentrated  before  being  introduced  into  the  female’s  
reproduc/ve  system.
Advantages:
− Makes  semen  from  high-­‐quality  males  more  widely  available  through  breeders  and  online  sources
− Farmers  can  choose  desirable  traits  for  male  parent
− Instead  of  shipping  the  whole  cow,  just  ship  semen

Embryo  Transfer:  Process  where  an  egg  that  has  been  fer/lized  =  ar/ficially  transferred  into  a  recipient  female’s  
uterus.
Advantages:
− Embryos  =  shipped  easily  (don’t  need  to  ship  the  whole  cow)
− Ensured  quality    of  embryos
Disadvantages:
− Animals  born  and  raised  in  na/ve  environment  do  be_er  than  those  that  are  imported

Reproduc/ve  Technologies  for  Humans:

− Assisted  Reproduc/ve  Technologies  (ART)  =  for  couples  who  not  able  to  conceive  child
− Ar/ficial  Insemina/on:  Sperm  collected  +  concentrated  from  women’s  partner  /  sperm  bank,  introduced  into  
woman’s  reproduc/ve  system

In  Vitro  Fer/liza/on:
− for  women  who  have  blocked  Fallopian  tubes
1. Immature  egg  =  received  from  the  woman
2. Eggs  =  combined  with  sperm  in  laboratory  glassware
3. Aler  fer/liza/on,  developing  embryo  =  placed  in  uterus
4. =  Test  tube  babies

Other  Terms:
Chromosome:  A  structure  in  the  nucleus  that  contains  DNA
Sister  Chroma6d:  one  of  the  2  chromosomes  that  are  gene/cally  iden/cal  and  are  held  together  at  the  centromere
Centromere:  The  region  where  the  2  sister  chroma/ds  are  held  together  in  a  chromosome
Spindle  fibre:  a  microtubule  structure  that  facilitates  the  movement  of  chromosomes  within  a  cell
Centrosome:  A  structure  that  helps  to  form  the  spindle  fibres