CHAPTER

1
CHAPTER 3
2
Forensic Laboratory
3

4
Techniques
5
WHERE IS LACI?
Laci Peterson was Peterson’s boat was identified as concrete
6 27 years old and in dust. A long, dark hair caught on pliers was
her eighth month found in the same fertilizer warehouse where
of pregnancy when Scott, a fertilizer salesman, had stored his
7 she disappeared boat. Forensic scientists used comparison
from her home in microscopes to compare this hair to hair
8 Modesto, California, known to be Laci’s. They examined the cuticle,
on December 24, pigmentation, and medulla. Recall from previ-
2002. She was last ous coursework that the cuticle is the outer
REUTERS/LOU DEMATTEIS/FILE LD/GN

9 seen walking her layer of hair. The medulla is the center core.
dog that morning at The hair found at the warehouse was consis-
10 10:00 a.m. Her hus- tent with Laci’s hair. Scott Peterson had pur-
band Scott returned chased a four-day fishing license on December
home from a fishing 20, but he told police he hadn’t decided to go
11 trip and discovered fishing until the morning of Laci’s disappear-
Figure 3-1. Laci Peterson. that Laci was gone. ance (December 24). His blood was found on
Trying to locate her, the driver’s door inside his truck.
12
he contacted friends and family. He reported her On April 13, 2002, the body of a fetus with the
missing shortly before 6:00 p.m. umbilical cord still attached washed ashore near
13 Over the next three days, police, firefighters, Point Isabel in Northern California. The next day, a
and volunteers searched for Laci, but there was female’s body was discovered in a park near Point
no sign of her. A grid-pattern search along Dry Isabel. DNA testing revealed them to be the bodies
14 Creek revealed no evidence. Three days after of Laci and her baby, Conner.
her disappearance, the FBI joined in the inves- Scott Peterson was convicted of the two mur-
15 tigation, and the Peterson home was searched. ders and sentenced to death by lethal injection.
Peterson had been a suspect in his wife’s dis-
appearance almost from the beginning. When he
16
CHRIS HARDY/SAN FRANCISCO CHRONICLE/

confessed to having a romantic relationship with

another woman, he became a very strong suspect.
17 Peterson maintained that he had told Laci about
his indiscretion and that it was not something that
would have ended their marriage. At first, Laci’s
18 parents supported Peterson. When it was also
discovered that he had taken out a $250,000 life
CORBIS

19 insurance policy on Laci, they stopped.

As time passed, evidence against Peterson Figure 3-2. Laci’s body being loaded into
mounted. A powdery substance found on the van.
20

70

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 Objective
By the end of th s
is chapter, you wi
ll be able to:
3.1 Distinguish betw
een physical an
3.2 Describe d chemical prop
presumptive an erties.
d confirmatory te
3.3 Compare sts.
and contrast di
fferent types of
3.4 Explain microscopes.
how qualitative
analysis differs
analysis. from quantitativ
e
3.5 Different
iate between th
in-layer chromat
matography, an ography, gas ch
d high-performan ro-
3.6 Calculat ce liquid chrom
e Rf (retention fa at og ra ph y.
ctor).
3.7 List and
describe three ty
pes of spectrosc
3.8 Compare opy.
and contrast te
chniques for visu
3.9 Describe alizing fingerprin
the structure of ts.
DNA.

Vocabula
chemical p
ry
roperty -
substanc property
e that d of a
reacts i escribes physical pro
n the pr how it perty - p
substanc esence o s ubstance roperty
es f other that can of a
chromatog o r m easured be obser
raphy - an without ved
processe y of sev the chem changing
s used t eral i c a l identi
mixture o separa substanc ty of th
into its te a e e
componen individu
al p re s u m ptive test
ts based - a test
attracti on their evidence to scree
on to a and narr n
or solid s tationar p o s s i b ow down
y liquid le type the
of a sub
confirmato Rf value - stance
ry test - retentio
establis t e st done i n paper an n f actor;
h with c to d thin-l
characte ertainty c h r o m a t a y er
ristics the o graphy,
of a sub distance ratio of
frequency stance a substa the
- the num the dist nce trav
that pass ber of wa ance the e led to
a specifi ves solvent
a given t c point w wavelength traveled
ime; usua ithin - the di
in cycles lly expre crests, stance b
per secon s sed o r peaks, o etween
hertz (Hz d or consecut f two
) i v e waves

50894_03_ch03_p070-103.indd 71 07/09/10 9:45 PM

 CHAPTER

Obj. 3.1 I N T ROD U C T I ON

Hairs and fibers found at a crime scene can give investigators a great deal
of information. Microscopy and other analytical techniques can be used to
1 determine whether the hairs came from a human or another animal. These
techniques also help investigators determine whether the fibers came from
carpet, clothing, or something else.
2 In the crime lab, forensic scientists compare samples of evidence from
the crime scene to known samples. The evidence samples are called ques-
3 tioned samples. The known samples are called controls. Ultimately, investi-
gators hope to identify the evidence samples through specific physical and
chemical properties.
4 Physical properties are properties that can be measured without chang-
ing the identity of the evidence. For example, when forensic scientists cal-
5 culate the density of glass, they divide the mass of the glass by its volume.
Measuring mass and volume does not affect the chemical makeup of the
glass. Therefore, density is a physical property. Other physical properties
6
include color, melting point, boiling point, odor, and viscosity. Changes
to substances that do not alter the chemical makeup of the substance—
7 cutting, shredding, melting, or freezing—are physical changes.
Chemical properties determine how a substance behaves in the pres-
ence of other substances. For example, iron will react with oxygen in the
8
presence of water to produce rust, or iron oxide. Changes to a substance
that alter its chemical identity are chemical changes. Rusting, burning, and
9 decomposing are chemical changes. When chemical testing is done on evi-
dence, the original evidence sample is often destroyed.
10

11 PRESUMPTIVE AND CONFIRMATORY

Y
Obj. 3.2 TESTS
12

13 At a crime scene, field investigators must make immediate d deci-

i
sions regarding potential items of evidence. For example, if
an investigator finds a red stain at a homicide scene, he or she
14 must conduct initial tests to narrow down the possible identity
of the stain. Although it is easy to assume that the red stain is
15 human blood, it could also be paint, ketchup, or blood from
an animal. Presumptive tests allow a field investigator to screen
evidence to reduce the number of possibilities and to get a pre-
16 liminary identification. If presumptive tests at the scene show
that the red stain is blood, investigators will collect additional
17 samples. The tests do not, however, tell crime-scene investiga-
tors whether the blood is from a human or another animal.
These samples are sent to the lab for confirmatory tests.
18 Confirmatory tests are used to make a more specific identifica-
© PABLO PAUL/ALAMY

tion. A confirmatory test would determine whether the blood

19 belonged to a human or some other animal (see Figure 3-3).
Presumptive tests exist for saliva, semen, blood, urine,
and vaginal secretions. There are also presumptive tests for
20 many kinds of drugs. Presumptive tests screen for chemicals
Figure 3-3. Presumptive test for blood. in each fluid. At the crime scene, investigators might use a

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 UV (ultraviolet) light, or another alternative light source, to determine
whether a stain is a body fluid. If so, a sample will be collected and sent
to the lab. At the lab, forensic scientists may perform presumptive tests
to determine what kind of body fluid. For example, semen contains the
enzyme acid phosphatase. Although this enzyme is found in other fluids,
including vaginal secretions, it is found in much higher concentrations
in semen. The presumptive test for semen is actually screening for acid
phosphatase. To definitively identify the evidence as semen, confirmatory
testing would be completed at the crime lab. For example, the fluid may
be viewed under a microscope. If sperm is present, the fluid is semen. In
this case, microscopy is a confirmatory test. To identify the person who
produced the semen, the sample must undergo more specialized con-
firmatory tests, such as DNA profiling. Presumptive testing reduces costs
and aids field investigators in collecting evidence essential to the case.
Confirmatory tests are necessary to identify, with certainty, a piece of evi-
dence. Each test plays an integral role in forensic investigations.

MI C RO S C O P Y Obj. 3.3

Prior to the mid-1600s, microscopes could magnify a specimen only about b

six to ten times its original size. In 1665, Robert Hooke published a book
called Micrographia. In it, he described cork cells. Hooke was the first to
observe cells; he used the term cells because the dead cork cells looked like
small rooms. In 1676, Antoine van Leeuwenhoek was the first to observe sin- Some of the earliest
gle-celled microscopic organisms. Today, there are several different kinds of microscopes were
microscopes. Some can magnify an object hundreds of thousands of times. simply magnifying
glasses. Looking at
small insects like
COMPOUND LIGHT MICROSCOPE gnats and fleas
The compound light microscope is probably the most widely used micro- was very common.
scope today. This microscope has a light source and multiple lenses to For that reason,
obtain high magnification. The compound microscope usually has a mag- microscopes were
nification between 40× (40 times) and 1,000× (1,000 times). Compound sometimes referred
microscopes are powerful enough to view hair, fibers, and cells. Figure 3-4 to as flea glasses.
shows a cross-section of an artery through a compound light microscope at
different magnifications.
USED UNDER LICENSE FROM SHUTTERSTOCK.
IMAGE COPYRIGHT BRIAN MAUDSLEY , 2010.

COM

Figure 3-4. The image on the left has been magnified 40×.
The image on the right has been magnified 100×.

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 CHAPTER

STEREOMICROSCOPE
A compound microscope works by sending light
through the specimen. Sometimes, a specimen is
too thick or opaque to be seen through a compound
microscope. The light of a stereomicroscope, or
1
dissecting microscope, is reflected from the surface
of the specimen. Because the light is reflected, the
2 stereomicroscope produces a three-dimensional
image useful for dissecting. Surface details are also
more visible with the stereomicroscope. Forensic
3
investigators use a stereomicroscope to examine
insect larvae, paint chips, and other small items of
4 evidence.

5
COMPARISON MICROSCOPE
OMAR TORRES/AFP/GETTY IMAGES

6 The comparison microscope is another useful tool (see

Figure 3-5). The comparison microscope is actually
two microscopes connected to one eyepiece. When
7
the investigator looks through the eyepiece, he or
she sees a circular, split-view window. The image on
8 the right is of the specimen under the microscope
on the right and can be compared side-by-side to
9 the image on the left. The comparison microscope is
Figure 3-5. Comparison microscope.
particularly useful when comparing bullet striations,
fibers, and hair samples. Investigators are able to
10 make comparisons while viewing two samples at the
same time (see Figure 3-6). Usually, the investigators
11 will compare a known sample to a questioned sample.

12

13

14

15

16

17
PHILIPPE PSAILA

18

19 Figure 3-6. Images of two bullet casings as seen

through a comparison microscope. One casing was
found at the crime scene. The other was taken from
20 the suspect’s gun.

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 ELECTRON MICROSCOPES
Compound microscopes, stereomicroscopes, and comparison microscopes
all use light. Electron microscopes, on the other hand, use beams of
electrons to form images. These microscopes can magnify materials up to
500,000× with good resolution, but the image is in black and white. The
transmission electron microscope (TEM) passes a beam of electrons through a
thin slice of a specimen. This produces images of internal structures. The
scanning electron microscope (SEM) passes a beam of electrons over the surface
of a sample to produce a three-dimensional image. This image provides
details about the surface of the sample. Forensic investigators use electron
microscopes to analyze small specimens and to view tiny surface or internal
details. SEM is also an important step in the determination of the identity
of trace materials, such as gunshot residues.

C HRO M AT O GRA P H Y Obj. 3.4, 3.5, 3.6

Most analytical techniques can be classified as either quantitative or quali-

li
tative. A quantitative analysis will result in a measurable amount—a quan-
tity. Qualitative analysis, on the other hand, will result in a description or
identification of the components of a mixture. In chemistry, a mixture is the
combination of two or more substances. The substances in a mixture do not
react chemically. Therefore, they can be separated based on their physical
properties.
Qualitative tests are based on the physical and chemical properties
of the sample. Chromatography separates substances within a mixture
based on their physical properties. Different substances will adhere, or
stick, to solid surfaces or dissolve in a solvent differently.
In paper chromatography, a small amount of a liquid
mixture is placed near the bottom of a piece of paper.
Usually, a scientist will place a drop of an unknown mix-
ture and a drop of a known mixture several millimeters
apart. The known mixture acts as the control. The bottom
of the paper is placed into a liquid solvent. The solvent
must be lower on the paper than the samples. The solvent
moves up the paper and is called the mobile phase. The
paper itself is called the stationary phase because it does
not move. You have probably seen a liquid move along a
piece of paper. If you spill a little water on a paper towel,
for example, the water will spread out. In paper chroma-
© JON ARNOLD IMAGES LTD/ALAMY

tography, the liquid solvent spreads across the paper in

much the same way. As the liquid solvent moves up the
paper, different components of the mixture will adhere
to the paper at different places. These components leave
marks on the paper.
The result of any chromatography is a called a chro-
matogram (see Figure 3-7). A chromatogram shows sub-
stances that were dissolved in the original mixture. The
chromatogram also shows how far the solvent traveled. Figure 3-7. Chromatogram from paper
Investigators can identity components of the original chromatography.

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 CHAPTER
mixture by calculating the retention factor, or the Rf value.
5.5 cm Solvent front The Rf value is a qualitative comparison between the length
of time the substance is in the mobile phase and in the
stationary phase. In paper chromatography, the Rf value is
the ratio of the distance the substance traveled to the
3.5 cm distance the solvent traveled. Chromatography can be
1
3.0 cm done with different solvents to establish the identity of an
6.0 cm unknown substance. The Rf value for each substance will
2 depend on the solvent being used. First, the investigator
2.0 cm measures how far the solvent traveled. The line that shows
3 where the solvent stopped moving is called the solvent front.
The investigator then measures how far each dissolved
Mixture origin
substance traveled. For example, if the substance traveled
4 3.0 cm and the solvent traveled 6.0 cm, as in Figure 3-8, the
Solvent origin
Rf is calculated as follows:
5 Figure 3-8. Chromatogram used for
calculating Rf . Rf = Distance substance traveled
_____________________
Distance solvent traveled
6
3.0 cm
Rf = ______
6.0 cm
7
Rf = 0.5
8
Chromatography is used in forensic science to analyze dyes in fibers,
test for explosives or accelerants, and to check body fluids for the
9 presence of drugs. More sophisticated forms of chromatography have
replaced paper chromatography in forensic laboratories in recent years.
10 Most other chromatographic techniques pass liquid or gas through a
column or tube packed with a porous
Gas Chromatography solid material. Thin-layer chromatogra-
11 phy (TLC), gas chromatography (GC),
E A and high-performance liquid chroma-
12 tography (HPLC) are commonly used
Gas Chromatograph in forensic laboratories. TLC is similar
D
to paper chromatography, but the sta-
13 tionary phase is a thin layer of gel-like
B
C material on a glass or plastic plate. TLC
Sample: mixture of
14 volatile liquids (~1 ␮L)
is faster and produces clearer separa-
Gas Chromatogram tion than paper chromatography. Both
COLIN CUTHBERT/PHOTO RESEARCHERS, INC.

B
E
paper and thin-layer chromatography
15 C
A are useful for separating dyes and inks.
GC is performed at high temperatures
Abundance

16 and is useful for separating mixtures

that contain large molecules, such as
the proteins found in blood. HPLC uses
17
high pressure to force mixtures through
D a column of liquid. Unlike GC, HPLC
18 0 5 10 15 20 can take place at room temperature.
Time (minutes) Therefore, HPLC can be used to test for
19 Figure 3-9. Gas chromatography helps forensic scientists the presence of flammable materials,
determine the components of a mixture. Each spike such as explosives or accelerants, which
represents a different component of the mixture. The relative may be found during an arson investiga-
20 heights tell the scientist the relative abundance of each tion. Figure 3-9 shows a sample of a gas
component.  chromatogram.

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 Many people die each year because someone was driving
while intoxicated. Alcohol impairs reflexes, which makes driving
extremely dangerous. But how much is too much? For people
under the age of 21, it is illegal to consume any alcohol. States
have laws that define legal blood alcohol levels for drivers over 21.
Confirmatory tests for blood alcohol levels use gas chromatog-
raphy. New presumptive tests are very accurate and can give
law-enforcement personnel the information they need much
more quickly. Using the Gale Forensic Science eCollection at
www.cengage.com/school/forensicscienceadv, research current
techniques used to get quicker results for law enforcement.

EL EC T RO M AGN E T I C R A D I AT I ON

Light travels in electromagnetic waves. The highest point Shorter wavelength

in the wave is called the crest. The distance between two
consecutive crests is the wavelength. Frequency refers to High
how many waves pass a specific point within a given time. frequency
Therefore, a wave with a high frequency will have a short
wavelength (see Figure  3-10). Visible light, X-rays, radio Longer wavelength

waves, and microwaves are all electromagnetic waves.

Electromagnetic waves can be organized into the elec- Low
tromagnetic spectrum, based on their wavelengths and frequency

frequencies. Forensic scientists use the electromagnetic

spectrum (see Figure 3-11) to search for latent fingerprints, 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
examine articles of clothing for trace evidence, or deter- Time (seconds)

mine the structure of a molecule. Figure 3-10. Higher frequency waves have
shorter wavelengths.

AM Short- TV FM Radar Infrared Ultraviolet X-rays Gamma

wave rays rays rays

104 102 1 10–2 10–4 10–6 10–8 10–10 10–11 10–14

Wavelength (meters)

Visible light

Low High
energy energy
(700 nm) (380 nm)
700 600 500 400
Wavelength (nanometers)

Figure 3-11. The electromagnetic spectrum is divided into wavelength ranges, or

bands. Visible light has a wavelength between 380 and 760 nm (nm = 10−9 m).

Forensic Laboratory Techniques 77

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 CHAPTER
100 100 100
80 80 80
m/z 60 60 60

m/z

m/z
40 40 40
20 20 20
1 0 0 0
15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
Carbon dioxide Propane Cydopropane
2 Figure 3-12. Spectrographs of carbon dioxide, propane, and cyclopropane.

3
Obj. 3.7 S P ECT ROS C OP Y
4
When a substance is heated, it emits light at a specific wavelength.
5 Electromagnetic spectroscopy uses this chemical property to determine what
elements are present in a sample. Spectroscopy can be used to identify fibers
and other trace evidence. It can also be used to detect contaminants in vari-
6 ous materials. Spectroscopy can detect accelerant and explosive residue. An
electromagnetic spectrograph measures the wavelengths of light emitted and
7 captures a spectral image on photographic film. The spectral image is a series
of lines (see Figure 3-12). Each element produces a unique line in the spectral
image. So, the pattern of lines tells the scientists which elements are found
8 within the sample. Spectroscopy also measures the amount of light absorbed,
which can be used to determine the concentrations. There are several forms
9 of spectroscopy. Mass spectroscopy is often combined with gas chromato-
In June 2008, a graphy to identify atoms and molecules by their masses. A sample is loaded
partial fingerprint into the mass spectrometer and vaporized and ionized, forming charged par-
10 ticles called ions. The ions are then sent through a magnetic or electric field.
on a painting
called “Young The path of the ion depends on the ratio of its mass to its charge. The results
11 Girl in Profile in are recorded on a photographic plate. Every chemical has a unique mass
Renaissance Dress” spectrum, making mass spectroscopy useful as a confirmatory test.
confirmed that the Atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) measures the amount of light
12
painting was a da of a specific wavelength absorbed by atoms of a particular substance. This
Vinci original. The technique is especially useful in determining heavy-metal contaminants in
13 fingerprint was air, water, and soil samples. It is also useful when analyzing paint chips. This
consistent with two technique can help forensic scientists determine whether soil or paint at the
other fingerprints crime scene can be linked to another location. A link may help connect a
14
found on da Vinci suspect or victim to the crime.
works. In 1995, Ultraviolet (UV) spectroscopy measures wavelengths of light and can be
15 the painting sold used to determine the concentration of different elements in a solution.
for $19,000. The The graph produced by UV spectroscopy is compared to that of known
16 painting is now substances as part of a quantitative analysis of the data. UV spectroscopy can
worth $160 million. be used to detect drugs in blood or urine, analyze components of dyes and
food additives, and monitor air and water quality.
17

18
F I N G E R P R I NT- D E V E LOP I NG
19
Obj. 3.8 T EC H NI QU E S

20 Often, crime-scene investigators find objects and surfaces at a crime

i
scene that were touched by the victim or perpetrator of the crime. The
person may have left fingerprints behind. These fingerprints can be a
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 very important piece of evidence. Most of the
time, the fingerprints are latent, or invisible.
Certain chemical and physical properties of
fingerprints make it possible for a latent finger-
print examiner to use a variety of techniques to
lift and visualize these prints. For example, most
body fluids can be seen with a high-intensity
UV light. This light helps investigators detect

SEAN JUSTICE/CORBIS
the presence of fingerprints. Another well-
known technique for visualizing fingerprints is
called dusting for fingerprints (see Figure 3-13).
Investigators apply finely ground powders to the
surface with a soft brush. The powders stick to
fingerprint residues, making the print visible. Figure 3-13. Dusting for fingerprints.
The print can then be lifted with adhesive tape
and placed on a labeled card. The powders come
in a variety of colors. The color of the object or
surface being analyzed for prints determines the
color of the powder used.

CYANOACRYLATE FUMING
Dusting works best on fresh fingerprints. Sometimes, however, latent fin-
gerprints are not found right away. To view prints found on nonporous
substances, such as glass and many plastics, crime-lab technicians may
need to use cyanoacrylate, or Super Glue®. When heated, the cyanoacry-
late reacts with traces of proteins and fatty acids in the fingerprint. The
technique is called cyanoacrylate fuming or Super Glue fuming. The item
being analyzed is placed or suspended inside an enclosed fuming cham-
ber (an aquarium with a lid will work) along with warmed water. The
glue is placed in a small container inside the chamber and heated. The
fumes react with the fingerprints, and the fingerprints become whitish
in color. Although the technique is not difficult, it is potentially hazard-
ous. The fumes are irritating to mucous membranes and should never
be inhaled.

SILVER NITRATE Super Glue fuming

was first used in
Crime-lab technicians may use silver nitrate (AgNO3) solution instead 1978 by the Criminal
of cyanoacrylate to detect fingerprints left on nonporous surfaces. The Identification Division
solution reacts with salts in perspiration in the fingerprint to form silver of the Japanese
chloride (AgCl2). Under an ultraviolet light source, the silver chloride will National Police Agency.
appear black.

NINHYDRIN
If the latent prints are found on porous surfaces, such as wood, fabrics, and
concrete, technicians may use ninhydrin. Ninhydrin reacts with the amino
acids in the fingerprints to produce a purple fingerprint. Ninhydrin may be
sprayed on the item or the item may be dipped into the ninhydrin. It takes
up to 48 hours to develop fingerprints in this manner. However, heating the
surface will increase the rate of the reaction.
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 CHAPTER

DFO is a relatively new method used to enhance fingerprints.

Using the Gale Forensic Science eCollection at www.cengage.
1 com/school/forensicscienceadv, research DFO and investigate
a case in which DFO was instrumental. Discuss the key ele-
ments of the case. Additionally, describe how this case relates
2 to the Frye standard introduced in Chapter 1.

DIAZOFLUOREN
4
Ninhydrin is often used to develop prints found on paper. However,
diazofluoren (DFO) is even more effective than ninhydrin. The paper is
5
dipped into the DFO for 10 seconds and then allowed to dry. DFO reacts with
amino acids in the fingerprints. For the best results, the process may need to
6 be repeated. The developed fingerprints may not be visible to the naked eye.
However, they will be visible when viewed under a blue-green light.
7
VACUUM METAL DEPOSITION
8
Another technique uses a vacuum metal deposition chamber to evaporate
gold and zinc. The gold is attracted to the thin layer of tissue left by the
9 Many people who latent fingerprint. The zinc condenses on the gold coating and between
have fingerprint the fingerprint ridges. This technique works best on nonmetal surfaces.
10 cards on file have It has also been somewhat successful in developing fingerprints on finely
never been accused woven fabrics. Figure 3-14 summarizes some of the fingerprint-developing
or convicted of a techniques described here.
11
crime. For example,
the fingerprints of FINGERPRINT DATABASES
12 teachers, military
personnel, civil Once latent fingerprints have been developed, they must be photographed.
servants, and The photograph is scanned and digitized. Forensic scientists can then
13
adoptive parents compare the print with other prints stored in a database. The database
are included in the provides a set of potential matches. The scientist compares the potential
14 database. matches to make the final identification. The FBI maintains the Integrated
Automated Fingerprint Identification System (IAFIS). Some state and local
15 agencies maintain databases as well.

16 Process Surfaces Adheres to

Dusting Nonporous Residues
17 Cyanoacrylate fuming Nonporous Proteins, fatty acids
Ninhydrin Porous Amino acids
18
Diazofluoren Porous Amino acids

19 Silver nitrate Nonporous Salts

Vacuum metal Nonmetal Gold is attracted to the tissue;
deposition zinc adheres to the gold
20
Figure 3-14. Summary of some fingerprint-developing techniques.

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 D NA A N A LY S I S Obj. 3.9
O

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is found in the cells of all organisms. It can

be detected in blood, saliva, semen, tissues, hair, and bones. With the excep-
tion of identical twins, each person’s DNA is unique. Therefore, DNA sam-
ples provide individual evidence to tie a suspect to the crime or to identify
a victim. DNA analysis can also be used to determine paternity or to detect
genetic disease.
DNA is a very long double-stranded molecule made up of units called
nucleotides. Each nucleotide is composed of a sugar, a phosphate, and a
nitrogenous base. The sugar is called deoxyribose. There are four different
bases—adenine, guanine, thymine, and cytosine. The struc-
ture of DNA is sometimes referred to as a twisted ladder (see
Figure 3-15). The sugar and phosphate form the sides of the
ladder. The bases make up the rungs of the ladder. Adenine
always pairs with thymine; cytosine always pairs with gua-
nine. The uniqueness of each person’s DNA comes from the
sequence of the base pairings along the ladder.

3DRENDERINGS/SHUTTERTSTOCK
A DNA fingerprint is a DNA pattern that distinguishes one
individual from another. A DNA fingerprint can be used to
determine whether two samples are from the same person,
related people, or unrelated people. Gel electrophoresis is one
technique involved in the production of a DNA fingerprint.
The process is a form of chromatography. Segments of DNA are
separated by size through a gel (the stationary phase) by a mild
electric current (the moving phase). Chapter 10 discusses in Figure 3-15. Three-dimensional
detail the various techniques for extracting and analyzing DNA. structure of DNA.

C HA P T ER S U M M A RY

• Physical properties are characteristics that can be observed and

measured without changing the chemical identity of the substance.
• Chemical properties are characteristics that determine the way a sub-
stance interacts with other substances.
• Presumptive tests screen evidence for possible identification.
Confirmatory tests determine the identity of evidence.
• The comparison microscope is one of the most useful tools in forensic
investigations because it allows for the side-by-side comparison
of samples.
• Most analytical techniques can be classified as either quantitative
or qualitative. Quantitative analysis will always produce a number or
a proportion. Qualitative analysis will always provide a description
or statement.
• Chromatography is used to separate a mixture into its individual
components.
• Wavelength is the distance between peaks of consecutive waves.
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 • Frequency is the number of waves that pass a specific point in a given
CHAPTER

amount of time.
• Electromagnetic spectroscopy measures the wavelength of light emit-
ted when a substance is heated. Mass spectroscopy separates atoms
and molecules according to mass.
1
• Fingerprint-developing techniques include dusting, cyanoacrylate fum-
ing, silver nitrate, and vacuum deposition chambers.
2
• Repeating patterns of DNA base pairs are used to produce a DNA fin-
gerprint. A DNA fingerprint can be used to determine whether two DNA
3 samples are from the same person or related people.

4
CA S E S T U D I E S
5

6 Gerald Fit Mason

On July 21, 1957, four teenagers were parked near oil fields in
Hawthorne, California. A man walked up to the car and pointed a
7
gun at the driver. He robbed the teens and raped one of the girls.
He then stole the car. About 30 minutes later, he was pulled over
8 for running a red light. As the two officers were walking away, he
shot them. Both officers were killed. Several hours later, an aban-
9 doned 1949 Ford was found. The crime-scene unit took photos
of the vehicle and dusted for fingerprints. Two partial latent prints
of a thumb were found on the steering wheel, but investigators
10 were unable to find a match. Unfortunately, the case went cold.
Forty-six years later, the LA County Criminalistics Unit
11 reexamined the two partial prints. Investigators used cutting-
edge digital fingerprinting technology to make digital copies
of the prints. They stitched together the prints collected from
12 the steering wheel and ran the print through the Integrated
AP PHOTO/ANNE CUSACK, POOL

Automated Fingerprinting Identification (IAFIS) database. Inves-

13 tigators were able to determine that the print was consistent
with the fingerprints of Gerald Fit Mason (see Figure 3-16).
On January 24, 2003, an official complaint was filed. Later,
14 detectives arrested Mason for rape, murder, and robbery. On
March 21, 2003, Mason confessed. Forty-six years after he
15 committed these crimes, Mason was sent to jail. He is serving
Figure 3-16. Gerald Fit Mason two life sentences.
16
Think Critically 1. Discuss some reasons why you think this case may have gone cold.
17 2. Why do you think a criminalistics department would reopen a case
after nearly 50 years?
18 3. Had this crime taken place today, what additional evidence may
have been collected and how would it have been processed?
19

20

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 Roger Reece Kibbe: The I-5 Strangler
Over the course of a decade, several women were murdered along
Interstate 5 near Sacramento, California. Each of the victims was stran-
gled and bound in a similar manner. The killer had cut the victims’ hair
and cut their clothes in unusual patterns. These similarities suggested
that the same person had murdered all the victims.
Eventually, Roger Reece Kibbe (see Figure 3-17) was charged with
killing Darcie Frackenpohl, a 17-year-old runaway. Extensive microscopic
and fiber analysis was presented at trial. Investigators had used a
comparison microscope to determine that a rope found in Kibbe’s car
was the same kind of rope used to strangle Darcie. Electron micros-
copy showed that the ropes had 10 elements in common. The electron
microscope analysis also showed that paint had been sprayed near
each rope. Both had traces of the same air contaminants.
On May 10, 1991, Kibbe was sentenced to 25 years to life in prison.
He was not eligible for parole for a minimum of 16 years and 8 months.

Figure 3-17. Roger Reece Kibbe

Think Critically 1. Was the analysis described in this case study quantitative or
qualitative? Explain.
2. Hair that was consistent with Kibbe’s two cats was found on the
clothing of one of the victims. Was this class or individual evidence?
What is the relevance of the fact that the hair was from two
different cats?

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 CHAPTER
Bibliography
Books and Journals
Lerner, K. Lee, and Brenda Wilmoth Lerner, eds. (2006). The World of Forensic Science. New York:
Gale Group.
Newton, Michael. (2008). The Encyclopedia of Crime Scene Investigation. New York: Info Base
1 Publishing, pp. 125–126.
Siegel, Jay. (2006). Forensic Science: The Basics. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, pp. 317–318.

2 Websites
www.biologymad.com/cells/microscopy.htm
www.cengage.com/school/forensicscienceadv
www.fbi.gov/hq/cjisd/takingfps.html
3 www.forensic-medicine.info/fingerprints.html
http://inventors.about.com/od/mstartinventions/a/microscope.htm
www.microscope-microscope.org/basic/microscope-history.htm
4 www.nfstc.org/pdi/Subject02/pdi_s02_m02_01_a.htm
www.redwop.com/download/dfo.pdf
www.rpi.edu/dept/chem-eng/Biotech-Environ/CHROMO/chromtypes.html
5 www.trutv.com

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

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 Gene Cushing: Latent Fingerprint Expert
Gene Cushing (see Figure 3-18) has been a crime- Currently, the LCSO requires only that appli-
scene investigator for the Lake County, Florida, cants for crime-scene investigator positions have
Sheriff’s Office (LCSO) since November 1996. He a high-school diploma. Cushing points out, how-
is a court-certified expert in processing scenes ever, that most recently hired investigators have
and items of evidence for latent fingerprints. He four-year college degrees in Forensic Science or in
is also the bloodstains expert for the LCSO and Criminal Justice and Forensic Justice.
is often called in to document and interpret blood- Cushing says that most people think that
stains at crime scenes. He has taken extensive what they see on popular television crime dra-
training in basic crime-scene procedures, forensic mas is a portrayal of what he does every day.
science, tire and shoe documentation and recov- For example, jurors often expect crime and evi-
ery, evidentiary photography, medicolegal investi- dence to be handled precisely and expertly in
gation of deaths, and blood pattern analysis. an hour. Additionally, these televisions shows
misrepresent automated fingerprint identification
systems. These systems do not give a person’s
name, address, or place of employment, and they
do not determine matches. Actual confirmation is
achieved manually.
Gene’s typical day involves processing crime
scenes, following up on pending cases, and
processing evidence for latent prints. He usu-
ally receives subpoenas for latent print evidence
about twice a month, but he rarely appears in
court. Because fingerprints are individual evi-
dence, defendants often settle the case without
going to trial.
PHOTO TAKEN BY L. LINDA DRESCHER, LCSO

Gene’s favorite part of his job is that LCSO

has had the good fortune to receive some of
the best equipment available. The sophisticated
equipment lessens the likelihood of closing cases
without prosecution. To him, the most challenging
part of the job is having cases with more ques-
tions than answers. One such case would be
Gene’s investigation into the disappearance of
still-missing two-year-old Trenton Duckett from his
Figure 3-18. Gene Cushing. Lake County home in 2007.

Learn More About It

To learn more about forensic science careers, go to
www.cengage.com/school/forensicscienceadv.

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 CHAPTER

CHAPTER 3

Matching
REVIEW
1
1. the distance between peaks a. frequency
2 of consecutive waves Obj. 3.7
2. property described by behavior in the b. wavelength
3 presence of another substance Obj. 3.1
3. the number of waves that pass a specific c. physical property
4 point within a given amount of time Obj. 3.7
4. property of substance that can be d. chemical property
5 observed or measured without changing
the composition of the substance Obj. 3.1
6

7
Multiple Choice
8
5. Which of the following is a physical property? Obj. 3.1
9 a. density
b. mass
10 c. melting point
d. all of the above

11 6. A fiber found at a crime scene is burned during a burn test. The

investigator observes several things, including the rate of the
12 burn, the color of the flame and ashes, and the smell released, to
determine the identity of the fiber. What kind of change is taking
place during a burn test? Obj. 3.1
13
a. physical
b. chemical
14 c. complete
d. none of the above
15
7. Which of the following microscopes shines light through the
specimen, allowing observation of cells? Obj. 3.3
16 a. comparison microscope
b. dissecting microscope
17 c. compound light microscope
d. electron microscope

18

19

20

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 Short Answer

8. Distinguish between physical properties and chemical properties.

Give examples of each. Obj. 3.1
_____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

9. Why is it important to reserve some of the evidence sample when

completing chemical tests? Obj. 3.1
_____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

10. Differentiate between presumptive and confirmatory tests. Obj. 3.2

_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

11. Why is a comparison microscope a useful tool in forensic

investigations? Obj. 3.3
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

12. Compare and contrast the scanning electron microscope and the
transmission electron microscope. Obj. 3.3
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

13. What types of materials can be analyzed using chromatography?

Be specific about which type of chromatography is best for each
substance. Obj. 3.5
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

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 CHAPTER
14. List and describe two forms of spectroscopy. Obj. 3.7
_____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________
1
15. Distinguish between the six kinds of fingerprint-developing techniques
2 described in this chapter. Obj. 3.8
_____________________________________________________________
3 _____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________
4
16. In a paper chromatography experiment, the solvent traveled
5 5.0 cm. Substance A traveled 3.0 cm. What is the Rf value of
substance A? Obj. 3.6

6 _____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________
7
_____________________________________________________________

8 17. Describe the structure of DNA. Obj. 3.9

_____________________________________________________________
9
_____________________________________________________________

10 _____________________________________________________________

18. Explain the difference between quantitative and qualitative analysis.

11 Give an example of a technique that aids in each. Obj. 3.4
_____________________________________________________________
12
_____________________________________________________________

13 _____________________________________________________________

14

15 Think Critically 19. A woman was found dead in her office one Saturday morning.
She had been shot in the back of the head. It was clear that the
perpetrator had opened the metal drawers of the woman’s desk
16
and searched through several files. Which fingerprint-development
techniques would the latent fingerprint expert be most likely to
17 use to visualize any fingerprints found at the scene? Obj. 3.8
20. In the scene described in question 19, the investigators found
18 a bullet lodged into the window frame above the woman’s desk.
What kinds of equipment are forensic scientists most likely to use
when examining the bullet? Obj. 3.3
19

20

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 Student-Prepared Original Titles

A Tale of Two Later that night, John and Carl got

together at John’s house to talk about a
Brothers big business deal coming up in a couple of
By: Meagan weeks. Casey was reading in the other room,
but she was also listening to the deal. At
Gallant and Corey 9:42 p.m., as Carl was getting ready to leave,
Stillwaggon he heard a muffled scream coming from the
Tavares High School direction of the kitchen. He didn’t think much
Tavares, Florida of it and left the house. Later, Carl returned to
John’s house, planning to pretend that he had
John Calabash, a tall, handsome 21-year- forgotten his wallet. His intention, though, was
old, was eating lunch with his beautiful to put a plan into action to discredit Casey.
girlfriend, Casey Perez, a 20-year-old social However, when he arrived at 10:33 p.m., he
butterfly with blue eyes and dark curly hair. found his brother dead in the kitchen; John
They began to talk about their relationship had been stabbed twice in the chest. Carl
and about his business. Casey wanted to went to look for Casey and found her dozing in
be more involved with the business, but a recliner with the book still open on her lap.
John, knowing what was at stake, told her After being told that her boyfriend was dead,
”no.” John she and Carl
and his older Figure 3-19. Evidence collected at the home of John Calabash. called 911.
brother, Carl, When the
were always police arrived,
competing for the crime
the top spot scene was
in the family secured,
business. and close-up
John and and long-
Casey had shot photos
a serious of the body
relationship, and evidence
© STEVE STARR/CORBIS

but marriage were taken.

was never Police began
discussed to collect the
between evidence,
them. John, including a
however, had large butcher
been talking to Carl a lot and was going to knife found in the kitchen. They also found
ask Casey to marry him soon. Carl was envi- evidence of a drug-related business, includ-
ous of his brother’s relationship with Casey. ing weapons, large amounts of cash, and
Above everything, though, he wanted to be drug paraphernalia (see Figure 3-19). They
in charge of the family business. Their father found hair resembling Casey’s and blood.
had recently died and, if anything ever hap- All of the evidence was sent to the lab for
pened to John, and John and Casey were further analysis. They dusted for fingerprints
married, the business would go to Casey, not and found some footprints that were cast
Carl. The family business was the largest and photographed. There was no sign of a
known drug business throughout the United break-in—no sign of tool marks or broken
States. glass at entry points. As the police began to

89

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 investigate an open window, they also began Activity:
questioning Casey and Carl.
Answer the following questions based on
Casey stated that she had been talking
information in the Crime Scene S.P. O.T..
with John when Carl came over to visit, but
that she had gone into the study to leave 1. Identify the evidence in the story and
them alone to discuss business. She had classify it as class or individual.
been reading a book, but eventually fell 2. What motives did Carl and Casey have
asleep in the chair. When she awoke, Carl for killing John?
told her that he had forgotten something and
had returned to find John, stabbed to death, 3. Hair that resembled Casey’s was found
lying in the kitchen. at the crime scene. Is that important to
Carl claimed that he left the house at the case? Why or why not?
about 9:45 p.m., and returned at about 4. Write your own ending to this
10:30 p.m., to pick up his wallet. When mystery. Be sure to include
asked how he got into the house, he admit- details about the analysis that
ted he had a key. He said he walked into would be done in the lab. You
the kitchen, where he believed he had can be creative, but be sure that your
left his wallet, and that was when he saw ending is logical and that you demon-
John lying on the floor. He instantly ran strate an understanding of various analy-
to find Casey. sis techniques. Your ending should be
500 words or less.

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 Preventing Adolescent Crime Together™ (P.A.C.T)
Introduction:
Each person—even an identical twin—has unique fingerprints. However,
the pattern of fingerprints is a class characteristic because there are only
loops, whorls, and arches. The minute detail of the ridges within the pat-
terns gives fingerprints their individual characteristics. When comparing
fingerprints, investigators look at the number and location of ridge endings,
bifurcations, and several other specific details. Some law-enforcement
departments use fingerprint cards and child identification kits to record
individuals’ fingerprints.

Materials:
wet wipes
ink (strips or pads)
fingerprint 10-card

Procedure:
1. Wash hands and use a wet wipe to make sure all residues and dirt
are removed from hands and fingers.
2. Place the ink pad or strip on the table. Stand at a comfortable dis-
tance from the table.
3. Grasp the hand of the person being fingerprinted carefully but firmly.
Be sure not to touch your partner’s fingertips.
4. Place the index finger on the ink pad or strip. Roll the bulb of the
finger from one edge of the fingernail to the other edge. Make sure
the ink is on the finger from the tip to just below the first crease (see
Figure 3-20). Note: Using too much ink will make the ridge character-
istics indistinguishable. Using too little ink will cause the print to be
too light to see detail.
5. Roll the index finger from nail to nail on the designated area of the
labeled card. Lift the finger after rolling to avoid smearing the print
detail.
6. Repeat steps 2–5 until you have printed each finger on both hands.
ISTOCKPHOTO

Figure 3-20. Proper inking for fingerpriniting.

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 7. Wash hands thoroughly to remove all traces of the ink.
8. Trade roles with your partner, and repeat steps 1–7.
9. Complete the card with as much detail as possible. If necessary, use
the notations described in Figure 3-21 on your card.

Abnormality Acceptable Notations

One or more fingers, thumbs, or AMP (for an amputation)

hands are missing. MAB (missing at birth)
XX
An individual has a bandage or Unable to Print
cast on a finger, thumb, or hand. UP
Permanent tissue damage exists to Take the prints as they exist; you may
a finger, thumb, or hand. include the notation “scarred,” but it is
not necessary.
Injury, birth defect, or disease has Special equipment may be needed, but
caused abnormal structure of a every attempt should be made to utilize
finger, thumb, or hand. techniques previously mentioned.
Individual has more than five Print the thumb and the next four fingers.
fingers on one or both hands.
Two or more fingers are grown Roll as completely as possible and make
together. a note on the fingerprint card.

Figure 3-21. The FBI-recognized notations above should be made to describe

abnormalities of the fingers, thumbs, or hands. All notations should be made in the
corresponding block of the fingerprint card.

92 Forensii c LLaboratory
Forensic abor
b atory
t T
Techniques
e ch
h niques
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 AC T I V I T Y 3 - 1 Ch. Obj: 3.1, 3.4
SEPARATING MIXTURES

Objectives:
By the end of this activity, you will be able to:
1. Determine physical properties of various materials.
2. Design an experiment to separate a mixture.
3. Evaluate the success of the experiment.

Materials:
(per group of three or four students)
bag of sand (A) magnets
bag of poppy seeds (B) paper plates
bag of salt (C) paper towels
bag of iron filings (D) rubber band
bag of mixture (E) sifter
aluminum foil spoons
filter paper stirring rod
forceps tissue paper
funnels variety of glassware
hot plate water

Safety Precautions:
Wear safety goggles when handling glassware.
Wear apron.
Be careful when handling hot plate.
Do not handle heated glassware with bare hands.

Procedure:
1. Examine each of the samples (A–E). Note that sample E is a mixture
of the other four.
2. Using the equipment and materials available to you, determine any
properties that distinguish one sample from the others. Record your
observations in your data table.

Data Table. Properties of samples.

Sand Iron Filings Salt Poppy Seeds

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 3. Based on your observations, design an experimental procedure
for separating sample E into its individual components. Be sure to
include:
a. The hypothesis and materials you used
b. The steps of your procedure
c. Qualitative and quantitative data
d. An analysis of the data
e. A conclusion

Questions:
1. Were you successful in separating the components of the mixture?
Explain.
2. If you had done the steps of your procedure in a different order,
would the outcome have been the same? Why or why not?
3. Are there supplies that were not provided but that might have made
the task easier? Explain.
4. What would you do differently if you were given an opportunity to do
this lab again?

Bonus:
1. The mixture in Sample E included iron filings. How would your
experimental procedure have changed if the iron filings had been
replaced by aluminum filings?
2. The mixture in Sample E included salt. How would your experimental
procedure and results have changed if the salt had been replaced
by sugar?

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 AC T I V I T Y 3 - 2 Ch. Obj: 3.3
MICROSCOPY

Objectives:
By the end of this activity, you will be able to:
1. Operate a compound microscope and a stereomicroscope.
2. Sketch samples in the field of view.

Materials:
(per group of two or three students)
prepared slides
compound microscope
stereomicroscope
protective gloves (optional)

Safety Precautions:
Always carry the microscope with both hands.
If you are allergic to latex, alert your teacher so that you may use
alternative gloves.

Procedure:
1. Review the parts of the microscope with your teacher.
2. Place a prepared slide on the stage of the compound microscope.
3. Beginning with the lowest magnification, focus on the sample.
4. Once the field of view is in focus, rotate the nosepiece to a higher
magnification.
5. Continue until you get the best image.
6. Draw what you see. Pay attention to detail.
7. View the slide under the stereomicroscope. Draw what you see,
paying attention to detail.
8. Repeat with each of the additional slides provided.

Questions:
1. To get the best image, was the magnification the same for every
slide? Why or why not?
2. Were some slides better viewed under one microscope than under
the other? Explain.
3. If you had several samples of the same thing but from different
sources (example: cat hair, dog hair, and human hair or dyed fibers
and bloody fibers), how were you able to distinguish between the
samples?
4. Based on the samples provided by your teacher, from what types of
crime scenes could you expect to find those items of evidence?
5. Determine whether each item is class or individual evidence. Explain.

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 AC T I V I T Y 3 - 3 Ch. Obj: 3.5
PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY

Objectives:
By the end of this activity, you will be able to:
1. Perform paper chromatography.
2. Determine whether the document had been altered.

Materials:
(per group of two students)
4 prepared chromatography strips
scissors
50 mL beakers (2)
10 mL distilled water
10 mL isopropanol
paper towels
stapler or tape

Safety Precautions:
Wear safety goggles, an apron, and gloves.
Consult MSDS sheets for specific instructions for handling and disposal of
alcohol.
If you are allergic to latex, alert your teacher so that you may use
alternative gloves.

Background:
Bill Evans owns a construction company. He has become very success-
ful in the last several years. To save money, Bill and his wife have been
keeping their own books rather than hiring an accountant. The business-
related receipts and invoices are useful when they fill out their tax forms
each year.
Last week, Bill was told that his business would be audited. The IRS
wants to see business records for the last four years. The purpose of the
audit is to make sure that Bill and his wife have been paying the taxes they
owe. The auditor has asked Bill to bring all of his business-related receipts
and invoices to the auditor’s office.
Bill and his wife panicked and began collecting every piece of paper they
could find. They found some of the receipts from the purchase of computer
equipment for the new business, most of the invoices, the payroll records,
and the majority of the receipts for materials purchased. However, they
could not find all of the receipts. Bill was not sure he had all the docu-
ments he needed to support the numbers written in the business records
books. He considered changing the amounts on several of the receipts. He
thought, “I’ll use this black pen and change some of those 3s to 8s. No
one will ever know the difference.”

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 Procedure:
1. Your teacher will give you four pieces of chromatography paper. Each
of the papers will have an ink sample cut from different areas of Bill’s
receipts.
2. Trim the bottom corners of each strip to form a V. Be sure you do not
cut the ink sample.
3. Add about 0.5 cm of water to one beaker and 0.5 cm of isopropanol
to the other. Label each beaker.
4. Place paper strips 1 and 2 into the beaker labeled “water.” Be sure
the ink dots stay above the water, as shown in the following figure.

Figure 1. Experiment set-up.

5. Place paper strips 3 and 4 into the beaker labeled “isopropanol.” Be

sure the ink dots stay above the isopropanol.
6. Leave the beakers and strips undisturbed until the solvent (water or
isopropanol) has dampened most of the length of the strip.
7. Carefully remove the strips from the beakers. Place them on a paper
towel to dry. Do not allow the strips to touch each other.
8. Staple or tape the dry strips to your post-laboratory answers.

Questions:
1. Based on your chromatography results, do you think that Bill changed
his receipts? Support your answer.
2. Is water always a good solvent for separating inks? Explain.
3. How could a teacher use chromatography to determine whether a stu-
dent’s answers have been changed after a test has been graded and
returned?

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 AC T I V I T Y 3 - 4 Ch. Obj: 3.4, 3.5, 3.6
SMOOCH!

Objectives:
By the end of this activity, you will be able to:
1. Use chromatography to distinguish between the four similar shades
of lipstick.
2. Calculate Rf values.
3. Differentiate between the lip patterns.

Materials:
(per group of two or three students)
chromatography paper
pencil
metric ruler
scissors
cotton swabs (5)
lipstick samples, labeled 1–5 and E
solvent
beaker
aluminum foil or plastic wrap
evidence envelope
suspect envelope
hand lens

Safety Precautions:
Wear safety goggles, an apron, and gloves.
Consult MSDS sheet for the proper handling and disposal of the solvent.
If you are allergic to latex, alert your teacher so that you may use
alternative gloves.

Background:
The president of your school’s student government needs your help. He has
received several notes from a secret admirer and would like to know more
about her. All of the notes are in envelopes with a lip print—a smooch—on
the outside. The student president was able to get lipstick and lip-print
samples from each of the girls he suspects. Your task is to determine
which of the girls wrote the notes.

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 Figure 1. Cut the chromatography paper along the pencil line.

Procedure:
1. Gently fold the chromatography paper in half vertically. Open the
paper, and use a pencil to draw a dot in the fold about 2.5 cm from
the edge of the paper.
2. Using a pencil, draw a line through the dot perpendicular to the fold.
Cut the paper along this line, as shown in Figure 1.
3. With your pencil, mark two points that are 1 cm from the cut edge of
your paper. Draw a line through these points, all of the way across
the page.
4. Label the paper across the top (in pencil) with your group number.
5. Write the number or letter for each lipstick sample across the top of
your chromatography paper, as shown in Figure 2.
6. Use a cotton swab to place a small dot of lipstick sample 1 on the
line below the number 1.
7. Repeat step 6 for each of the samples provided. Use a clean cotton
swab for each sample.

Figure 2. Place a small dot of each lipstick sample along the pencil line near the
bottom of your chromatography paper.

8. Pour a small amount of solvent into the bottom of the beaker. The
solvent should just cover the bottom of the beaker. Measure and
record the depth of the solvent.

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 Data Table 1. Lip-print observations.
Sample Lip-Print Sketches Observations
Evidence

9. Carefully place the prepared chromatography paper into the beaker

with the flat side resting on the bottom. Make sure the solvent does
not touch the lipstick dots. It may help to fold the paper slightly
along the crease so it will stand alone in the beaker.
10. Cover the beaker with aluminum foil or plastic wrap. Leave the beaker
undisturbed for approximately 30 minutes or until the solvent reaches
the top of the chromatography paper.
11. While you are waiting, obtain the suspect and evidence lip prints
from your teacher. Record the numbers and corresponding samples
in Data Table 1.
12. Using a hand lens, compare the suspect prints with the one on the
evidence envelope. Divide each lip print into quadrants and sketch
the pattern one quadrant at a time. You may also take notes on
your sketches.
13. When the chromatograms are finished separating, remove the paper
from the beaker and mark with pencil the solvent front (the farthest
distance traveled). Allow the chromatogram to dry completely.
14. Calculate the Rf value for each of the samples. Record your data in
Data Table 2.
a. Measure the distance in millimeters from the line of origin
(pencil line) to the sample front. Record the distance.
b. Measure the distance of the solvent front from the original
depth of the solvent. Record.
c. Calculate the Rf value using the following equation:

Distance traveled by the sample (in cm)

Rf =
Distance traveled by the solvent (in cm)

d. Repeat for all of the samples.

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 Data Table 2. Chromatography data.
Sample Distance Solvent Distance Sample Rf Calculations
Traveled Traveled
Evidence

Questions:
1. Which suspect wrote the notes? How do you know?
2. If you were called in as an expert witness, what types of qualitative
and quantitative data could you offer to identify the secret admirer?
3. Do you think a lip print could be used to convict or exonerate a
suspect?
4. If the chromatography paper were doubled in size and the solvent
were allowed to travel twice as long, would the Rf values change?

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 AC T I V I T Y 3 - 5 Ch. Obj: 3.8
FINGERPRINTING

Objective:
By the end of this activity, you will be able to:
Develop fingerprints using silver nitrate.

Materials:
(per group of three or four students)
3 pieces of paper
newspaper
small spray bottle
silver nitrate solution
watch or clock
UV light (optional)
stereoscope or hand lens

Safety Precautions:
Wear goggles, gloves, and an apron when working with silver nitrate.
If you are allergic to latex, alert your teacher so that you may use
alternative gloves.
Silver nitrate will stain clothing. It will also leave skin discolored for
several days.

Procedures:
1. Before putting on your gloves, pass three pieces of paper around
your group. Be sure that at least one person places his or her fin-
gers firmly in the center of the paper. These papers will now be your
samples.
2. Cover your work space with newspaper and put the three samples on
top of the newspaper. Put on your gloves.
3. Dampen all three samples with the silver nitrate solution. The sam-
ples should be damp but not completely wet.
4. Allow the samples to dry for 20 minutes.
5. Place the samples in direct sunlight or under an ultraviolet light.
Check the development of your prints every few minutes until they
turn dark gray or black. Record how long it took for the prints to
develop.
6. Observe the prints under the stereoscope or magnifying lens. Note
the differences among the different prints. Draw two different prints
from each sample.

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 Questions:
1. How long did it take for the fingerprints to develop?
2. What characteristics of the prints were visible? What characteristics
might have helped you determine which prints belonged to each per-
son in your group?

Extension:
Design an experimental procedure for identifying an unknown fingerprint.
Be sure to include a list of the materials, the steps of your procedure,
and the qualitative and quantitative data you would collect. Your experi-
mental procedure should include a questioned sample and three or four
known samples.

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