Machining: Various manufacturing processes are used to bring the metal into desired shape.

In some of the processes, metal is brought to desired shape under the action of pressure and
heat or both. The examples of such type of processes are forging, drawing, rolling, extrusion
etc. While in others we need to remove unwanted material from parent metal in the form of
chips through machining. Some of machining processes are Milling, drilling, Broaching,
Turning, shaping, planning, boring etc.
The basic objectives of efficient and economical machining practice are
1. The machine tool should remain idle for lesser time
2. Less power should be consumed during machining
3. Quick metal removal rate
4. Better surface finish
5. Tool cost should be low
6. Cost of replacement and sharpening of tool should be low
Basic elements of Machining: The basic elements of machining are
1. work piece
2. tool and
3. Chip.
For any cutting action, it is necessary to have relative motion between tool and work piece.
Unwanted material is removed from work piece by the cutting action of the tool. The type of
chips formed is greatly affected by the work piece material, geometry of cutting tool and
method of cutting. The chip formed can be continuous, discontinuous or segmental and
continuous chips with built up edge.

Fig: basic element of machining

Method of cutting: method of cutting can be classified into two types
1. Orthogonal cutting
2. Oblique cutting
Classification of cutting tools: Classification of cutting tools can be classified into
According to cutting edge
1. Single point tools: Those having only one cutting edge. Ex. Lathe tools, Shaper tools,
Planer tools, Boring tools etc.
2. Multi-Pont tools: - Those having more than one cutting edge Ex: Milling cutters, Drills,
Broachers, Grinding wheels.
According To The Motion As:
1. Linear motion tools: Lathe, Boring, Broaching, Planning and Shaping tools.
2. Rotary motion tools: Milling cutters, grinding wheels.
3. Linear and Rotary Tools: Drills, Honing Tools, Boring Heads Etc.
Single Point Cutting Tool Geometry or Nomenclature:
The following Tool Geometry or Nomenclature of Single Point Cutting Tool are:
1. Shank
2. Flank
3. Face
4. Heel
5. Nose
6. Nose Radius
7. Cutting Edges
8. Side Cutting Edge Angle
9. End Cutting Edge Angle
10. Back Rake angle
11. Side rake angle
12. Side Relief Angle and
13. Back Relief Angle
 1. Shank: Shank is the main body of the tool. Shank is always held in the holder. It is the
back portion of the tool which is held by the tool post.
2. Flank: Flank is the surfaces that are vertical and adjacent to the cutting edge. There
are two types of flank i.e., Side flank (major flank) and end flank (minor flank).
3. Face: The face is the top surface of the tool so that after cutting chips slides over it.
The faces are the horizontal surface just adjacent to the cutting edge.
4. Heel: Heel is the intersection of the base and the flank of the tool.
5. Nose: The nose is also called the cutting point of the single-point cutting tool. It is the
intersection point of major cutting edge and minor cutting edge.
6. Nose Radius: The nose is given radius or gives the circular arc(nose) and it is the
intersecting area of the major and minor cutting edge. By giving curve to the nose, it
will impart strength to the single-point cutting tool. Nose radius plays an important role
in the surface finish of the final product.
7. Cutting Edges: The cutting edges are prepared by grinding. It is the edge on the face
of the tool which removes the material from the work piece.
8. Side Cutting Edge angle: Side cutting Edge angle is the angle between the side cutting
edge and the line extending the shank. The angle is measured in a plane parallel to the
base.
9. End Cutting Edge Angle: End Cutting Edge Angle Is the angle between the end
cutting edge and the line passing through the tip perpendicular to the tool axis and the
angle is measured in a plane parallel to the base.
10. Back rake angle: Back rake angle is the angle between the line parallel to the tool axis
passing through the tip and the rake face and angle are measured in a plane
perpendicular to the base. After plastic deformation chips flow over the rake face and
heavy drag exists between chip and rake face.
11. Side Rake angle: Side Rake Angle is the angle between the rake face and the Line
passing through the tip perpendicular axis and the angle is measured in a plane
perpendicular to the base. Normally this angle varies 5-15 degrees.
12. Side Relief Angle: Side relief angle is the angle between the side flank and the line
passing through the tip perpendicular to the base and the angle is measured in a plane
perpendicular to the tool axis. This angle varies in the range of 5-15°.
13. End Relief Angle (Clearance angle): End relief angle is the angle between the end
fink and the line passing through the tip perpendicular to the base and angle is measured
in-plane parallel to the tool axis.
CUTTING TOOL SIGNATURE
Single point cutting tools are such cutters that contain only one main cutting edge that can
participate in cutting action in a single pass. Convenient way to specify tool angles by use of a
standardized abbreviated system is known as tool signature or tool nomenclature. It indicates
the angles that a tool utilizes during the cut. It specifies the active angles of the tool normal to
the cutting edge. This will always be true as long as the tool shank is mounted at right angles
to the work-piece axis. The seven elements that comprise the signature of a single point cutting
tool can be stated in the following order.
1. American Standards Association (ASA) system
2. Orthogonal Rake System (ORS)
3. Normal Rake System (NRS)
 1. Tool signature in ASA system
American Standards Association (ASA) system utilizes three mutually perpendicular planes
for reference purpose namely Machine longitudinal plane, Machine transverse plane and
Reference plane. Tool signature in ASA system consists of two rake angles, two clearance
angles, two cutting edge angles and the nose radius of a single point cutting tool

Ex: Tool signature 0-7-6-8-15-16-0.8

1. Back rake angle (0°)
2. Side rake angle (7°)
3. End relief angle (6°)
4. Side relief angle (8°)
5. End cutting edge angle (15°)
6. Side cutting edge angle (16°)
7. Nose radius (0.8 mm)

2. ORS ( Orthogonal Rake system) System of Tool Designation

 3. Tool signature in NRS ( Normal Rake System) system:

Mechanics of orthogonal cutting

Fig: mechanics of orthogonal cutting

During cutting action of a metal, the thickness of the deformed or upward flowing chip in more
than the actual depth of cut. It is because the chip flows upwards at a slower rate than the
velocity of the cut. The velocity of the chip flow is directly affected the shear plane angle. The
smaller the shear plane angle the slower will be the chip flow – velocity and therefore longer
will be the thickness of the chip.

t = chip thickness prior to deformation

tc = chip thickness after deformation tc > t ,
The chip thickness ratio r = t/tc
Since tc in always greater than t, the value of chip thickness ratio r is always less than unity.
The higher the value of r, the better is supposed to be cutting action. The reverse of r is known
as chip reduction co efficient. If k is the chip reduction co efficient K = in orthogonal cutting
the width of the chip equals the width of the cut. Considering specific gravity of the metal as
constant, the volume of the chip produced will be equal to the volume of the metal cut. Width
of both being equal, the product of the chip thickness and its length will, therefore be equal to
the product of the thickness of the metal cut and length of metal cut. If L1 and L2 are lengths
of the metal cut and chip respectively.
Where
α = rake angle ϕ= shear angle
CHIP FORMATION
1. Material removed from a work piece with the help of a tool are known as chips. Chips are
formed by shearing.
2. Machiningofmaterialishighlydependentonchips.Chips are formed during the machining
process.
3. As the cutting tool engages the work piece, the material ahead of tool is sheared and
deformed under tremendous pressure.
4. The deformed material then seeks to relieve its stressed condition by fracturing and
flowing above the tool in the form of chip and hence the chips are formed.
Machining can be a finishing or semi-finishing process done by removal of material from
the work piece.
5. The excess material is removed from the work piece in the form of chips.
Types of chip removed during a machining process depends on:
1) Material used as work piece.
2) Material used in cutting tool.
3) Dimension of Tool.
4) Speed of cutting.
5) Feed Rate.
6) Cutting environment like temperature.
7) Friction between tool and work piece.
8) Forces involved in metal cutting.
Mainly chips are of three types:-
1) Discontinuous chips.
2) Continuous chips.
3) Continuous Chips with built up edges (or BUE chips)
1) Discontinuous Chips:-
1) If the chips during machining process is not continuous i.e. formed with breakage are
called discontinuous chips.
2) Discontinuous chips are formed when brittle or hard metals like brass, bronze and cast
iron are used as work piece in the machining process.
3) Discontinuous chips are also formed in ductile material when the friction between tool
and work piece is high. Discontinuous chips is not a good sign for machining of ductile
material as it gives poor surface finish and machining process becomes slow.
Discontinuous chips are formed in the following conditions:-
 Material of work piece: When the work piece is made of brittle material such
as cast iron and bronze.
 Bevels: Small bevels of cut tools.
 Cutting Speed: Cutting speed is low.
 When the feed is large and chip is thick.
 Rake Angle: Small rake angle.
 Friction: High friction forces at the chip tool interface.
 Depth of cut: Large value of depth of cut.
2) Continuous Chips:-
1) Continuous chips are the chips formed during machining without breakage or without
segments.
2) These chips are formed by the continuous plastic deformation of metal without fracture
in front of the cutting edge.
3) Continuous Chips are mainly formed during cutting of ductile material like mild steel,
aluminium and copper.

Factors responsible for formation of continuous chips:-

1. Material of Work piece: When ductile material is used as the work piece.
2. Cutting Speed: Cutting speed is high.
3. Chip thickness: Thickness of chip is less.
4. Rake Angle: Rake angle is large.
5. Depth of cut: Depth of cut should be small.
6. Lubricants and Coolants: Lubricants and coolants should be used efficiently.
7. Coefficient of friction: Coefficient of material of tool should be low.
8. Friction: Friction of chip on tool face should be minimum.
3) Continuous Chip with Built Up Edge:-
1) This type of chip is similar to continuous chip and it has a built up edge adjacent to the
tool face and also is not as smooth as continuous edge.
2) Actually, Built Up Edge (BUE) is an accumulation of material against the rake face,
that seizes to the tool tip, seperating it from the chip.
3) BUE is form during machining of ductile metal when excessive friction exists between
tool and work piece.

Formation of Built Up Edge: Built up Edges are formed mainly due to friction between
the tool and interface of chip. Because of friction between the tool and the chip, very intense
heat is generated near the nose of the tool.
1. The compressed metal near the nose of the tool get welded due to high temperature near
the nose. This compressed metal near welded to the nose is called built up edge.
The chip flows through this built up edge and gets broken and get carried away by the
chip and are called as built up edge chip.
2. Rest of the built up edge stick to the surface of the work piece and make it rough.
As built up edge is formed near nose of tool, rake angle of the tool changes and so the
cutting force also changes.
Built up Edge are formed in the following conditions:-
1. Wok piece Material: Metal used as work piece is ductile.
2. Friction: High friction exists near the face of the tool.
3. Coolant: Insufficient coolant and lubricant.
4. Temperature: High temperature near the tool face while cutting.
5. Feed Rate: High value of feed rate.
6. Cutting Speed: Low cutting speed.
7. Rake Angle: Very small rake angle.
MERCHANTS CIRCLE DIAGRAM:
A Merchant circle diagram is a graphical representation of number of forces acting on a work
piece during metal cutting operation. There are 3 triangle of forces acting during metal cutting
operation. They are:-
1. Triangle of forces for cutting force (Fc).
2. Triangle of forces for shear force (Fs).
3. Triangle of forces for frictional force (F).
Assumptions made while drawing a Merchant circle diagram.
1. The shear plane is always acting upwards.
2. The cutting edge is too sharp.
3. Chip width is constant.
4. The Depth of cut is constant.
5. No built-up-edge is formed.
Where
α= rake angle ϕ=shear angle
β=friction angle FC=cutting force
FT=thrust force FS=shear force
FSN=normal shear force F=friction force
N=normal force R=Resultant force

Problems Related Merchant Circle Diagram

Properties of cutting tool materials
1. Red hardness or Hot Hardness: It is the ability of a material to retain its hardness at
high temperature
2. Wear resistance: It enables the cutting tool to retain its shape and cutting efficiency
3. Toughness: It relates to the ability of a material to resist shock or impact loads
associated with interrupted cuts
CLASSIFICATION TOOL MATERIALS
1. Carbon-Tool Steels:
 0.6-1.5% carbon + little amount of Mn, Si, Cr, V to increase hardness.
 Low carbon varieties possess good toughness & shock resistance.
 High carbon varieties possess good abrasion resistance
2. High Speed Steels (HSS):
 High carbon+ little amount Tungsten, Molybdenum, Cr, V & cobalt to increase
hardness, toughness and wear résistance.
 High operating temperatures up to 600oC.
 Chromium increases hardenability
 Cobalt is added to HSS to increase red hardness
3. Cast Cobalt Base Alloys:
 It is a combination of W, Cr, carbon and Cobalt which form an alloy with red hardness,
wear resistance and toughness. It is prepare by casting.
 Used for machining Cast iron, alloy steels, non-ferrous metals and super alloys
4. Cemented Carbides:
 These are carbides of W, Titanium and tantalum with small amount of cobalt produced
by means of powder metallurgy route.
  Two types i.e, Straight Tungsten Carbide Cobalt Grade and Alloyed Tungsten Carbide
Grade
 Straight Tungsten Carbide Cobalt Grade: Cast iron, non-ferrous alloys, plastics, wood,
glass etc.
 Alloyed Tungsten Carbide Grade: All grades of steel at 3 to 4 times more speeds than
HSS
5. Ceramic Tools:
 Aluminium Oxide, Silicon Carbide, Boron Carbide, Titanium Carbide, Titanium
Boride
 High speed, longer tool life, superior surface finish, No coolant is required.
6. Diamond Tools:
 More abrasion resistance
 Used for turning grinding wheels
 Used to produce mirror surface finish.
 Diamond abrasive belts are used to produce TV screens
 Poly crystalline diamond inserts are brazed into cutting edges of circular saws for
cutting construction materials like concrete, refractories, stone etc.
TOOL LIFE:
As a machining operation progresses, the cutting edge of the tool gradually wears out and at a
certain stage it stops cutting metal efficiently
1. It has to be re-sharpened to make it cut.
2. Tool life – useful cutting life of the tool from the start of cut until such a time when the
tool no longer performs the designed function defined by the failure criteria.
3. Tool life is defined as the length of cutting time that the tool can be used satisfactorily.
The various factors affecting cutting tool life are:
1. Cutting Tool material
2. Work piece material
3. Machining parameters
4. Cutting tool geometry
5. Cutting fluid
6. Nature of cutting (continuous or intermittent)
Tool life is governed mainly by the level of the machining parameters i.e.,
1. Cutting velocity (V)
2. Feed (f)
3. Depth of cut (d)
Cutting velocity affects maximum and depth of cut minimum
TAYLORS EQUATION:
1. If the tool lives, T1 , T2 , T3 , T4 etc. are plotted against the corresponding cutting
velocities, V1 , V2 , V3 , V4 etc. as shown in Fig. below, a smooth curve like a
rectangular hyperbola is found to appear.
2. When Taylor plotted the same figure taking both V and T in log-scale, a more distinct
linear relationship appeared.

3. With the slope, n and intercept, c, Taylor derived the simple equation as
VTn = C
4. Where, n is called, Taylor’s tool life exponent. The values of both ‘n’ and ‘C’ depend
mainly upon the tool work materials and the cutting environment (cutting fluid
application).
5. The value of C depends also on the limiting value of VB undertaken (i.e., 0.3 mm, 0.4
mm, 0.6 mm etc.)
6. Common Values for n
n = 0.1 to 0.15 for HSS tools
= 0.2 to 0.4 for Carbide tools
= 0.4 to 0.6 for Ceramic tools
MODIFIED TAYLOR’S TOOL LIFE EQUATION
1. In Taylor’s tool life equation, only the effect of variation of cutting velocity, V on tool
life has been considered. But practically, the variation in feed (f) and depth of cut (d)
also play role on tool life to some extent.
2. Taking into account the effects of all those parameters, the Taylor’s tool life equation
has been modified as, V(Tn f xd y ) = CT
3. Where, T = tool life in min
4. CT ⎯ a constant depending mainly upon the tool – work materials and the limiting value
of VB undertaken x, y and n ⎯ exponents so called tool life exponents depending upon
the tool - work materials and the machining environment.
5. Generally, x > y > n as V affects tool life maximum and d minimum.
PROBLEMS:

SOLUTION:
2.

3.
CUTTING FLUIDS
Cutting fluids are Reduces cutting temperature directly by taking away the heat from the
cutting zone and also indirectly by reducing generation of heat by reducing cutting forces and
friction.
Cutting Fluids - Purposes of application
1. Cooling of the job and the tool to reduce the detrimental effects of cutting temperature
on the job and the tool
2. Lubrication at the chip–tool interface and the tool flanks to reduce cutting forces and
friction and thus the amount of heat generation.
3. Cleaning the machining zone by washing away the chip – particles and debris which, if
present, spoils the finished surface and accelerates damage of the cutting edges
4. Protection of the nascent finished surface – a thin layer of the cutting fluid sticks to the
machined surface and thus prevents its harmful contamination by the gases like SO2,
O2, present in the atmosphere.
5. The main aim of application of cutting fluid is to improve machinability through
reduction of cutting forces and temperature, improvement by surface integrity and
enhancement of tool life
TYPES OF CUTTING FLUIDS
Generally, cutting fluids are employed in liquid form but occasionally also employed in
gaseous form. Only for lubricating purpose, often solid lubricants are also employed in
machining and grinding.
1. Gaseous type: Machining of some materials like grey cast iron become inconvenient or
difficult if any cutting fluid is employed in liquid form. In such case only air blast is
recommended for cooling and cleaning only. – Poor lubricating properties – Some commonly
used gaseous cutting fluids are:
a. Air – effective coolant when used in sub-zero cooled state
b. CO2 – has excellent heat extraction property (higher cost)
c. Ar
2. Liquid type:
1. Water – Due to its very high specific heat, water is considered as the best coolant and
hence employed where cooling is most urgent – Poor lubricating properties and have a
tendency to cause rust and corrosion.
2. Oil Based cutting fluids i. Soluble Oil/ Emulsions – Non expensive – Oil containing
some emulsifying agent (soap) and additive like EPA, together called cutting
compound, is mixed with water in a suitable ratio ( 1 ~ 2 in 20 ~ 50). – Oil tends to
reduce corrosion – This milk like white emulsion, called soluble oil, is very common
and widely used in machining and grinding
3. Cutting oils (Mineral Oil + Straight fatty oil) – Cutting oils are generally compounds
of mineral oil to which are added desired type and amount of vegetable, animal or
marine oils –called straight fatty oils (e.g. Lard oil) for improving spreading, wetting
and lubricating properties.
 4. Aqueous solutions/Chemical fluids – These are occasionally used fluids which are
water based where some organic and or inorganic materials are dissolved in water
(alkali like sodium carbonate, potassium carbonate etc.) to enable desired cutting fluid
action.
3. Solid or semi-solid lubricant
1. Either applied directly to the work piece or as an constituent in the tool
2. Reduce friction and thus cutting forces, temperature and tool wear
3. E.g.: Paste, waxes, soaps, graphite, Molybdenum-disulphide (MoS2 )
4. Cryogenic cutting fluid
1. Extremely cold (cryogenic) fluids like liquid CO2 or N2 are used in some special cases
for effective cooling without creating much environmental pollution and health
hazards
MACHINABILITY
Is a term used to assess the ease with which a material could be machined. Difficult to quantify
machinability since a large number of factors are involved.
The major factors are:
1. Cutting forces and power absorbed
2. Tool wear and Tool life
3. Surface finish
4. Dimensional accuracy
5. Machining cost
These factor are affected by variables like, work material, tool material & geometry, cutting
conditions, machine variables etc.
Variables affecting machinability
1. Work material - hardness, tensile strength, microstructure etc.
2. tool material & geometry – rake angle and nose radius have effect on surface finish and
other parameters
3. Cutting conditions – cutting speed, feed, use of cutting fluids etc.
4. Machine variables – power, torque, accuracy, rigidity etc.
MACHINABILITY INDEX
1. Tool life is the most important factor for assessing machinability.
2. Since tool life is a direct function of cutting speed, a better machinable metal is one which
permits higher cutting speed for a given tool life.
3. Machinability rating/index: – Helps in comparing machinability of different materials – It
is relative measure, comparing to a index which is standardized. (Machinability index of
free cutting steel is arbitrarily fixed as 100 %)
4. For other materials:
5. Machinability index (%) = Cutting speed of material for 20 min tool life /
Cutting speed of free cutting steel for 20 min tool life