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Homemade : an exploratory study on the impact of cooking on

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Chen, Tammie G., "Homemade : an exploratory study on the impact of cooking on family relationships and
cultural identity development" (2013). Masters Thesis, Smith College, Northampton, MA.
https://scholarworks.smith.edu/theses/1077

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 Tammie Chen
Homemade: An Exploratory Study
on the Impact of Cooking on
Family Relationships and
Cultural Identity Development
ABSTRACT

This mixed-method study investigates the role of cooking in family relationships and

cultural identity development. Through an online survey, 275 participants assessed the perceived

relevance and usefulness of cooking. Participants evaluated both whether or not cooking altered

their level of connection to family and culture as well as how family relationships and cultural

identity were impacted.

The findings demonstrate three primary reasons participants cook: to feed themselves

and others, to bring people together, and to show care. The study suggests that cooking can be a

vehicle of connection to both family and culture. Participants with a more recent family

immigration history feel a stronger connection to culture through cooking while participants who

have had more previous family generations living in the United States feel a stronger connection

to family through cooking. In addition, the findings found that those who more often cook meals

native to their culture, feel more positively toward that culture, and vise versa. Also, the more

participants cooked with their parents during childhood, the more positive their attitude toward

their family.

Major themes about cooking’s impact on family include: reflection of family dynamics,

opportunity to connect, tangible care, means of feeling appreciated, place for communication,

marker of child development, definition of roles, stress point, and a holder of memory and

tradition. Major themes about cooking’s impact on cultural identity include: measurement of

identification, learning tool, manifestation of value systems, description of history, place of pride

and connection, way to redefine culture, and bridge to other cultures.

 HOMEMADE: AN EXPLORATORY STUDY

ON THE IMPACT OF COOKING ON FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS

AND CULTURAL IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT

A project based upon an independent investigation,

Tammie Chen

Smith College School for Social Work

2013

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The completion of this thesis could not have been accomplished without the assistance
and support of many people to whom I wish to extend my humble, heartfelt gratitude.

I want to thank my research advisor, Dr. Diana Fuery, Ph D., LCSW, for her guidance
and feedback throughout. Your knowledge and skills were an essential part of this process.

To my friends and family, thank you for your unrelenting encouragement, prayers, and
kindness. You have been a community of astounding grace and love.

To Daddy and Bon, thank you for raising me in and being a part of a compelling home
where I learned the power of family connections, the beauty of my culture, and the delight of
home-cooked food. To my mom, though no longer physically here, you continue to nourish my
soul daily.

And to Nate who saw me through so much these past few years, thank you for inspiring
me to endure through the harder, helping me to hope in the better, and teaching me to trust in the
bigger.

ii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................................... ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS.............................................................................................................. iii

LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................................ iv

LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................................ v

CHAPTER

I. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 1

II. LITERATURE REVIEW ...................................................................................................... 3

III. METHODOLOGY .............................................................................................................. 13

IV. FINDINGS ........................................................................................................................... 18

V. DISCUSSION ...................................................................................................................... 48

REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................. 56

APPENDICES

Appendix A: Informed Consent and Survey Instrument ............................................................. 64

iii
 LIST OF TABLES

Tables

1. Demographics of Sample Population ................................................................................ 20

2. Immigration Generation ..................................................................................................... 21

3. Regularity of Cooking Meals Native to Culture ................................................................ 23

4. Regularity of Cooking with Parents during Childhood ...................................................... 24

5. Feelings when Cooking a Meal .......................................................................................... 25

6. Feelings when Cooking a Meal Native to Culture ............................................................. 25

7. Feelings when Eating a Home-cooked Meal ...................................................................... 26

8. Feelings when Eating a Home-Cooked Meal Native to Culture ........................................ 26

9. Purpose of Cooking ............................................................................................................ 27

10. Level of Connection to Family through Cooking .............................................................. 28

11. Level of Connection to Culture through Cooking .............................................................. 28

12. Immigration Generation Correlations ................................................................................ 30

13. Attitude toward Culture and Frequency of Cooking Native to Culture Correlation .......... 32

14. Attitude toward Family and Frequency of Meals Cooked with Parents during Childhood

Correlation .................................................................................................................................... 33

15. Level of Connection to Family through Cooking and Frequency of Cooking Meals with

Parents during Childhood Correlation .......................................................................................... 34

iv
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figures

1. Level of Importance of Race, Ethnicity, Culture, and Family to Identity ........................ 22

2. Attitude toward Race, Ethnicity, Culture, and Family...................................................... 22

v
 CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

It has been said that you are what you eat. What we take in and experience, both literally

and figuratively, shapes who we are. The very basis of psychotherapy is rooted in similar

concepts, emphasized by Sigmund Freud: the unconscious, symbolism, and life experiences

leading up to current state of being. In addition to what is contained within a person, social

workers assert that we must pay attention to the environmental factors that envelop a person.

People and their experiences transform and are transformed by surrounding systems, notably our

family and cultural contexts. Thus, if the old adage is true that we are what we eat, then is it

possible that cooking, the process of preparing what we eat, can reveal insights about our

relationship with the formative contexts of family and culture?

American food writer, activist, and professor, Michael Pollan states, “Cooking is all

about connection, I've learned, between us and other species, other times, other cultures (human

and microbial both), but, most important, other people. Cooking is one of the more beautiful

forms that human generosity takes; that much I sort of knew. But the very best cooking, I

discovered, is also a form of intimacy.” (Pollan, 2013, p. 415) This intimacy implies a close

bond and deep understanding of and between people. This is what clinical social work beckons

us to do within a therapeutic relationship as we strive for the wellbeing of a person, family, or

community.

1
 Though there is a gap in social work literature regarding the psychodynamic and

therapeutic implications of cooking, this research study sets out to investigate the narrative

nature and clinical potential of cooking. It will explore how cooking affects family relationships

and an individual’s perception of these relationships, as well as how cooking affect the

development of cultural identity. Using a mixed-method study, I hope to find more specific

areas of research and assess the potential value and role of cooking in connecting people to their

families and culture.

2
 CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

The purpose of this study is to add to research around the impact of cooking on family

relationships and cultural identity development. The current literature researching cooking in the

field of social work related to mental, emotional, and psychosomatic wellbeing is minimal. The

large majority of cooking related literature consists of studies from the field of health and

nutrition, marketing and consumer affairs, and social sciences. Also, while this literature review

focuses on cooking, it is important to note that the majority of current literature surrounding

similar topics looks at the impact of food and food consumption but have largely ignored the

process leading up to consumption of these foods. If mentioned, it is often as a secondary part of

the study. This chapter will topically organize existing research on cooking and provide an

overview of major themes in order to point out areas where more exploration and understanding

is needed.

Cooking as a part of physical health

Rather than discussing the psychological aspects of cooking and eating, the literature will

often take a distinct but related direction by exploring the relationship of food and preparation to

diet, weight, physical health, and nutrition. Studies look at the psychosocial factors and health

practices influencing specific demographic such as race (Walcott-McQuigg, Sullivan, Dan, &

Logan, 1995), class (Swanson et al., 2011), age and gender (Hughes, Bennett, & Hetherington,

3
2004). These studies show that race and class have some bearing on access to fresh and healthy

foods, cooking tools and space, and time to make home-cooked meals; age and gender influence

cooking knowledge and food preferences. Aligned with these findings, Engler-Stringer (2009)

and Henson, Blandon & Cranfield (2010) discuss that demographic factors also change the

relative difficulty of achieving recommended cooking guidelines for health.

Neale, Nettleton, Pickering, & Fischer (2011) report an improvement around linked

diagnoses of eating disorders and substance abuse among heroin users who regularly cooked or

ate cooked meals as opposed to bought ready-made or fast food meals. They found that among

those who cooked, “there was evidence of better dietary habits and therefore presumably better

nutritional health among those in residential settings (where food was provided and mealtimes

were organized) and in recovery (when interest and pleasure in eating often returned and food

preparation and consumption became more sociable, creative, and satisfying pastimes” (p. 639).

Cooking is also used a part of physical therapy and occupational therapy as studied by

Gigliotti, Jarrott, & Yorgason (2004) and Melton (1998). Studies found that it helps to maintain

muscle strength, flexibility, and body awareness (Berenbaum, 2008). Yantz, Johnson-Greene,

Higginson, & Emmerson (2010) discuss the use of cooking as a part of rehabilitation of stroke

patients through neuropsychological treatment. Because the increasing understanding that

physical and mental health are intertwined as verified by Lakhan & Vieira (2008) and Kim et al.

(2012), it is becoming more important for research to look at holistic approaches to therapy and

how they can change various aspects of a person’s life. Therefore, it will be important to

understand why cooking as a tangible act toward physical health is linked to the improvement of

psychosocial wellbeing of a person and the potential role in a person’s family relationships and

cultural identity development.

4
Cooking as a creative endeavor

Cooking is noted as part of the arts with potential for creative therapy interventions

(Clément, Tonini, Khatir, Schiaratura, & Samson, 2012 and Dahl & Moreau, 2007). Clément,

Tonini, Khatir, Schiaratura, & Samson (2012) compare music and cooking and propose that

music intervention seems to be more effective than cooking interventions in improving the

emotional state of patients with Alzheimers. However, this study advises that these two

activities share many similar features such as eliciting strong pleasurable sensations and create

opportunities for collaboration. Because this study only used interventions for a relatively short

period of time and studied a fairly small number of participants, it may be helpful to continue

further research around cooking therapy.

Dahl & Moreau (2007) discuss the significance of constrained creative experience such

as cooking by recipe with an expected outcome. They state “motivations included the desire for

learning, engagement, and relaxation, self-identity, public accomplishment, and community” (p.

367). However, they note the significance of giving instruction but allowing the freedom to

create an individualized product. In summary, like many other art forms, cooking – even with

limitation – can be a place for personal development and expression, as well as connection to

others through communication of self and shared activity time. Artistic endeavor embody the

process of personal identity development in which a person imbibes specific given value systems

from caregivers and environment and slowly transforms and expresses it to a unique, personal

way of being; thus, cooking is a way to take in expectations, create identity within and then

externally express it; this process is very similar to the process of personal identity development

and can be translated to both the family and cultural arena.

5
Cooking and family

Families teach cooking as a life skill. Some studies have used cooking as a part of

learning everyday tasks and functioning, and thus, improving mental health through increased

autonomy and skills, as well as boosting a belief in one’s sense of their own capabilities and self-

worth. This method is implemented as a part of several health promotion and education

programs for youth and families (Quinlan, Kolotkin, Fuemmeler, & Costanzo, 2009; Borden et

al., 2012; Condrasky, Williams, Catalano, & Griffin, 2011; Block et al., 2012; Lukas &

Cunningham-Sabo, 2011). Quinlan, Kolotkin, Fuemmeler, & Costanzo (2009) found

participants of an overweight youth camp “reported significant improvements in multiple aspects

of psychosocial functioning, with the greatest improvements occurring with respect to body

esteem and emotional functioning” (p. 140) after learning to cook for themselves. These

programs were also used to promote autonomy for children, youth and young adults (Thonney &

Bisogni, 2006). As a part of child development, they learned practical cooking skills to feed

oneself, social skills, how to make decisions, and self-expression. Höijer, Hjälmeskog, &

Fjellström (2011) report on a school program’s and teacher’s effort to take on the task of caring

for children who come from a ‘deficient home.’ This points to potential role cooking can play

in a child-parent relationship. This includes the assumed role of care through literal nourishment

and skill coaching around how to feed oneself.

Ball & Brown (2012) studied the significance of dinner groups for college students; the

research says, “Confidence can be increased through repeated practice in cooking and

observation of and encouragement from other participants,” and “eating dinner together created a

kind of a family atmosphere” (p. 33). Tamis-LeMonda, Briggs, McClowry, & Snow (2009)

6
found that cooking is a location to continually negotiate maternal control and sensitivity as a part

of parenting, behavioral adjustment, and maturation in early childhood. Thus, in many ways,

these formal programs and informal gatherings involving cooking take on an aspect of parenting

and creating a social, family like environment.

Markers of inclusion and exclusion within the family. O’Connell (2010) and Chen

(2010) both explore the concept of bodily memory and its relationship with food. Both note that

food and our relationship with food negotiate the boundaries between separation and integration

within nuclear families and what helps a person define him/herself. The body holds sensory

memories is a significant location for recollection of past experiences of family connection.

Thus, food processes such as the act of cooking and eating can be an important medium for

symbolic inclusion or exclusion. Lyon, Sydner, Fjellström, Janhonen-Abruquah, & Schröder

(2011) and Jingxiong et al. (2007) would attribute these recurrent memories to family food habits

that are not only passed down from the nuclear family but are also a legacy formed over multiple

generations. Jingxiong et al. (2007) studied three-generation households in China.

Grandchildren’s eating habits are “colored by their own [grandparents] experience of poverty,

the conception that obesity is a sign of health”; grandparents communicate and grandchildren

understand prepared food as love and care, and used it as a reward. This article supports the

relational and transferrable nature of food preparation and consumption. Therefore, as explored

by Brady (2011), cooking and food can be an enlightening method of gathering clinical

information rather than just an anthropological part of a person’s approach to living. They

propose cooking is a form of autoethnography and collective biography, and understanding a

person’s cooking and relationship with food can elucidate their own thoughts about self and

relationship with others.

7
 Multiple purposes within family. Daniels, Gloreeux, Minnen, & van Tienoven (2011)

and Sidenvall, Nyahl, & Fjellstöm (2000) discusses that the meaning of cooking will alter

according to meal context and people involved. While cooking is definitely seen as a chore,

preparing food has a noteworthy social aspect as well. Sidenvall et al. (2000) state, “The whole

procedure of preparing a meal could be seen as preparing a gift. […] In this procedure, four

components were identified: finding out what to serve, cooking with fresh ingredients, presenting

the gift in a beautiful manner, and enjoying the gift in commensality” (p. 409) Daniels et al.

(2011) note that is particularly true for cohabitating couples, and even moreso couples with

children. This emphasizes cooking as an accessible instrument for family connection.

Cooking and culture

Gender roles and expectations. A common theme is the interaction of domestic

cooking and eating with gender roles and concepts of masculinity and femininity as studied by

Gvion (2011), Fürst (1997), Locher et al. (2010), Yeung (2010), and Harrell (1995). These

articles discuss how the role of cooking is defined by our upbringing and can become a large part

of one’s gender identity. Locher et al. (2010), quotes previous literature by Devault: “women,

especially, may view food and eating activities as central to their identities and as primary means

of expressing their care for others” (p.972) Increasingly, there are studies focused on the

function of cooking in the lives of men such as a study by Kulberg, Björklund, Sidenvall, &

Aberg (2010). This looks at three dominant approaches of cooking as pleasure, cooking as a

need, and food is served. While many articles propose that cooking is a vehicle of oppression for

women, Arnfred (2007) and Swinbank (2002) present ways that cooking is a place of

empowerment and a way to negotiate the politics of gender, identity, and power. Arnfred (2007)

8
states “Control of food is power, but is also an obligation to generosity.” If the above assertions

about the role of cooking in shaping gender identity and attitude toward this identity are true, it is

important to further explore how cooking may affect and be affected by our first context, the

family unit. Likewise, if the family is responsible for certain aspects of our cultural identity

development such as initial understanding of gender and gender roles, it may also be the primary

setting for other forms of cultural transmission as well. Therefore, it may be beneficial to

research how families may use cooking to communicate additional information about other parts

of our cultural identity.

Values. Botanaki & Mattas (2010) found that different values lie behind preferences for

convenience food and home-cooked food. This study was based on Schwartz theory of

motivational types of values. Convenience food service marks the desire for adventure, novelty,

non-conformity, achievement, and power but home-cooked food orientation values conservation,

security, tradition, and harmony and stability in relationships. Therefore, as proposed in this

article, cooking or lack thereof is influenced by our given system of values. However, the

question remains: can the opposite be true? Can the amount of cooking sculpt our values?

Religious significance. Arnfred (2007) discusses how food is often considered holy in

many spiritual traditions. Only those ordained may prepare and serve the food. As a result, many

important ceremonies and events cannot be held without some form of food and cooking process.

For example, in the Christian traditions, Christians participate in communion, a regular

ceremony of consuming bread and wine used as symbols of remembrance for Jesus Christ’s

death on the cross; in some Christian traditions, it is believed that the bread and wine are

transformed into his literal body and blood. Thus, by imbibing the communion elements, one is

connecting with Christ and taking in all it means to follow Him.

9
 Role of cooking in the immigration process. Wright-St.Clair, Hocking, Bunrayong,

Vittayakorn, & Rattakorn (2005), Chakrabarti (2010), Lindén & Nyberg (2009), Bowen &

Devine (2010) discuss food as a fundamental element of cultural assertion and continuity for

those who have migrated from one country to another. Chakrabarti (2010) note the importance

of local social networks for pregnant Bengali immigrant women in New York City. “Home

cooked food served as a way to express concern and care; such exchanges also helped to recreate

an environment where a remembered home was relived through familiar and known taste.

Lindén & Nyberg (2009) states, “Food consumption can be recognized as a marker of class and

status in the same way as consumption of leisure activities and clothing. When language fails in

communication, visible signs become more important.” While family relationships and social

ties can be broken during the migration process, this may also bring the family together. This

level of access and desire to maintain connection with food customs is reflected in and

strengthened by both the type of food cooked and with whom family members cook (Bowen and

Devine, 2010). Food recipes, especially those from traditional holidays, are a time capsule for

stories about generations past and creates a sense of belonging and connection to those who have

created the same thing before. “In the process of preparing family favourites or trying exciting

new foods at Christmas, older New Zealand women construct self and family identities.” (p. 332)

(Wright-St.Clair, Hocking, Bunrayong, Vittayakorn, & Rattakorn, 2005). While these studies

also begin delving into some aspects of cooking and food consumption, more exploration is

needed about how exactly the process of cooking directly changes immigrant family dynamics,

acculturation process, and cultural transmission. Perhaps through further knowledge of the

impact of cooking, cooking with patients may help clinicians to learn and respect the patient’s

culture and know how to promote client-centered interventions (Odwara, 2005).

10
Cooking as way to provoke memories of our identity and relationships

Four separate studies of clients with dementia by Berenbaum (1995), Brijnath (2011),

Huang, Li, Yang, & Chen (2009), Bier et al. (2011), and Genoe et al. (2011) highlight the

significance of using cooking as a method to support continual cognitive and personal growth

through memory and reflection within the context of cooking. They argue that cooking and

eating offer a way to retain identity, stay connected, improve functioning, stay in the present

through sensory stimulation, show and receive love, and ultimately delay the degenerative effects

of dementia. As discussed above, O’Connell (2010) and Chen (2010) note how the body

remembers through sensory experiences. The act of cooking and eating are contained with the

movements, smells, sights, and textures and will reawaken when repeated once again. Chen

(2010) notes how the personal and impressionable quality of the body is especially evident in

studies on traumatic experiences and memory. This ability to recall fond memories associated

with food indicates that food processes are significant in a person’s upbringing and development.

While these three empirical studies focus on a narrow population, I believe that there is potential

to incorporate these findings in a more generalized manner as I hope to explore through this

study.

Theoretical Framework

The concepts for this study are based the ideas of Donald Winnicott and Object Relations

theory. He discussed the importance of a transitional object that helps the child slowly

understand and gain independence from his or her caregiver while still remaining connected; it

fosters the child’s sense of his or her full, authentic, true self. Later, Winnicott writes that this

11
transitional object is not only a tangible item but can be expanded into experiences. Mitchell &

Black (1995) state, “Transitional experience became the protected realm within which the

creative self could operate and play; it was the area of experience from which art and culture

were generated” (p. 128). Thus, aligned with these theories, cooking can be a type of transitional

experience that holds creativity and culture, and can act as a means of connection with one’s

caregivers. Anna Meigs states,

Food has a distinctive feature, one that sets it off from the rest of material culture: it is
ingested, it is eaten, it goes inside. In a small-scale society, moreover, it is and is
understood to be the product of the labor of known individuals, the output of their blood,
their sweat, their tears. As output of one person and as input into another, food is a
particularly apt vehicle for symbolizing and expressing ideas about the relationship of
self and other.

Accordingly, I will use this study to explore the relevance of these ideas to build upon and

further understand the effects of cooking on family relationships and cultural identity

development. A clearer understanding of this topic may uncover new, practical and currently

underutilized methods to practice clinical social work by potentially using cooking a therapeutic

intervention to appropriately address family and cultural identity needs. This is aligned with the

larger movement of the field of practice toward a more holistic and culturally responsive

approach to therapy in addition to talk therapy. While there are some areas of enlightenment

regarding the impact of cooking on family relationships and cultural identity development, this

topic area is relatively young and understudied. The findings from this research report will

provide further insight and point the direction for future areas of inquiry in order to expound

upon this topic and its practical application to social work.

12
 CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY

The purpose of this research is to explore the impact of cooking on family relationships

and cultural identity development. The research questions to be explored in this study are: How

does cooking affect family relationships and an individual’s perception of these relationships?

How does cooking affect the development of cultural identity?

Sample

The research sample consists of 275 participants. The study focuses on a population with

the following inclusion criteria:

1) 18 and over

2) Able to read and write in English

3) Able to navigate an online survey

4) Have access to a computer, the Internet, and email.

The study will aim to survey at least 10 participants from five race groups in order to

include representation from a diverse group and in hopes of exploring racially and culturally

linked patterns. The study employs a non-probability snowball sampling to recruit participants.

The researcher will first email a series of contacts including social work classmates, internship

colleagues, and personal and community contacts to help recruit individuals who meet the survey

criteria to participate and forward the survey to others. Because this is exploratory research, the

13
study hopes to enlist a varied population and wants to be open as possible to data from the larger

population. The hope is to find more specific areas of study including the need to study certain

population demographics.

Data Collection

Before beginning the recruitment and data collection process, a human subjects review

application including the survey instrument and consent (Appendix A) for this study will be

reviewed and approved by the Smith School for Social Work’s Human Subjects Review

Committee.

When the study is approved, a recruitment letter (Appendix B) will be emailed to initial

contacts to recruit eligible participants. Prior to beginning the online survey questionnaire,

interested participants will be asked to carefully read through and print a copy of the Informed

Consent letter and List of Resources. This letter will outline participation and confidentiality in

the survey, where to find services if needed, and contact information for further inquiry.

Participants must check an “I agree” box indicating that they have read and understand the

information before proceeding to the survey questions.

Following consent, the participant will answer a series of questions regarding

participant’s demographic information, cultural identity development, family relationships, and

thoughts about how their life may have been influenced by cooking. The survey is comprised of

30 questions including 6 open-ended short answer questions. The structure of the survey will

begin with 11 demographic focused questions. This includes questions such as self-identified

race and ethnicity, immigration generation, adoption status, area of upbringing, age, gender,

religion, and socioeconomic status. The latter part of this series of questions will be more

14
oriented toward the participant’s relationship with their family and racial/ethnic/cultural identity.

These questions will ask the participants to scale the importance, the level of connection, and

general attitude toward their family and culture. After, the survey will lead into 19 questions

directly related to the area of study that utilizes a mix of Likert Scales, check all that apply

questions, and comment boxes. This series of questions will regard the participant’s personal

relationship with cooking such as amount of time spent cooking individually, amount of time

spent cooking with family, how often the participant cooked with family during childhood, how

much the participant enjoys or does not enjoy cooking, feelings and thoughts associated with

cooking and eating a home-cooked meal. The estimated time frame of participation is

approximately 30 minutes. Because this is an anonymous email survey, there will be no

monetary cost to distribute the survey and no financial incentive to participate.

The data will be collected over the period of one month and the survey answers will be

automatically uploaded to an online spreadsheet through Google Surveys. No emails, Internet

addresses, or computer information will be collected through this survey program in order to

protect participants’ anonymity. While the survey does not elicit identifying information, it does

not preclude participants from entering identifying information in the comment boxes on their

own. Thus, the researcher will review all data with special attention to short answer questions.

Any identifying information will be removed before saving a more permanent copy of the

spreadsheet for data analysis. It is only after this process of meticulously reviewing data to

ensure anonymity that the spreadsheet will be shared with the research advisor and Smith

statistician.

15
Data Analysis

The majority of the quantitative data will be analyzed primarily using descriptive

statistics using the data from the Google spreadsheet and a summary from the Google Survey

program. However, after the data is collected and reviewed by the researcher, the quantitative

data used for correlation analysis will be forwarded to a statistician at Smith College for further

analysis. The Smith statistician will run a Spearman Rho correlations to look at the relationship

between immigration generation (both maternal and paternal side) and:

a. Feeling connected to family through cooking

b. Feeling connected to culture through cooking

c. Importance of culture

d. Attitude toward culture.

Similarly, the Smith statistician will run a Spearman Rho correlation to check the relationship

between:

a. Attitude toward culture and frequency of meals cooked native to culture

b. Attitude toward family and frequency of meals cooked with parents during childhood

c. Time spent cooking with parents and feeling connected to family through cooking.

Following this, the researcher will analyze qualitative data from participant’s short

answers to code for common themes. This interpretative analysis will be done through multiple

readings and demarcating segments in each response with a code related to major themes. After,

the number of each code will be tallied in order to note the prevalence of each theme. The

researcher will code all participant responses to each question separately and focus primarily on

the information gathered in the questions concerning the level of connection to family through

cooking and level of connection to culture through cooking.

16
 The collected qualitative and quantitative data will be presented in the next chapter. This

will include a breakdown of quantitative responses, the findings from the correlations statistical

analysis, and a summary of coded themes in qualitative answers.

17


CHAPTER IV

FINDINGS

The purpose of this research study is to discover the effects of cooking on family

relationships and cultural identity development. The research questions answered by this

study are: How does cooking affect family relationships and an individual’s perception of

these relationships? How does cooking affect the development of cultural identity?

Because there is a lack of literature focused on this specific aspect of everyday life, the

exploratory research hopes to capture a basic understanding of the sociocultural and

psychological role of cooking in a person’s life as well as illuminate further areas of study

(i.e. specific demographics to study or potential clinical interventions). This chapter

contains a summary of the major quantitative and qualitative findings from the study.

The survey yielded 275 participants who fit the survey criteria. I will present the

quantitative findings first, followed by the qualitative findings. Within this chapter, if

specific data yielded questions where a certain number of participants did not answer, I

will present two percentages. The first will represent the percentage of frequency of given

responses while the second will represent the percentage of frequency of all participants.

When all participants responded to a question, only one percentage is given.

18
QUANTITATIVE DATA

Demographics

Participants were asked a range of self‐identified demographic questions including

race, ethnicity, age, gender, childhood socioeconomic status, current socioeconomic status,

and religion/spiritual practice. Within these questions, participants were allowed to check

more than one race category. If participant noted more than one answer, each was coded

separately and counted toward frequency. Other demographics, such as ethnicity,

religious/spiritual background, cultural background of parents and area where they were

raised were also asked. However, these were not quantified because the question yielded

too large of a variance of responses. For each of the tables in the finding sections, N=275. If

a question was left blank by one or more participants, two percentages were included in

the findings. The first was calculated according to number of participants who answered

that question and the second was calculated according to the overall number of survey

participants of 275. The aim of the study was to obtain at least 10 participants from each

racial category in order to reach a diverse demographic and include multiple perspectives.

This goal was achieved in every race group with the exception of Native American

participants. The following tables are a breakdown of the main demographics of

participants.

19
Table 1
Demographics of Sample Population
Percentage of
Percentage of Total Sample
Demographic Frequency
Answered Population
(N=275)
Race
Asian/Pacific Islander 77 28.00 28.00
Black 15 5.45 5.45
Latino/a 14 5.09 5.09
Native American 5 1.82 1.82
White 172 62.55 62.55
Other 11 4.00 4.00

Age
18‐19 0 0.00 0.00
20‐29 138 53.08 50.18
30‐39 60 23.08 21.82
40‐49 23 8.85 8.36
50‐59 22 8.46 8.00
60‐69 13 5.00 4.73
70‐79 3 1.15 1.09
80+ 1 0.38 0.36
Not Answered 15 ‐ 5.45

Gender
Female 215 78.18 78.18
Male 57 20.73 20.73
Other 3 1.09 1.09
Not Answered 0 ‐ 0.00

Childhood socioeconomic status
Low SES 60 21.82 21.82
Middle SES 164 59.64 59.64
High SES 51 18.55 18.55
Not Answered 0 ‐ 0.00

Current socioeconomic status
Low SES 46 16.85 16.73
Middle SES 183 67.03 66.55
High SES 44 16.12 16.00
Not Answered 2 ‐ 0.73

20
Table 2
Immigration Generation*
Maternal
1st Generation 55 20.15 20.00
2nd Generation 46 16.85 16.73
3rd Generation 50 18.32 18.18
4th Generation or more 122 44.69 44.36
Not Answered 2 ‐ 0.73

Paternal
1st Generation 53 19.63 19.27
2nd Generation 51 18.89 18.55
3rd Generation 50 18.52 18.18
4th Generation or more 116 42.96 42.18
Not Answered 5 ‐ 1.82

* Note: 1st generation means participant was first to immigrate. 2nd generation means
participant’s mother or father was the first to immigrate and participant is the second
generation from their family to live in the United States.

The demographic data shows that specific demographics are strongly represented in this

data. The majority of participants identify as white, followed by a large portion of

participants who identify as Asian/Pacific Islander. Also, the largest percentage of the

sample population is in the 20‐29 year old group, followed by 30‐39 year old group.

Additionally, there is almost four times the number of female participants than male

participants in the sample population. Lastly, the aggregate of participants who are the 1st,

2nd, and 3rd generation from their family to live in the United States are only approximately

15‐20% of the sample populations on both the maternal and paternal side while the

majority of participants are the 4th generation or more from their family to live in the

United States.

Level of Importance and Attitude toward Race, Ethnicity, Culture and Family

Participants were asked to measure the level of importance of their race, ethnicity,

culture, and family to their identity. This was measured on a Likert Scale (very important,

21
important, moderately important, unimportant, very unimportant). Subsequently,

participants were asked to measure their attitude toward the same 4 categories. This was

also measured on a Likert Scale (very proud, proud, neutral, ashamed, very ashamed). The

following charts are a summary of these measurements.

Figure 1
Level of Importance of Race, Ethnicity, Culture, and Family to Identity

Figure 2
Attitude toward Race, Ethnicity, Culture, and Family

22
These findings show a bell curve for level of importance and attitude toward race, ethnicity,

and culture. The steepest curve and most frequently neutral answers are in regard to race,

followed by ethnicity, then culture. However, there is a significant increase in level of

importance and pride of family. This shows that participants are considerably oriented

toward and have the strongest feelings of pride about their family. This data will be

returned to later in the findings chapter to explore potential correlations.

Reported Answers Regarding Regularity of Cooking

The data shows that 29.56% (29.45%) of participants spend an average of 0‐29

minutes per day cooking, 44.16% (44.0%) of participants spend an average of 30‐59

minutes per day cooking, and 23.72% (23.64%) of participants spend an average of 1‐2

hours per day cooking. The remaining less than 3% did not answer the question or spent

an average of more than 2 hours per day cooking.

The following two tables include the regularity of cooking meals native to culture

and regularity of cooking with parents during childhood. The data from both of these

tables will be used in the correlations study.

Table 3
Regularity of Cooking Meals Native to Culture
Percentage of Total
Percentage of
Value Frequency Sample Population
Answered
(N=275)
Always 8 2.92 2.91
Frequently 73 26.64 26.55
Occasionally 115 41.97 41.82
Rarely 63 22.99 22.91
Never 15 5.47 5.45
Not Answered 1 ‐ 0.36

23
Table 4
Regularity of Cooking with Parents during Childhood
Percentage of Total
Percentage of
Value Frequency Sample Population
Answered
(N=275)
Always 11 4.04 4.00
Frequently 79 29.04 28.73
Occasionally 90 33.09 32.73
Rarely 76 27.94 27.64
Never 16 5.88 5.82
Not Answered 3 ‐ 1.09

Reported Answers Regarding Function of Cooking

The next series of data summarizes participant’s responses regarding the function

of cooking in their lives. When participants were asked to measure their level of enjoyment

of cooking, 228 participants or 83.52% (82.91%) report a positive level, 29 participants or

10.62% (10.55%) report a neutral level, and 16 participants or 5.86% (5.82%) report a

negative level. When asked to rate their level of enjoyment of cooking specifically native to

participant’s culture, 171 participants or 63.1% (62.18%) report a positive level, 86

participants or 31.73% (31.27%) report a neutral level, and 14 participants or 5.17%

(5.09%) report a negative level. This shows that participants report a more neutral stance

when thinking about cooking food native to their culture. However, the majority of

participants report a positive level of enjoyment for both cooking in general and cooking

native to their culture.

The following four tables report on the participant’s feelings associated with

cooking and eating meals in general and ones native to their culture. Participants were

provided a list of feelings and were asked to check all that apply. Thus, percentages reflect

the percentage of all participants (N=275) who checked the box, not the percentage of

those who answered the question.

24
Table 5
Feelings when Cooking a Meal
Percentage of Total Sample
Feelings Frequency
Population (N=275)
Stressed 72 26.18
Comforted 174 63.27
Nostalgic 76 27.64
Disgusted 2 0.73
Festive 106 38.55
Satisfied 202 73.45
Other 82 29.82
Total number of checked
714 ‐
boxes

Table 6
Feelings when Cooking a Meal Native to Culture
Percentage of Total Sample
Feelings Frequency
Population (N=275)
Stressed 27 9.82
Comforted 132 48.00
Nostalgic 139 50.55
Disgusted 1 0.36
Festive 98 35.64
Satisfied 127 46.18
Other 62 22.55
Total number of checked
586 ‐
boxes

The above tables show that the strongest feelings associated with cooking a meal in

general are comfort and satisfaction, followed by stress, nostalgia, festiveness, and other

feelings. There were minimal feelings of disgust. In contrast, when asked about cooking

meals native to culture, participants had less checked boxes or feelings associated. While

still the dominant feelings, there was a decrease in number of participants who marked

feelings of comfort and satisfaction. Also, there was a significant decrease in number of

participants who marked feelings of stress. Conversely, there was significant increase in

the number of participants who noted feelings of nostalgia.

25
Table 7
Feelings when Eating a Home‐cooked Meal
Percentage of Total Sample
Feelings Frequency
Population (N=275)
Stressed 3 1.09
Comforted 227 82.55
Nostalgic 57 20.73
Disgusted 2 0.73
Festive 27 9.82
Satisfied 216 78.55
Other 37 13.45
Total number of checked
569 ‐
boxes

Table 8
Feelings when Eating a Home‐Cooked Meal Native to Culture
Percentage of Total Sample
Feelings Frequency
Population (N=275)
Stressed 4 1.45
Comforted 180 65.45
Nostalgic 137 49.82
Disgusted 5 1.82
Festive 72 26.18
Satisfied 170 61.82
Other 34 12.36
Total number of checked
602 ‐
boxes

Similar to the data reporting feelings associated with cooking, the two most

dominant feelings associated with eating home‐cooked meals in general and native to their

culture were comfort and satisfaction. Likewise, there was a significant increase in feelings

of nostalgia when eating a home‐cooked meal native to culture from eating a home‐cooked

meal in general. In this set of data, there was also an increase in feelings of festiveness.

While there is some variance in numbers, and this question did not measure intensity of

each feeling, the data implies that participants experience similar feelings on the providing,

cooking end as well as on the receiving, eating end. The qualitative data discussed later in

26
this chapter will expound upon the causes and circumstances behind these reported

feelings in connection to family relationships and cultural identity development.

The following table chronicles the function of cooking in participants’ lives. Like the

above questions, participants were provided with a list of options and asked to check all

that apply.

Table 9
Purpose of Cooking
Percentage of Total Sample
Purpose Frequency
Population (N=275)
Chore 123 44.73
Hobby 148 53.82
Gift 99 36.00
Way to Celebrate 193 70.18
Method of Showing Care 212 77.09
Way to Feed Myself and
248 90.18
Others
Hassle 59 21.45
Way to Relax 129 46.91
Expression of Creativity 175 63.64
Way to bring People
216 78.55
Together
Waste of Time 6 2.18
Other 28 10.18

The findings show that participants report that the top three reasons for cooking are to

feed self and others, bring people together, and show care. This implies that it is a practical

act that connects people. Only 6 participants marked that cooking is a waste of time; this

supports the idea that for most participants, it is a purposeful part of their lives.

The last two tables of the descriptive, quantitative data show the level of connection

to family and culture through cooking.

27
Table 10
Level of Connection to Family through Cooking
Percentage of Total
Percentage of
Value Frequency Sample Population
Answered
(N=275)
Strongly Agree* 87 31.75 31.64
Agree 112 40.88 40.73
Neutral 52 18.98 18.91
Disagree 19 6.93 6.91
Strongly Disagree 4 1.46 1.45
Not Answered 1 0.36
*Note: Agree means that the participant feels connected to family through cooking while
disagree means that the participant doe not feel connected to family through cooking

Table 11
Level of Connection to Culture through Cooking
Percentage of Total
Percentage of
Value Frequency Sample Population
Answered
(N=275)
Strongly Agree* 46 16.79 16.73
Agree 85 31.02 30.91
Neutral 101 36.86 36.73
Disagree 32 11.68 11.64
Strongly Disagree 10 3.65 3.64
Not Answered 1 0.36
*Note: Agree means that the participant feels connected to culture through cooking while
disagree means that the participant doe not feel connected to culture through cooking

72.63% (72.37%) of participants report feeling connected to family through cooking,

18.98% (18.91%) of participants report feeling neutral, and 8.39% (8.36%) report not

feeling connected to family through cooking. These numbers imply that the majority of

participants believe that cooking helps them to feel connected to their family. For the

second question, 47.81% (47.64%) of participants report feeling connected to culture

through cooking, 36.86% (36.73%) of participants report feeling neutral, and 15.33%

(15.28%) of participants report not feeling connected to culture through cooking. While

the largest proportion of participants believe that cooking increases connection to culture,

there was also a large portion who remain neutral around the impact of cooking. When the

28
data from these two questions are compared, it shows that more people feel connected to

their families than culture through cooking, and more people express neutrality around the

feeling of connection to culture than to family.

Correlations

The Smith statistician, Marjorie Postal, ran a series of Spearman Correlations to look

at whether there were relationships between specific factors. Below are the non‐

parametric correlation data tables. The first compares the relationship between

immigration generation (for both mother and father separately) and the following four

factors.

29
Table 12
Immigration Generation Correlations

Immigration Immigration
Generation Mother Generation Father
S Immigration Correlation
1.000 .733**
p Generation Coefficient
e (Maternal) Sig. (2‐tailed) .000
a N 273 269
r
Immigration Correlation
m .733** 1.000
Generation (Paternal) Coefficient
a
Sig. (2‐tailed) .000
n
' N 269 270
s Connection to Family Correlation
‐.125* ‐.189**
r through Cooking Coefficient
h Sig. (2‐tailed) .039 .002
o N 272 269
Connection to Culture Correlation
.195** .120*
through Cooking Coefficient
Sig. (2‐tailed) .001 .049
N 272 269
Level of Importance Correlation
.183** .218**
of Culture to Identity Coefficient
Sig. (2‐tailed) .002 .000
N 272 269
Attitude toward Correlation
.114 .136*
Culture Coefficient
Sig. (2‐tailed) .060 .025
N 272 269
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2‐tailed).
* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2‐tailed).

The data shows that there is a significant, weak negative correlation between

mother’s immigration generation and connection to family through cooking (rho=‐.125,

p=.039, two tailed) as well as a significant, weak negative correlation between father’s

immigration generation and connection to family through cooking (rho=‐.189, p=.002, two

tailed). This suggests that the more generations of the participant’s family that have lived

30
in the United States, the more participants felt connected to family through cooking.

However, there is a significant, weak positive correlation between mother’s immigration

generation and connection to culture through cooking (rho=‐.195, p=.001, two tailed) and a

significant, weak positive correlation between father’s immigration generation and

connection to culture through cooking (rho=‐.120, p=.049, two tailed). This suggests that

the more generations of the participant’s family that have lived in the United States, the less

participants felt connection to culture through cooking. Thus, participants with less

generations of their family that have lived in the United States feel a stronger connection to

culture through cooking while participants with more generations of their family that have

lived in the United States feel a stronger connection to family through cooking.

Additionally, there is significant, weak positive correlation between mother’s

immigration generation and level of importance of culture to identity (rho=.183, p=.000,

two tailed) as well as between father’s immigration generation and level of importance of

culture to identity (rho=.218, p=.000, two tailed). This implies that the more generations of

a participant’s family that have lived in the United States, the less important culture is to a

participant’s identity. In analyzing immigration generation and attitude toward culture, the

statistician found that there is no correlation for mother’s immigration generation and a

significant, weak positive correlation for father’s immigration generation (rho=.136,

p=.025, two tailed). This implies that the more generations of a participant’s paternal

family that have lived in the United States, the less proud participants are of their culture.

31
Table 13
Attitude toward Culture and Frequency of Cooking Meals Native to Culture Correlation
Attitude
toward Frequency of Meals
Culture Cooked Native to Culture
S Attitude toward Culture Correlati
p on
1.000 .229**
e Coefficien
a t
r Sig. (2‐
m .000
tailed)
a N 274 273
n Frequency of Meals Cooked Native Correlati
' to Culture on
s .229** 1.000
Coefficien
r t
h
Sig. (2‐
o .000
tailed)
N 273 274
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2‐tailed).

There is a significant, weak positive correlation between attitude toward culture

and frequency of meals cooked native to culture (rho=.229, p=.000, two tailed). This

indicates that as attitude toward culture becomes more positive, participants prepare

meals native to their culture more often and conversely, the more participants prepare

meals native to their culture, the more positive their attitude toward culture.

32
Table 14
Attitude toward Family and Frequency of Meals Cooked with Parents during Childhood
Correlation
Frequency of Meals
Attitude Cooked with Parents
toward Family during Childhood
S Attitude toward Family Correlatio
p n 1.000 .240**
e Coefficient
a Sig. (2‐
r .000
tailed)
m N 271 268
a Frequency of Meals Cooked with Correlatio
n Parents during Childhood n .240** 1.000
' Coefficient
s
Sig. (2‐
r .000
tailed)
h
o N 268 272
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2‐tailed).

There is a significant, weak positive correlation between attitude toward family and

frequency of meals cooked with parents during childhood (rho=.240, p=.000, two tailed).

This indicates that as attitude toward family becomes more positive, participants

remember preparing meals with their parents during childhood more often and conversely,

participants who prepared meals more often with their parents during childhood, the more

positive their attitude toward family.

33
Table 15
Level of Connection to Family through Cooking and Frequency of Cooking Meals with Parents
during Childhood Correlation
Frequency of
Cooking Meals with
Connection to Family Parents during
through Cooking Childhood
S Connection to Family through Correlati
p Cooking on
1.000 .310**
e Coefficie
a nt
r Sig. (2‐
m .000
tailed)
a N 274 271
n Frequency of Cooking Meals Correlati
' with Parents during Childhood on
s .310** 1.000
Coefficie
r nt
h
Sig. (2‐
o .000
tailed)
N 271 272
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2‐tailed).

In this last correlation, there is a significant, weak positive correlation between

feeling connected to family through cooking and the frequency of cooking meals with

parents during childhood (rho=.310, p=.000, two tailed). This indicates that the more

participants cooked meals with their parents during childhood, the more they felt

connected to family through cooking.

QUALITATIVE DATA

This qualitative data expands and elucidates on the quantitative finding with

personal, in depth reports on participant’s experience and relationship with cooking. The

short answer responses were coded and organized into common themes. First, I will

34
provide a table with a summary of the findings. This will be followed by brief explanations

with quoted examples for each of the major themes.

The Impact of Cooking on Family Relationships

The written responses are verification that cooking has some effect on family

relationships as affirmed by 83.2% (75.64%) of all participants who answered this short

answer question. Of the remaining participants, 12.8% (11.64%) believed that cooking did

not affect their relationships, and 4.0% (3.64%) were neutral, unsure, or unclear in their

response. Of those who provided an explanation of how cooking has affected their family

relationships, 83.72% (65.45%) discussed positive effects, 12.56% (9.82%) of participants

discussed negative effect, while 10.23% (8.0%) were neutral or did not assign a positive or

negative value to the effect of cooking on family relationships. If participants listed both

positive and negative effects, they were included in both categories.

This next section highlights major themes from the 275 responses and provides

verbatim examples of how participants have experienced the impact of cooking on family

relationships.

Cooking as a reflection of the quality of relationships and family dynamics.

Participants noted that the type of and quality of food mirrored the way one experienced

their family relationships. As family dynamics changed, the quality of ingredients and

dishes or regularity of cooking would follow. In this way, cooking tracks the health and

existence of family relationships.

I do think I am able to see the quality of my family relationships within the food that
is provided. My mother created ‘shit in a pan’‐which usually consists of all the left
overs or random pieces that wouldn't normally go together‐ in a pot and make it for
dinner. This reflects the relationship and quality of care she was providing for us.

35
 She was trying to make ends meet in our home both time‐wise and financially
therefore, everyone including our relationships were stress [sic]. Therefore, the
food quality was lacking.

Not since my mom passed away.
She used to have special dishes that she made.
Now no one makes them.
My siblings and I are estranged.

Cooking as an opportunity to bring people together and connect. 129 participants or

63.55% of participants who provided an explanation discussed cooking as a way to connect

with other family members. Cooking and the kitchen are explained as a point of gathering;

they are a place to spend quality time together.

I think it brings us closer together. I grew up with 4 siblings and not all of us
participated equally in the cooking because one or two had less interest in cooking.
Those of us who participated more often definitely have warmer and tight‐knit
feelings about our family.

The kitchen and dining room table are where we spend the majority of our time
together. It's also something that slows us down and makes sure that we connect
every day.

I think my kids have given us very few difficulties as teenagers because we cook and
eat together as a family. We try to make food they really enjoy on a daily basis
(which lures them to the table). My husband and I grocery shop together (for many
years it was our "together time") and get along well together in the kitchen. I think
this is a comfort to the kids. Our dinner table is a low‐stress time‐‐we set the
standard early that the grown‐ups talk at dinner, but the kids are welcome to join
in‐‐we don't quiz the kids or discipline them then. Our family table is very much the
center of our home.

Cooking as tangible care, comfort. 31 participants or 15.27% of participant

explanations described cooking primarily as a form of care and comfort. This is further

supported by data on previous question stating, “Is cooking a way you show and receive

care? Please Explain” where 247 or 91.48% of participants who answered affirmed that

cooking was a method of giving and receiving care.

36
 None other than to make them stronger and for us to stay connected. As it pertains
to my expended family, my gifts of food reminds them (and me) they are not
forgotten and that I care/love them no matter how long it is between the times I see
them as well as the physical distance between us.

Cooking supports family relationships, whether cooking for others, being fed by
others' cooking, or cooking together. It's nurturing at it's most fundamental. It can
also be very fun.

It has brought us together in tough times for sure. It's something that never goes
away even through constant change. I also partnered with a chef in my romantic life,
which has kept me even more tightly connected to the way that cooking=comfort,
necessity, creativity, and love in many ways.

Cooking as a means of acceptance and appreciation for the giver. At times,

participants described cooking as an expression of self or a form of care as discussed

above; 4 participants noted the importance of family members receiving this

representation of self or gift of care in order to feel accepted and appreciated.

When my parents separated my mom taught me how to cook her chicken and I
made some for the house for my dad and two siblings. Because my dad thought my
mom had cooked it, he threw it out. This memory always hurts my heart. It has
become an [sic] microcosm of the rejection I have experienced from him throughout
my adult life.

Yes, my husband is always happy when I cook food for him. He likes to find the new
recipe and cook some new food for me as well. Cooking is a way to show love. He is
very proud that I like his food. So am I.

Cooking as a topic of conversation and alternative mode of communication. Another

recurring theme described cooking as part of family conversation content. It was described

as an easy starting point to share and provided “something to talk about.” It was also

described a way to non‐verbally communicate when there were language barriers or

difficulty with verbal expression. 23 participants or 11.33% of participants who answered

noted this role of cooking in their family relationships.

Yes. Sharing recipes is important in my family. Its [sic] also been a means to talk
with my mother when our relationship is strained. Our family talks about food a lot.

37
 Especially when different family members are learning to cook something
particular. (bread, jam, preserving) or learning a new recipe that has cultural
significance. Or to create a new recipe. Food is very much a weaving together of our
identity as a family.

Cooking is one of the only ways I can bond with my grandmother because she does
not speak English very well. Her main way to communicate that she cares about us
is to prepare lots of good food. Now that she is getting older, it is our way to show
that we care about her to ask her about her recipes and cooking techniques, and to
try and prepare some food for her or at least with her.

Yes. Think "like water for chocolate". I pour it all in there and it comes out like
magic. Stress turns out as bad meals with too little seasoning or a forgotten
ingredient. Joy can be the riot of too many desserts or a beautiful summer fruit
salad. So cooking is expressive its [sic] a way to talk to children and share even when
you cannot. We are closer for it.

Cooking as a marker of child development and defining point of child‐caregiver roles.

Participants used cooking to instill independence and judge growth for themselves and for

their children. It was also a point where they respected their parents and established

closeness through a “teacher‐student relationship.”

My girls and I are closer than ever. I feel they can measure their growth and
maturity by what I allow them to do. Even the clean up has a process. There was a
time when they were not allowed to fill up the dishwasher. Now they are both
allowed to both fill up and empty the dishwasher except for the glass items. They
are both allowed to rinse off any dish including glass items. They are allowed to cut
some vegetables but not meat yet. They are allowed to flip a pancake and stir some
cooking foods. We are close and I feel that cooking gives me a way to capture their
attention and makes me feel valuable and needed. I like having some neutral thing
that I am in charge of that others want from me. It makes me feel that the girls need
to love me in order to learn a skill from me that they want to.

On rare occasions, cooking with my siblings has improved our relationships.
Cooking has also helped me look up to my parents.

It gave my grandmother a reason to come over, and it was a huge part of how she
showed love and remained present in our lives. Cooking is a way I show my dad
that I remember what he taught me.

Cooking as a part of gender identity role definition in the family. In some cases,

participants described cooking as an expectation or duty of women in the family.

38
 My mom has been the main cook in my family. It affected relationships by creating
strong, gendered roles in my house growing up. My mom also worked full time so
housework was her "second shift."

Yes, my parents are pretty relieved that I can cook so there is hope I will be married
off. Ok, but in all seriousness, I think they are even quite impressed sometimes with
the breadth of my cooking knowledge & at least are comforted by the fact that I will
not starve to death or eat unhealthily while I live away from them. As for my
boyfriend, he is really happy that I can cook properly so that he doesn't have to go
out and eat junk everyday. Not everyone gets to bring a home‐cooked meal to work
for lunch. I'm sure his parents are happy he is eating properly as well.

Cooking as a stress point in relationships. For 6 participants, cooking became a

particularly poignant site of dissent for those with a specific dietary restrictions and food

choice preferences that differed from their upbringing or other members of their family.

The last example below states that cooking “ranks members” but is unclear if this is

through skill, food choices, or some other reason related to cooking.

It has strengthened the bond between my mother and I and helped her realize she
needs to eat a more nutritious diet; it has polarized the dinner table because my
father, who insists on eating a diet heavy with meat, will get angry when my mother
and I collaborate on a vegetarian dish and invest more effort in something that is
primarily for me rather than him.

There is a distinct split in the family because my husband's family doesn't recognize
and value REAL food, while we don't value conventional food that they eat. Holidays
are awkward and often defensive on their part while strained on our part (I can't eat
half of what they serve) and I resent their cavalier attitude when feeding my child
CRAP without my permission.

Cooking as a holder of memory, tradition, and identity. 34 participants described

cooking as a way to keep memory and tradition alive. Cooking and these memories and

traditions became a way to define their personal and family identity.

Yes. Growing up my mom and dad alternated cooking dinner, and we'd all eat
together. Meals are a great way to spend time together, and create memories (the
olfactory and gustatory elements make the memories stronger and sweeter!). Now
we reminisce about old‐time staples, and reflect on how our diets and cooking styles
have shifted as a family over the decades. We love to reminisce, and of course we
still east [sic] every day, so the story just keeps layering. Thanksgiving has the

39
 strongest, or most ingrained cooking traditions, which hold delightful stories too. All
of these makes us laugh, smile, tease, and mouths water, which all make us closer.

Yes. I feel a lot closer to my father's side because of all the recipes they have passed
down through the family, as well as other family/cultural things. My mother's side
of the family decided to abandon and destroy all traits of their culture, recipes
included, when they came to the U.S. and all their. I guess I just feel sort of distant
from the culture I came from because of that, and therefor [sic] distant from them.

Some of the French Canadian foods that my grandparents prepared and my father
prepares often help me to feel a sense of cultural belonging. Especially since moving
away from my home and my family, when I cook these foods I feel proud of where
my family is from.

The Impact of Cooking on Cultural Identity Development

The findings from this question affirm that cooking has some affect on cultural

identity development. 148 participants or 58.73% (53.82%) of those who answered

confirmed that cooking has made an impact on their cultural identity development. 70

participants or 27.78% (25.45%) of those who answered did not think that cooking has no

effect. 28 participants or 11.11% (10.18%) made statements that were neutral, unsure, or

unclear around whether or not cooking made an impact on cultural identity development.

Included in this grouping are those who discussed that they have not put much thought

into their cultural identity or even question whether they have a cultural identity.

This next section highlights major themes from the 275 responses and provides

verbatim examples of how participants have experienced the impact of cooking on cultural

identity development

Cooking as a measurement of strength of identification with culture and a way to

differentiate themselves from identification with another culture. Parallel to using cooking a

reflection of the state of family relationships, participants described cooking as a gauge of

acceptance and association with one’s culture. Though not asked to blatantly define their

40
culture, most but not all participants answered this question in reference to their ethnic

heritage.

Absolutely. Most of us don't speak Italian well or at all, and food‐ & drink‐making
are our primary cultural identifiers.

Yes. It is an easy and obvious distinguishing trait. As a Black women with locs, I am
sometimes indistinguishable from African‐Americans and other West Indians. The
type of food I prepare and usually eat are a part of what sets me apart.

I feel accomplished when I cook something from scratch. That didn't happen a lot at
home. The amount of Chinese food I cook reflects how little Chinese identity I have.

Cooking as a way to bring spark interest and learn about own culture. Participants

described cooking as a platform for exploring their identity. Cooking is an easy, non‐

confrontational method to bring about awareness and understanding of cultural identity.

This pertains to both the process within and with others.

It has provided me with an enjoyable avenue for learning about Vietnamese culture,
whether it is the language, agricultural practices, techniques, and overall history.

I don't speak Chinese and so cooking is a large part of my cultural identity. Without
knowledge of Chinese foods, I would certainly have a less developed cultural
identity. Cooking and food help us understand who we are and negotiate feelings of
being a cultural minority without having some of the markers of being from a
different culture (e.g. language).

I think cooking has expanded my sense of cultural identity. I did not realize how
truly American I am until I married an Italian (new immigrant) and learned how
different were [sic] are culturally as it relates to how we engage food. I am very
much a creature of habit and like to have the same dishes over and over again
because of my emotional attachment to the experience while my husband want [sic]
to make a new dish for every meal. So, we have both had to come to terms with me
being distinctly American as well as Southern African American.

Cooking as a manifestation of value systems. Participants asserted that cultural

values were incorporated into the style and method of cooking and therefore, a way that

values were previously instilled and currently expressed in their lives.

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 If anything, cooking has moved me farther away from my cultural identity. I grew up
in a working‐class small town in northern Ohio. However, ever since I turned 18 I
have lived in urban areas and attended top academic institutions, exposing me to
cultures and ideas I would have never known otherwise. In addition, my personal
and professional emphasis on nutrition and healthfulness is at odds with my
original food culture, which relies heavily on fast food, convenience/processed
foods, and when home‐cooked is often comprised primarily of meat and potatoes. In
my opinion, home cooking is not a key cultural element in the rural Midwest. Rather,
it is a chore to be accomplished quickly so that household members can return to
their nightly activities: Facebooking, TV‐watching, etc. For me as an adult, cooking
with my boyfriend or with my family is an expression of a number of my beliefs: in
pleasure, in healthfulness, and in family.

Absolutely. Cooking the dishes that I once ate as a child has given me perspective
into my heritage. I never would have understand the amount of preparation that
goes into making sushi if I never made my own sushi rice and sliced my own fish.
The level of attention to detail that goes into Japanese cuisine and cooking these
dishes has given me a deeper connection with the values characteristic of Japanese
culture that are expressed in the food.

Cooking as a description of history. Participants noted that food and its preparation

is a long‐developed product that is refined and passed down through the generations.

These customs provides a sociological account of the lives and culture of people in the past

even when participants do not currently live in that same surrounding culture.

Yes, because African Americans traditionally eat very, very healthy and only in the
last 40 ‐ 50 years have succumbed to diet related illnesses. I believe in staying
connected to the postive [sic] and healthy aspects of my cultural identity.

Yes. As a vegan/vegetarian for the past 20 years I have had to dig into my heritage
to understand how we ate before packaged Bologna and canned tuna became
staples. I don't eat like my parents, I eat like my great grandparents and my in‐laws.

Yes, the older I get, the more I am drawn to the stories behind the recipes or ways of
cooking. Most stories speak to the capacity to draw sustenance from even the most
basis ingredients ‐ an important capacity when resources are limited. The stories
make me humble and more appreciative of what we have.

Yes. Cooking certain foods at Christmas, St. Patrick's Day, the Kentucky Derby, and
Mardi Gras helped me understand the cultures that shaped me. Figuring out how to
convert Cajun and Southern dishes to lighter, meatless versions paralleled trying to
reconcile my whiteness and Southern history of racism with pride in my culture.

42
 Cooking as a container for personal memories and family tradition. Likewise, people

discussed that food and its preparation was also specific to holding personal and family

culture. Participants used cooking as a way to commemorate these memories and

traditions, especially those from their immediate relatives.

My mom was diagnosed with cancer a year ago, and, among many other obviously
upsetting emotions, realizing her mortality made me panic that I hadn't mastered
the important Jewish foods yet that I would need to know how to cook when she
wasn't around. At the same time, my sister and I experiment with recreating a lot of
old‐world Ashkenazi food that our mom doesn't cook, and neither of my
grandmothers cook either so I guess they were probably lost with our great‐
grandmothers‐‐ curing our own lox, rendering fat, making sour dill pickles, etc. It
feels like an important thing to reconnect with.

From my mother, Armenian food is very much what we hold onto from the culture.
We don't speak the language, but we hold onto the food. From my father, Italian
food is much more subtle part of the culture that I learned from my grandparents. It
is an expression of the culture and the simplicity of how my grandmother cooks. It
is also an important part of how I value fresh grown produce, as I saw my
grandfather and heard about my great grandfather gardening and growing food.

Cooking as a way to maintain or establish connection with culture, place, and those

with a similar culture. Many participants described cooking as a way to uphold a general

connection to their past culture. A large majority of participants only state this fact and do

not provide further explanation of how cooking connects them to culture. Of those that

provided further details, many discussed it as a way to reconnect to a location or with

people who are not in proximity.

Yes, it really is the most easily accessible and tangible connection to my culture and
immediate ancestors

The more I love the food from my culture the more I feel connected to it ‐ on a very
sub‐conscious level.

More than anything else, perhaps, I explore my cultural identity at the stove. I grew
up in an African American town, but my family is Jamaican. Both my sister and I
connected to the culture of our surroundings by learning to fry chicken, or make
greens, which were not dishes my mother and grandmother made. On the other

43
 hand, I have always treasured the Jamaican side of my identity by cooking rice and
peas, and now that I am older, learning more about the food of the island.

Yes, I feel a sense of pride being able to tell people about my cooking methods and
the dishes I make that are from my Chinese family. I like cooking them for people
and making them try something unexpected, to see if they like it. I take a lot of pride
in identifying with my culture via food. It is the easiest way for me to assert my
cultural identity as a mixed person because I do not speak Chinese, I pass as white
most of the time, and I live far away from my family.

Cooking as a source of pride and appreciation of personal culture. 24 Participants

remarked that cultural cooking and food paralleled their pride and appreciation of culture.

This was also verified by the previous correlation statistic comparing the attitude toward

culture and frequency of meals cooked native to culture. The more participants engaged in

cultural cooking, the more positive their attitude toward their culture.

I feel it is a gift from my Italian ancestors and I share stories of my growing up with
my kids who did not know their great grandparents or my mother. Cooking is a way
to bridge the generations as well as educate each other about new recipes, new
foods to enjoy. I'm proud that Slow Foods movement grew from restaurants and
growers in Italy. I'm a slow eater myself....

Very much so, I feel much more proud of my Mexican heritage and identify more as I
always have on the outside by my features, I now do inside and have a pride and
desire to learn more and practice more the preparation of the food of my culture. It
was not always the case, it took many years for me to take pride of who I am. It was
[sic] learning about my culture's food was a major vehicle to this pride.

Most Korean women tell me not to cook Korean food, and that all of it is difficult to
cook. I think that's [sic] helped form an abhorrence for the things of my ethnic
background.

Cooking as way to shape and define own culture. While the majority of participants

described culture in reference to historical culture of specific ethnicities, 24 participants

described the importance of cooking in defining and expressing their current identities.

This may be through an incorporation, alteration, or a departure from a participant’s past

culture.

44
 Some Chinese food does remind me of home, but I grew up eating a lot of American
food too so they are both part of my cultural identity. Living in China and eating
more Chinese food did develop more of my appreciation for Chinese food and
showed me that I am definitely Chinese‐American, not just Chinese.

Yes, I think food is one of the top demarcations of culture. When I see culture in this
survey I'm not connecting with my ethnicity but rather my current culture:
American, health‐conscious, whole‐foods, vegan/gluten‐free/power‐foods
influenced, modern attempts to reengineer traditional cuisine, etc. in this way, I feel
like we say/assume a LOT about ourselves and others simply by watching what
we/they cook and how. What kind of oil, sweetener, vegetable, meat, if any. Which
heating apparatus, if any. These decisions all reflect back to me who I am ("oh, I
guess I really AM a hippy...") more than anything else, and are daily reminders of
who we are.

Cooking as a way to show and share culture with others. This may be to pass down

and continue culture within the family or to reveal and share parts of self to others.

Yes, I have sought out Jamaican recipes from family members to teach my children
who they are.

My relationship with cooking being a Hispanic man was both something dictated by
my culture and also something that has been something I have had to reclaim in
terms of my cultural identity. For me, at times to this day, I feel no desire to cook
and prefer to "wait" for food to be prepared for me. This is the gender dynamic that
is common in Latin homes. At other times, when I do start the process of cooking, I
gain comfort and satisfaction and a sense of worth when I cook meals that my
grandmother and mother once made for me. I feel I can connect and appreciate the
loved ones in my life through the act of cooking at times. I like more than anything
to share my life experiences and what better way than through food. Literally my
loved ones consume me. Apart of dishes I have learned. Experiences I've had. I feel
excited to be able to share myself very literally with others.

Cooking as a bridge to other cultures and people. Participants explain that cooking a

way that they gain access to and appreciate the culture of others. This may be in spite of

reported lack of connection with their own culture through cooking or in general.

I am white and seven generations Californian. I do not feel a strong cultural identity
to either of my parents' ancestral ethnicities, however I have appreciated aspects of
other cultures through their food.

I wouldn't classify anything I made with my family as part of my culture unless you
count Lean Cuisne [sic] meals as a middle class culture. I can say that my friends and

45
 me always had an affinity for ethnic food. I was closer to them than my family. Their
parents had an ethnic background and I loved their food.

Yes, it is the most important thing to understand when learning and taking part in a
culture when traveling. My personal culture, I'm less interested in with regards to
cooking but with exploring other cultures, I love it. I took a cooking class when
studying abroad in Italy and find it my favorite thing to do when traveling ‐ learning
about cooking/recipes/eating traditions of other cultures.

Further explanations by those who report that cooking has not affected cultural

identity development. Below is a mixed compilation of examples from the 70 participants

who report no impact and 28 participants who report some ambivalence around the

impact. Participants assert that matters of taste preference and time deter them from

cooking cultural cuisine. However, this does not change attitude toward or connection

with one’s culture. Of note, some participants who self‐identified as white had difficulty

answering this questions because of difficulty in characterizing and negotiating the

definition of their culture.

I've had to figure out how to be Jewish largely without cooking because I dislike it
and dont' [sic] have time for it

In reality, not at all. My father is very proud of his heritage but "typical Irish food"
was not commonly prepared in my house and is not prepared by me today due to
my dislike of the "meat and white potatoes" mentality.

Not cooking so much as eating.

With regard to culture, this survey didn't address the issue of whether or not you
like or even know about your cultural cuisine. I know a bit about Jewish food and
Welch [sic] cooking, but not much at all and the foods that I've tasted I don't
particularly like. So, it's more of a taste thing that kept me from ranking the
importance of culture to my cooking in this survey rather than a lack of interest or
connection.

No. For me, cooking is simply a fun way to be creative. I don't really have a strong
cultural identity, nor do I feel a need to develop one.

Can't really say, I'm about as much "White American" as it gets.

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Other Findings

Some of the collected data was beyond the scope of this research study. Thus, it will not be

included in the finding chapter of this thesis. Examples of excluded data are short answer

responses about strongest memories related to cooking, favorite thing to cook and why,

who first taught to cook and why, as well as Likert Scale responses on the regularity of

cooking and with whom. Though not included in the analysis of this study, data may be

used in future research.

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 CHAPTER V

DISCUSSION

This mixed method study explored the impact of cooking on family relationships

and cultural identity development. Of the 275 survey participants who responded, 72.63%

report feeling some level of connection to family through cooking and 47.81% report

feeling some level of connection to culture through cooking.

Research about food related topics have increased and incorporated themes beyond

household chore division. However, the overall amount of research, especially related to

aspects of the cooking process is small. With the exception of a few articles, cooking is not

mentioned in the field of social work. Nonetheless, the above findings still corroborate

with the existing literature surrounding this topic and add to our knowledge of the wide

variety of functions cooking can play in a person’s life. Therefore, this study strengthens

previous literature’s conclusions regarding the importance of cooking for family

relationships and cultural identity development; further, it points out that the main

research discrepancy involves the lack of literature that considers cooking to be more than

a common task. Still, consistent with literature, the findings show that cooking is regarded

as an important life skill. For many, cooking is used to measure developmental progress

and maintain family roles. Through this, the child is the receiver of imperative life skills

and the caregiver is the teacher of these skills. In this way, it maintains the child‐caregiver

hierarchy. Moreover, cooking plays a large part in gender role definition; the findings

48
surrounding this topic wholly align with preceding literature ‐‐ while home‐cooking is still

predominantly taken on by women in the family, there has been a slow cultural shift away

from this role expectation.

Previous literature notes the importance of food and cooking as a marker of

inclusion and exclusion in the family. However, the findings show that cooking can be

much more than a boundary, and can also reveal other aspects of family dynamics.

Participants discuss how the quality of cooking and food cooked in the home reflects the

quality of relationships. For the giver, it is a way of providing care. For the receiver, it is a

means of receiving love. To enlarge this concept, the receiver’s reception or type of

response to the cooking, can also impact the giver’s feelings of acceptance and appreciation

in the relationship. Some participants note that these ideas apply beyond a person’s family

of origin; cooking can help create places of connection and a sense of unity and belonging

amongst chosen family members as well.

Of note in this finding, is using cooking as a topic of conversation. Some participants

disclose that while conversation may not always be easy in certain family relationships,

cooking seems to be one place of engagement in the relationship. It can be a more

comfortable starting point for strained relationships. However, something that remains

unmentioned in existing literature is the discussion around how cooking can negatively

impact family relationships. As indicated by the findings of this study, cooking and what to

cook can be a stressful topic for families. This is particularly true in families where there is

a disagreement about food preferences and/or dietary restrictions. In some cases, certain

family members have departed from their family’s traditional foods and have developed

their own traditions around cooking and eating. Social workers may come to understand

49
this as a symbolic sign of separation and individuation in the life cycle, or potentially an

impasse or cutoff in the relationship. However, the correlations findings show that the

more participants cooked meals with their parents during childhood, the more positive

their attitude toward their family and the more they feel connected to family through

cooking.

While previous literature points to cooking practices as a part of culture, this study

reveals that our relationships with cooking also speak of our relationship to our identified

cultures. The correlations findings also reveal that the more a person cooked meals native

to their culture, the more positive their attitude toward their culture. Participants note

that even if they do not strongly identify with their culture of origin, they use food and

cooking traditions to learn and connect to the culture of others. Thus, it is a bridge to

interface personal culture and the culture of others.

Interestingly, participants note that as cooking traditions are traced back to their

early formation, one would find how it fits into the context and history of specific groups of

people. For example, cooking can tell stories of the availability of certain ingredients or of

materials to make cooking tools, the overall financial state of the time period and area, and

the weather or environment. The qualitative responses imply that these factors will

develop into a set of value systems that are intrinsic to our everyday lives including

cooking.

Similar to responses regarding family, participants discuss how the negotiation of

inclusion and exclusion and value systems will also be mirrored in their food and cooking.

Thus, cooking can be a way to redefine a new culture. This is exceptionally pertinent to the

experiences and lives of immigrants and their succeeding generations. According to the

50
findings, participants with less generations of their family that have lived in the United

States, feel a stronger connection to culture through cooking while those who have more

generations of their family that have lived in the United States, feel a stronger connection to

family through cooking. This addresses and reflects a person’s acculturation and

immigration process in the United States. Due to assimilation and integration into the

dominant surrounding culture over the course of several generations, the site of connection

moves from culture of origin to the family unit.

Limitations of the Study

The inclusion criteria included participants older than 18 years who are able to read

and write in English, have access to the Internet, and know how to navigate an online

survey. These factors inherently limit the sample and amount of information on specific

demographics. The ability to read and write English will exclude those who do not use

English as their primary language or may not have had access to English reading and

writing education in the United States. This will likely include those who have recently

immigrated. Similarly, the criteria to have access to the Internet and know how to navigate

and online survey instrument, may exclude those who lack exposure, training, and access to

a computer and the Internet. This will likely impact older and poorer populations.

Consequently, older people who may have immigrated and potentially have stronger tie to

their country and culture of origin may be excluded from the survey. Additionally, the

criteria may reduce the number of people with low Internet and computer access. This will

likely reduce participants who live in rural areas who may have more nuanced opinions

and ties with their food and food processes and participants who live in poor, inner city

51
areas who do not have as much access or resource to cook and must rely on convenience

food.

After collecting the data and closing the survey, it is clear that the racial

demographics were not representative of the United States. There is a small number of

Black, Latino/a, and Native American participants. Moreover, the majority of participants

were 4th generation or more immigrants on both mother and father side of the family.

Lastly, there were significantly more females than males that participated in the survey.

This may impact the results because cooking has a complex, intertwined historical and

sociological relationship with gender identity/roles

By nature of snowball sampling, the data is not a random selection. Initial

participants forwarded the survey to people in their immediate network; thus, many

participants are likely to share similar traits and characteristics. As a result, the sample is

not representative of the population being studied. Also, there may be some bias toward

the connection of cooking to family and culture because of participant interest and/or

knowledge about the topic. Because participants were not compensated, they were more

likely to complete the survey if they have a strong opinion or experience about the subject‐

matter. This may have biased the results toward a stronger impact on family relationships

and cultural identity development. Further, because this is based on self‐reported data,

there is no way to verify information or regulate whether or not a person repeated the

survey.

Similarly, my own investment and opinions likely impacted the results of the

research. Participants who were interested in supporting the research or me as the

researcher may have changed their answers accordingly to underscore or diminish certain

52
points. I unintentionally may have done the same in a parallel process because data

analysis, especially regarding qualitative responses, is largely based on my own

interpretation. Thus, while my hope is to remain impartial, emphasized information, coded

themes, and pulled conclusions are likely sculpted by my own subjectivity in some manner.

Implication for Clinical Social Work

The values of social work underscore the importance of human relationships. The

National Association of Social Workers state “Social workers seek to strengthen

relationships among people in a purposeful effort to promote, restore, maintain, and

enhance the wellbeing of individuals, families, social groups, organizations, and

communities.” The findings of this study provide insights that social workers may use to

further grasp a client’s interactions in family relationships and potentially with other

equally significant or chosen family relationships. Understanding a person’s use of cooking

in their lives and how it functions in their family, will uncover treatment needs and can

help shape treatment goals. Questions centered on the role of cooking in their personal

and family life can be use as a great alternative assessment tool.

This research study demonstrates that there is potential to use cooking as a clinical

intervention both in an individual and family treatment. The findings illustrate that for

many participants they felt more connected to family through cooking. Clinicians can use

this as a tool to promote bonding over a shared goal and collaboration through the cooking

process. 91.48% of answering participants assert that cooking is a way that they show and

receive care. Through encouraging family members to cook for one another, mutual care is

also promoted and quality of relationships may be improved. Encouraging cooking can

53
strengthen or restore family connection through this tangible act of inclusion and care. For

those who established themselves outside their family of origin, cooking can be used as a

location of affirmation of their belonging in their chosen family. This is particularly

poignant for social workers upholding the worth of every person; this manifests in a desire

for everyone, including those who are ostracized, to be treated with dignity and have the

opportunity to connect with supportive, loving people. Thus, cooking may be a potential

intervention to foster and fortify positive outlooks about self and strong family or family‐

like ties.

As the United States is becoming increasingly diverse, it is becoming more essential

for social workers to address cultural needs and clients’ relationships with their culture or

cultures. The findings point to the fact that a significant number of people feel more

connected to their culture of origin through cooking. This is more likely true for those who

have directly faced the immigration process and experienced literal and symbolic distance

or loss of culture. Some participants remark that cooking foods customary to the new

surrounding culture helps them to find their place and feel more a sense of belonging.

Cooking can be part of helping immigrants stay connected to their culture of origin, help

them to adjust to a new culture, and choose and redefine their current cultural identity.

Thus, cooking may help participants covertly navigate between their multiple cultural

identities and find the place of reconciliation between their culture of upbringing and

current cultural context.

Recommendations for Future Research

54
 As a result of the nature of exploratory studies, this research study is part of the

beginning research around this topic. More in‐depth interviews of participants would help

uncover the personal and nuanced experiences of the impacts of cooking on family

relationships and cultural identity development. While initial studies like this are essential

for basic understanding of cooking, additional studies will also be indispensable. For this

particular area of study, because cooking is a process and its influence is an experiential

phenomenon, it can be difficult to fully capture the role of cooking in a person’s life without

a conversation. Thus, interviews would add dimension and provide clarity on intentioned

meanings to the quantitative data collected in this study.

Further, in order to gather the clinical perspective, it may be helpful to interview

individual and family therapists who have used cooking as an assessment tool or

intervention. This will shed light on methods of execution, importance, and strengths and

limitations in the use of cooking in the clinical social work.

55
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Appendix A
Survey on Google Surveys

Cooking Survey

I am grateful and excited for your interest and participation in this questionnaire! Before
you begin the survey, please read through and print a copy of the Informed Consent letter
and List of Resources on the following page.

* Required

Eligibility Requirements for Participation
Page 1 of 4

Participants must be
1) Over the age of 18
2) Able to read and write in English

BY CHECKING “I AGREE” BELOW, YOU ARE INDICATING THAT YOU MEET ELIGIBILITY
REQUIREMENTS FOR PARTICIPATION*
I agree


Informed Consent Letter
Page 2 of 4

Dear Participant,

My name is Tammie Chen and I am a graduate student at the Smith College School for Social
Work. I am doing research to learn more about how cooking affects a person’s family
relationships and cultural identity. This study will be used to write a master’s thesis and
may be used in possible future presentations, publications, or dissertations.

I would like to invite you to join my study by filling out a short online survey. The survey
will ask you some questions about you, your family relationships, cultural identity, and the
amount and effects of cooking in your own life. The survey will take around 30 minutes to
complete. Participants must be 18 years are older and able to read and write in English.

While there is no financial compensation for participation, your survey answers will allow
you to share your personal thoughts and stories about the role of cooking in your life. You
will be able to explore how cooking, if at all, has impacted and shaped your family
relationships and cultural identity. I hope that further understanding of your experiences
can help clinicians and educators create personal, holistic, culturally responsive services
for individual and family mental health needs. There is minimal risk for participation;

64
however, there is a list of mental health resources at the end of this letter if you would like
support during or after completing the survey

Your anonymity and confidentiality are protected. The survey program does not collect
names, email addresses, or any other identifying information. Your answers will be
available only to me through the use of password protection. My research advisor will
have access to the data only after any identifying information has been removed from the
write‐in responses. Please do not include any identifying information about you or your
family, this way your anonymity and confidentiality can be guaranteed. Finally, all data will
be kept secure for a period of three years as set by federal guidelines. After that time, if the
data is no longer needed for research purposes, it will be destroyed. If it is needed for
research purposes the data will continue to be kept secured for as long as it is needed and
when it no longer needed it will be destroyed.

If you choose to participate, you may stop taking the survey at any point by closing the web
browser, and you may choose not to answer any or all of the questions by skipping them.
Once you have submitted your data online, it will be impossible to withdraw from the study
because your data is anonymous and I will be unable to identify your survey responses
from the others that have participated in my study.

If you have any questions or concerns about your rights or about any aspect of the study,
please feel free to contact me or the Chair of the Smith College School for Social Work
Human Subjects Review Committee at (413)585‐7974.

Thank you for your time and interest in the study.

Sincerely,
Tammie Chen
MSW Candidate, Smith College School for Social Work

Researcher’s Contact:
Tammie Chen
XXXXXXXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXXXXXXX


BY CHECKING “I AGREE”, YOU ARE INDICATING THAT YOU HAVE READ AND
UNDERSTAND THE ABOVE INFORMATION AND THAT YOU HAVE HAD THE
OPPORTUNITY TO ASK QUESTIONS ABOUT THE STUDY, YOUR PARTICIPATION, AND
YOUR RIGHTS AND THAT YOU AGREE TO PARTICIPATE IN THE STUDY.*
I agree

Mental Health Referral Resources

65
1. Berkeley Free Clinic – A clinic that offers drop‐in or appointment peer counseling, group
counseling, and mental health referrals in the Bay Area.
Phone Number: (510) 548‐2570 or 1‐800‐6‐CLINIC
Hours: Monday‐Friday 3pm‐9pm, Saturday 11am‐3pm, Sunday 4pm‐8pm
Location: 2339 Durant Avenue, Berkeley, CA, 94704
Website: http://www.berkeleyfreeclinic.org

2. Network Therapy ‐ a national mental health network directory to find a local therapist
or treatment center
Website: http://www.networktherapy.com/directory/

3. HelpPRO – an online search engine to find individual, family, couples, or group therapy
Website: http://www.helppro.com/

4. Psychology Today – an online listing for psychologists, psychiatrist, therapist,
counselors, group therapy, and treatment centers throughout the United States and Canada
Website: http://therapists.psychologytoday.com/rms/prof_search.php

Demographic Questions
Page 3 of 4

1. Please specify your race. *
Check all that apply.
Asian/Pacific Islander
Black
Latino/a
Native American
White
Other: ________________

2. Please specify your ethnicity.*
(i.e. Chinese, Mexican, Jewish)



3. Please specify the ethnic/cultural background of each of your childhood primary
caregivers.
(i.e. Father – Ethiopian, Foster Mother – Cambodian, Maternal Grandmother – Swedish)



4. Please specify your city, state, country and/or describe the area in which you were raised
(i.e. Rural, Small town, Metropolitan, Etc.)

66



5. For the following, please specify the level of importance to your identity
Very Important Important Moderately Unimportant Very
Important Unimportant
My Race

My Ethnicity

My Culture

My Family


6. Please specify your attitude toward the following
Very Proud Proud Neutral Ashamed Very Ashamed

My Race

My Ethnicity

My Culture

My Family


7. What is your immigration generation?
1st generation
2nd generation
(first to immigrate
(first born in the 3rd generation 4th generation
to the United
United States)
States)

Mother’s Side

Father’s Side


8. Please specify your age

67
9. Please specify your gender
Female
Male
Other: ______________


10. Please specify your socioeconomic status (SES)
Low SES Middle SES High SES

Growing up

Current


11. Please specify your religion or spiritual practice



Cooking Questions
Page 4 of 4

12. On average, how much time do you spend cooking each day?
This includes all necessary steps to plan a meal
0‐29 minutes
30‐59 minutes
1‐2 hours
3‐4 hours
More than 5 hours


13. Please specify how often you __________ meals native to your culture
Always Frequently Occasionally Rarely Never

Cook

Eat


14. What are your strongest memories around cooking?

68

15. What is your favorite thing to cook and why?





16. Who first taught you to cook? What was the context and reason for learning it?





17. During your childhood, how often did you cook with you __________?
Leave blank if does not apply.
Always Very often Sometimes Rarely Never

Parents

Siblings

Other family

members
Friends


18. Currently, how often do you cook with you __________?
Leave blank if does not apply.
Always Very often Sometimes Rarely Never

Parents

Siblings

Other family

members
Friends


19. Within the last week, please specify how many of the meals were ___________?
5 or less 6‐10 11‐15 16 or more

69
Cooked by self

Cooked by (or
with) other family
members
Cooked by (or

with) friends

Microwaveable

Fast

food/Restaurant


20. Is cooking a way you show and receive care? Please explain.





21. Please specify the level of enjoyment of the following:
Strongly Enjoy Enjoy Neutral Dislike Strongly
Dislike
Cooking (in

general)
Cooking food
from your
culture


22. When I cook a meal, I feel __________.
Check all that apply
Stressed
Comforted
Nostalgic
Disgusted
Festive
Satisfied
Other: ________________


23. When I cook a meal native to my culture, I feel __________.
Check all that apply

70
 Stressed
Comforted
Nostalgic
Disgusted
Festive
Satisfied
Other: ________________


24. When I eat a home‐cooked meal, I feel __________.
Check all that apply
Stressed
Comforted
Nostalgic
Disgusted
Festive
Satisfied
Other: ________________


25. When I eat a home‐cooked meal native to my culture, I feel __________.
Check all that apply
Stressed
Comforted
Nostalgic
Disgusted
Festive
Satisfied
Other: ________________


26. In my life, cooking is __________.
Check all that apply
Chore
Hobby
Gift
Way to celebrate
Method of showing care
Way to feed myself and others
Hassle
Way to relax
Expression of creativity
Way to bring people together
Waste of time
Other: ________________

71

27. Through cooking, I feel connected to __________.
Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly
Disagree
My family

My culture


28. Cooking traditions are an important part of __________.
Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly
Disagree
My family

My culture


29. Has cooking affected your family relationships? If so, how?





30. Has cooking affected your cultural identity development? If so, how?




Thank you for your participation in this study!

72
Appendix B
Recruitment Email to Personal Contacts

Dear (Friends/Classmates/Colleagues),
I am currently looking for participants to complete a survey for my thesis research
study exploring the impact of cooking on family relationships and cultural identity
development. Participants must be at least 18 yrs of age and able to read and write in
English. The survey will take approximately 30 minutes. I am looking to find participants
from a wide variety of cultural backgrounds in order to ensure that many voices are heard
in the findings. I would greatly appreciate if you would be willing to help me recruit
eligible participants to complete the survey. I have also included a message that you can
forward to your personal and professional contacts. Thank you for your time and help!

Tammie Chen

Message to forward to personal and professional contacts:

Hello!

My name is Tammie Chen and I am a graduate student at Smith College School for Social
Work. I am currently working on my master’s thesis and conducting research on the
impact of cooking on family relationships and cultural identity development. I invite you to
participate by filling out the survey below and forwarding this email to others who may
also be interested in participating. Participants must be at least 18 yrs of age. The survey
will take approximately 30 minutes to complete. No identifying information will be
collected in the survey and submitted information will remain anonymous.

By completing the survey, you will have an opportunity to share your experiences and
thoughts about cooking and food. I hope to find participants from a wide variety of cultural
backgrounds in order to ensure that many voices are heard in the findings. Responses can
provide insight to clinical practitioners, supervisors, and educators on how to implement
more holistic, culturally responsive approaches to therapy.

Please feel free contact me with any questions or concerns. Thank you for your help and
time!

Tammie Chen
MSW Candidate ‘13
Smith College School for Social Work
[email protected]
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX

(Link to survey)

73
Appendix C
Human Subjects Review Approval Letter

74