PRINCIPLES,

CONSTRUCTION AND
PARTS OF DIRECT
CURRENT MACHINES
UNIT 2: DIRECT CURRENT GENERATOR AND
MOTOR PRINCIPLES
 MODULE 1
Principles, Construction and Parts of Direct Current Machines

TOPICS:

Principle of Generator Action

General Voltage Equation for DC Generator
Direction of Generated Voltage
The Elementary Alternating-Current Generator
Commutation in DC Generator
Principle of Motor Action
Force and Torque Developed by DC Motors
Commutation in DC Motors

References

Theraja, B. T. (2005). A Textbook of Electrical Technology Vol.2. New Delhi: S. Chand

and Company Ltd.

Chapman, S. J. (2004). Electric Machinery Fundamentals. McGraw-Hill Book Co. Inc.

Fitzgerald, A. E. et.al. (2003). Electric Machinery. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co. Inc.

Siskind, C. S. (1982). Electrical Machines. McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.

Unit Learning Outcomes

At the end of this learning unit, you should be able to:

 Know the principles of generator and motor actions

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 MODULE 1
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Principle of Generator Action

You can also watch the following video clips for a simple explanation
of the working principles of a DC generator and motor.

 Working Principle of a DC generator

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mq2zjmS8UMI

 DC Motors: How Do They Work? Construction & Working

Principle of a DC Motor
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fWyzPdyCAzU

The fundamental principles governing generator action and motor action were originally
discovered by Michael Faraday in 1831.

 Before a voltage is generated, the principle of generator action requires:

a. the presence of magnetic lines of force; and
b. the conductors cutting the magnetic flux

 Voltage is generated by:

a) moving a conductor in such a manner that it cuts across magnetic lines
of force (dc generator); or
b) moving magnetic lines of force in such a manner that they cut across a
conductor (ac generator/alternator)

According to Faraday’s law:

The magnitude of the generated voltage is directly proportional to the rate at which a
conductor cuts magnetic lines of force.

d
e 
dt
Faraday’s law implies simply that higher voltages may be generated by moving
conductors more rapidly across lines of flux, by increasing the number of flux lines across
which the conductors move, or by increasing both the speed of the conductors and the
flux across which they move.

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General Voltage Equation for DC Generator

The ff. analysis will lead to a very useful fundamental equation:

1. Each one of Z conductors cuts   P line of force per revolution, where  is the
flux supplied by each of the poles P.

2. Assuming a parallel armature paths, the number of conductors per path will
therefore be Z/a.

revolutions per minute (rpm)

3. If   P is multiplied by the , the product
60
would represent the flux cut by each conductor per second.

4. Since 1 volt is generated for every 108 lines cut per second, multiplying the product
  P  rpm
in (3), i.e., , by 10-8 would give the voltage generated in each
60
conductor.

  P  rpm Z
5. Finally, multiplying  10 8 by would yield the total generated
60 a
voltage, E g . Thus the fundamental voltage equation is:

ZNP
Eg   10 8
60a
Where:
Eg = total generated voltage
 = flux per pole, maxwells or lines
P = number of poles
rpm = speed of the armature, revolutions per
minute
Z = total number of conductors effectively
used to add to resulting voltage
a = number of armature paths connected in
parallel (determined by type of armature
winding)

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Principles, Construction and Parts of Direct Current Machines

EXAMPLE 1.2.1

A four-pole dc generator has an armature winding containing a total of 648 conductors

connected in two parallel paths. If the flux per pole is 0.321 x 106 maxwells and the speed
of rotation of the armature is 1800 rpm, calculate the average generated voltage. Also,
determine the rated current in each conductor if the power delivered by the armature
is 5 kW.

Solution

ZNP 6480.321  106 18004

Eg   10 8   10 8
60a 602
 124.80 V.
5000
Rated armature current, I arated   40.06 A.
124.80
I arated 40.06
Rated current per conductor, I cond.rates    20.03 A.
a 2

EXAMPLE 1.2.2

An 85-kW, 6-pole generator has an armature containing 66 slots, in each of which are 12
conductors. The armature winding is connected so that there are 6 parallel paths. If each
pole produces 2.18 x 106 maxwells and the armature speed is 870 rpm, determine the
generated voltage.

Solution

Z  no. of conductors per slot  no. of slots, S

 1266  792 conductors

ZNP 7922.18  106 8706

Eg   10  8   10  8
60a 606
 250.35 V.

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Direction of Generated Voltage

The direction of the generated voltage in a conductor, or more correctly in a coil of wire,
as it is rotated to cut the lines of force produced by the electromagnets in a generator,
will depend upon two factors only:

a) the direction of the flux determined by the magnet polarity (i.e., from N-
pole to S-pole)

b) the direction of the motion of the conductor

 Lenz’s Law: It was named after the German scientist, Heinrich F.E. Lenz, in 1834. The
law states that:

When lines of force pass through a coil wire and the latter is moved, the polarity of
the generated emf is such that it causes a current that produces a magnetic field
that opposes the change in flux which produces it.

Referring to Fig. 1.2.1, assume two poles that create a magnetic field from right
(north) to left (south) through the rectangular loop of the conductor mnpq. When
the rectangular loop is in vertical position (Fig. 1.2.1a), maximum flux passes
through the coil. When the loop rotates in a clockwise direction from its vertical
position so that it occupies the oblique position shown in Fig. 1.2.1b, less flux will
pass through it. During this movement, the two sides, mn and pq, of the loop cut
the flux lines and there will be an emf generated in these two sides. By Lenz’s law,
therefore, the voltage generated in the coil will tend to establish a current whose
direction will oppose a reduction of flux through it. This can only mean that a
current will attempt to flow in the coil from m to n to p to q so that flux will be
created by the coil from right to left (consistent with the right-hand rule). As the
coil continues to move to the horizontal position depicted in Fig. 1.2.1c, the
opposition to flux change through the coil increases because less main pole flux
passes through it. It is seen that for clockwise rotation, the side of the loop under
the N-pole will always have a voltage direction away from the observer, while the
side of the loop under the S-pole will always have a voltage direction toward the
observer.

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 MODULE 1
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Figure 1.2.1 Sketch illustrating the method for determining the direction of the
generated voltage by Lenz’s law

 Fleming’s Right-hand Rule: The direction of a generated voltage can be

predetermined by using this rule. The right hand is held with the thumb, index finger
and middle finger mutually perpendicular to each other as shown in Fig. 1.2.2. To
use this rule,

 The thumb is pointed in the direction of the motion of the conductor.

 The index finger is pointed in the direction of the magnetic field, i.e., from
N-pole to S-pole.
 The middle finger gives the direction of the generated current within the
conductor (from the terminal with lower electric potential to the terminal
with higher electric potential, as in a voltage source).

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Figure 1.2.2 Fleming’s Right-hand Rule

To illustrate how we can use Fleming’s right-hand rule to predict the direction of the
generated voltage, let us consider a simple 2-pole generator as shown in Fig. 1.2.3.
With a clockwise rotation of the armature, the conductor under the influence of the
N-pole is moving downward while the conductor under the S-pole is moving upward.
For the conductor under the N-pole, Fleming’s right-hand rule is applied by pointing
your thumb downward and your index finger to the direction of the flux from the N-
pole to the S-pole. Notice that your middle finger is pointing away from you. Hence,
the direction of the generated voltage in the conductor under N-pole is away from
the observer. We use the symbol “+” (or cross) to represent this direction. Similarly, for
the conductor under the S-pole, your thumb will be pointed upward, your index finger
will still be pointed from N to S, and, now, your middle finger must be pointing towards
you. Therefore, the direction of the generated voltage in the conductor under the S-
pole is towards the observer (represented by “dot” symbol).

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Figure 1.2.3 Sketch illustrating the method for determining the direction of the
generated voltage by Fleming’s Right-hand Rule

The Elementary Alternating-Current Generator

The dc generator is fundamentally an ac generator because, internally, in the armature

conductors, the current reverses periodically as the wires move to cut lines of force
successively under the north and south poles. Since the rate of cutting flux varies with
time, the resulting voltage will also vary with time.

 For instance in Fig. 1.2.1a, since the coil sides are moving parallel to the field, no
flux lines are being cut and the generated voltage at this instant (and hence
current) is zero. This is defined as the 00 position of the coil.
 If clockwise rotation is assumed again, as the coil rotates from the 00 position, coil
sides mn and pq cut across flux lines, thus, voltage is generated, reaching a peak
when flux is cut at the maximum rate in the 900 position as in Fig. 1.2.1c. Note that
the polarity of the generated voltage is such that current flows from
m  n  p  q when coil side mn is under a north pole and pq is under a
south pole.
 As the coil rotates further, voltage generated decreases, reaching zero at the 1800
position when the coil sides again move parallel to the field. At this point, the coil
has gone through a half-revolution.
 During the second half-revolution, when conductor mn moves under a south pole
and at the same time conductor pq moves under a north pole, the polarity of the
voltage in each conductor will reverse such that the current will tend to flow from
n to m in conductor mn and from q to p in conductor pq. Around the loop, the
current is directed from q  p  n  m . The voltage generated will be
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maximum again at 2700 point. When the coil reaches the 3600 position, voltage is
again zero and the cycle starts over. It is seen that for one complete revolution,
voltage magnitude and polarity change. Figure 1.2.3 shows one cycle of the
resulting voltage waveform.

Figure 1.2.3 One Cycle of Generated Voltage

 The magnitude of the emf generated in each conductor is proportional to the sine
of the angle between the direction of the motion of the conductor and the
direction of the field. When the motion of the conductor is parallel with the field
(i.e., 00 position), sine of 00 is zero, hence, the voltage is zero. When the motion of
the conductor is perpendicular with the field, sine of 900 is one, voltage magnitude
is, therefore, maximum. The emf generated in the conductor can be expressed as

e   lv sin 

Where:
e = generated voltage
 = flux density, Tesla
l = length of the conductor, m
v = velocity, m/s
 = angle between the motion of the
conductor and the field

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 The frequency, f in cycles per second (cps), of the alternating current/voltage is
proportional to both the speed in revolutions per second, rpm/60, and the number
of pairs of poles, P/2. As shown in Fig. 1.2.3, one cycle is generated per revolution
for two poles. There would be two, three, four, or P/2 cycles per revolution for four,
six, eight, or P poles, respectively. For a given number of poles, one cycle is
completed in one revolution. Two cycles in two revolutions, and so on. In general
terms, therefore, the frequency in cycles per second (cps) is:

P rpm P  rpm
f   
2 60 120

EXAMPLE 1.2.3

A generator has 6-poles and operates at 1200 rpm. (a)What frequency does it generate?
(b) At what speed must the generator operate to develop 50 cylcles?

Solution

P  rpm 61200
a  f    60 cps
120 120
120f 12050
 b rpm    1000 rpm
P 6

Commutation in DC Generator

It should be clear that the generated voltage, as well as the current, in dc armature
winding is alternating. Nothing can be done in the modern generator to develop an
internal dc emf. What can be done, however, is to rectify the internal alternating current
so that the brush voltage – the external voltage – is direct current. The mechanism for
doing this consists of the commutator (in its simplest form it may be represented by a split
ring) and its brushes (Fig. 1.2.4). As shown in the diagram,

 Brushes are located so that they touch two segments exactly on top and bottom.
 Each conductor is permanently connected to a segment (or a semi ring).
 The split ring rotates with the rotating coil.

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Figure 1.2.4 Commutator (Split ring) and Brushes

The process performed by the commutator and the brushes in changing the internal
alternating current to an external direct current is called the commutation process. Using
the following figures, the commutation process can be explained as follows:

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Figure 1.2.5 Sketches illustrating the commutation process

Referring to figures 1.2.5a and 1.2.5b, when the plane of the coil is vertical and the coil is
not cutting flux, coil ends will be short-circuited by the brushes. The brushes are positioned
to short-circuit conductors when they are not cutting flux under the poles. The load
voltage and current are zero. When conductor a is moving downward (assuming a
clockwise rotation) and cutting the flux under a north pole. The voltage generated in
conductor a is directed away from the observer and semi ring x to which conductor a is
connected will be negative. At the same time, conductor b will be moving upward and
cutting flux under a south pole. The direction of the generated voltage in this conductor
is towards the observer, thus, making semi ring y positive. Therefore, the brush touching

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semi ring y will be positive, while the other brush will be negative. The current through the
load will be from left to right.

Referring to figures 1.2.5c and 1.2.5d, during the next half revolution, conductor a will
change places with conductor b under the poles. This exchange will cause the
generated voltages in the two conductors to reverse their directions. However, when this
happens, the semi rings, to which they are connected, automatically change places
under the stationary brushes. It follows therefore that the polarity of the brushes does not
change. Hence, the current through the load will again be from left to right. It is true that
the magnitude of the current will change as the conductors a and b occupy different
positions under the poles, but there will be no reversal of current through the load (see
Figure 1.2.6). Points a, b, c, d, and e on the waveform indicate the magnitude of the
voltage (or current) in the load from (a) to (e) of Fig. 1.2.5, respectively.

Figure 1.2.6 Unidirectional Voltage

When several coils are joined together properly so that their combined effect acts
additively, the result is not only increased voltage, but also voltage pulsations that are
not so violent. In other words, the voltage wave becomes smoother as the number of
coils are increased. Figure 1.2.7 shows the effect upon the resultant voltage wave with
two coils in series. Obviously, when there are a great many armature coils, the external
voltage wave between brushes approaches a smooth, unvarying line that approximates
the pure dc voltage supplied by a battery.

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Figure 1.2.7 Sketch illustrating the combined additive effects of two coils in series

NOTE: Strictly speaking, a dc generator does not deliver a pure direct current, as
does a storage battery, for example, but approaches such a current very
closely as the number of coils and commutator segments are increased.

Principle of Motor Action

When an electric motor is in operation, it develops torque, which in turn, can produce
mechanical rotation. Before a motor can develop torque, it is first necessary that forces
be created in the armature conductors.

Involving the development of force, the principle of motor action requires (1) the
presence of magnetic lines of force and (2) current through the conductors lying in the
magnetic field before force, and therefore torque, is produced. As shown in Fig. 1.2.8,
apart from the flux produced by the main poles, another set of flux is developed by the
armature conductors because of the current that is supplied by an electric power source
through the brushes and commutator. The direction of the flux produced around the
conductor can be determined by right-hand rule applied in this manner:

 Using your right hand, grasp the conductor so that your thumb points in the
direction of the current.
 Then, your encircling fingers will indicate the direction of the flux around the
conductor.

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Figure 1.2.8 Fields produced by main poles and by current-carrying conductors

Therefore, the direction of the flux around the conductor under the S-pole in Fig. 1.2.8 will
be clockwise and counter-clockwise around the conductor under the N-pole. The
magnetic fluxes surrounding both conductors are approximately circular paths (if we
neglect the presence of the main pole flux) just as the main pole flux is quite uniform and
symmetrical between the poles.

However, because of the interaction of these two magnetic fields, the resulting flux
distribution is not uniform in the region of the conductors, as represented by Fig. 1.2.9.

Figure 1.2.9 Resultant field and force produced by main poles and current-carrying
conductors

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Notice that:
 The flux densities are greatest on the bottom of the left conductor (under the
S-pole) and on top of the right conductor (under the N-pole).
 The flux densities are least on the top of the left conductor and the bottom of
the right conductor.

As a result of the nonuniform flux distribution, the conductor will experience a force action
in a direction away from the higher density to the lower density. The left conductor will
tend to move upward, while the right conductor will tend to move downward. If the
armature is free to turn on a shaft, the resulting torque will produce rotation in a clockwise
direction.

NOTE: In the study of the generator action, it was learned that the direction of the
magnetic field, the direction of the motion of the conductors, and the
direction of the resulting generated voltage are mutually perpendicular with
respect to one another (Fleming’s Right-hand Rule). In the study of motor
action, the direction of the magnetic field, the direction of the current
through the conductors, and the resulting force exerted upon the conductors
are mutually perpendicular (Fleming’s Left-hand Rule: thumb (force), index
finger (field) and middle finger (current)).

Force and Torque Developed by DC Motors

The force action exerted by a current-carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field

depends upon:

a) the strength of the main field; and

b) the value of the current through the conductor

Experiment has shown that a force of 1 dyne will be exerted upon a conductor 1 cm long
carrying a current of 10 amp when placed under a pole area of which is 1 cm2 and
producing one line of force. This leads to the equation:

 IL
F 
10
Where:
F = force upon a conductor, dynes
 = flux density, lines per cm2
L = length of the conductor, cm
I = current in the conductor, A

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If the units of F ,  , and L are specified in more practical terms, that is, pounds, lines per
in2 and inches respectively, the equation becomes:

 IL
F 
11,300,000
Where:
F = force upon a conductor, pounds
 = flux density, lines per in2
L = length of the conductor, in
I = current in the conductor, A

The total force exerted by the armature is the combined force actions of many current-
carrying conductors in a strong magnetic field. Moreover, only those conductors that are
directly influenced by the magnetic field contribute to the tendency of the armature to
rotate. Those conductors that lie between the pole tips, in the interpolar spaces, are in
weak field and are therefore more or less inactive. Therefore, the total force and the
torque in the armature are given by:

F A  F  Z'
TA  F A  r

Where:
FA = force exerted by the armature, pounds (Ib)
TA = torque exerted by the armature, Ib-ft
Z’ = number of active conductors (those that are
directly under the pole faces)
r = armature core radius, ft

EXAMPLE 1.2.4

The armature of a dc motor has 648 conductors, 65% of which are directly under the
poles where the flux density is 48,000 lines/in2. If the core diameter is 7” and its length 4”,
and the current in each conductor is 20 A, calculate: (a) the total force tending to rotate
the armature; (b) the torque exerted by the armature.

Solution

48000204
a F A  FZ'  0.65  648  143.13 lb
11,300,000

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 b TA  F A r  143.13
7 in 1 ft 
   41.75 lb - ft
 2 12 in 

EXAMPLE 1.2.5

A dc motor has an armature containing 192 conductors, 70% of which lie directly under
the pole faces at any given instant. If the flux density under the poles is 52,000 lines/in 2
and the armature diameter and length are 12 in and 4.5 in, respectively, calculate the
current in each armature conductor for a torque of 120 lb-ft.

Solution

TA  F A r
52000I 4.5
0.7  192
12 1
120   
11,300,000  2 12 
I  86.23 A

Commutation in DC Motors

In the dc generator, the commutator and brushes function as a mechanical rectifier to

change the internally generated alternating current to a load-applied direct current.

In the dc motor, the commutator and brushes perform an inverse function (as inverter)
by changing the externally applied direct current to alternating current flowing in the
armature conductors. This is because the current in the armature conductors must be
alternating if rotation in the same direction is to continue. This can only mean that the
direction of the force exerted upon a conductor must change as a conductor passes
under the different poles. For example, the direction of the force on the conductor under
the S-pole in Fig. 1.2.9 is upward. However, if that same conductor will pass under the N-
pole, the force on the conductor must be downward. At the same time, the direction of
the force on the conductor under the N-pole must be reversed from downward to
upward as it passes under the S-pole in order to sustain the rotation in the same direction.
The only way that this can be done is to commutate the current through the conductors
since the direction of the magnetic field is fixed.

NOTE: In both cases, whether generator or motor, the current in the armature
winding is always alternating, while the current in the external circuit is always
direct.

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Principles, Construction and Parts of Direct Current Machines

EXERCISES 1.2

Test your skills by working on the exercises below.

1. A six-pole dc generator has an armature winding with 504 conductors connected

in six parallel paths. Calculate the generated voltage in this machine if each pole
produces 1.65 x 106 maxwells and the armature speed is 1800 rpm.

2. Calculate the voltage generated by a four-pole dc machine given the following

particulars: number of slots in the armature = 55; number of conductors per slot =
4; flux per pole = 2.62 x 106 maxwells; speed = 1200 rpm; a = 2.

3. A four-pole machine generates 250 V when operated at 1500 rpm. If the flux per
pole is 1.85 x 106 maxwells, the number of armature slots is 45, and the armature
winding has two parallel paths, calculate (a) the total number of armature
conductors; (b) the number of conductors in each slot.

4. What is the frequency of the alternating voltage generated in the armature

conductors of a 10-pole, 500-rpm machine?

5. At what speed is an armature rotating in a 12-pole machine if the frequency in the

armature conductors is 50 cps?

6. Calculate the force exerted by each conductor, 6 in. long, on the armature of a
dc motor when it carries a current of 90 A and lies in a field the density of which is
52000 lines/in2.

7. What total current must the armature of a dc motor carry, given the following
information: armature slots = 72; conductors per slot = 6; pole arcs cover 70.5% of
circumference; flux density = 58000 lines/in2; armature core length = 8 in; armature-
core diameter = 21 in; a = 6 parallel paths; torque = 1050 Ib-ft.

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means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.

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 MODULE 1
Principles, Construction and Parts of Direct Current Machines

GRADED QUIZ

Work on Graded Quiz No. 2

Schedule: TBA
Time: TBA
(The link will be available in our Google classroom as
scheduled.)

Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.

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