Snake

Snakes Temporal range:

 Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Clade: Ophidia
Suborder: Serpentes
Linnaeus, 1758
Infraorders
 Alethinophidia Nopcsa, 1923
 Scolecophidia Cope, 1864

Approximate world distribution of snakes, all species

Snakes are elongated, legless, carnivorous reptiles of the suborder Serpentes[2] that can be
distinguished from legless lizards by their lack of eyelids and external ears. Like all squamates,
snakes are ectothermic, amniote vertebrates covered in overlapping scales. Many species of
snakes have skulls with several more joints than their lizard ancestors, enabling them to swallow
prey much larger than their heads with their highly mobile jaws. To accommodate their narrow
bodies, snakes' paired organs (such as kidneys) appear one in front of the other instead of side by
side, and most have only one functional lung. Some species retain a pelvic girdle with a pair of
vestigial claws on either side of the cloaca.

Living snakes are found on every continent except Antarctica, and on most smaller land masses;
exceptions include some large islands, such as Ireland, Iceland, Greenland, the Hawaiian
archipelago, and the islands of New Zealand, and many small islands of the Atlantic and central
Pacific oceans.[3] Additionally, sea snakes are widespread throughout the Indian and Pacific
Oceans. More than 20 families are currently recognized, comprising about 500 genera and about
3,400 species.[4][5] They range in size from the tiny, 10.4 cm-long thread snake[6] to the reticulated
python of 6.95 meters (22.8 ft) in length.[7] The fossil species Titanoboa cerrejonensis was 12.8
meters (42 ft) long.[8] Snakes are thought to have evolved from either burrowing or aquatic
lizards, perhaps during the Jurassic period, with the earliest known fossils dating to between 143
and 167 Ma ago.[9] The diversity of modern snakes appeared during the Paleocene period (c 66 to
56 Ma ago). The oldest preserved descriptions of snakes can be found in the Brooklyn Papyrus.
Most species are nonvenomous and those that have venom use it primarily to kill and subdue
prey rather than for self-defense. Some possess venom potent enough to cause painful injury or
death to humans. Nonvenomous snakes either swallow prey alive or kill by constriction.

Contents
 1 Etymology
 2 Evolution
o 2.1 Origins
 3 Distribution
 4 Taxonomy
o 4.1 Families
o 4.2 Legless lizards
 5 Biology
o 5.1 Size
o 5.2 Perception
o 5.3 Skin
 5.3.1 Molting
o 5.4 Skeleton
o 5.5 Internal organs
o 5.6 Venom
o 5.7 Reproduction
o 5.8 Facultative parthenogenesis
 6 Behavior
o 6.1 Winter dormancy
o 6.2 Feeding and diet
o 6.3 Locomotion
 6.3.1 Lateral undulation
 6.3.2 Sidewinding
 6.3.3 Concertina
 6.3.4 Arboreal
 6.3.5 Rectilinear
 7 Interactions with humans
o 7.1 Bite
o 7.2 Snake charmers
o 7.3 Trapping
o 7.4 Consumption
o 7.5 Pets
o 7.6 Symbolism
o 7.7 Religion
o 7.8 Medicine
 8 See also
 9 References
 10 Further reading
  11 External links

Etymology
The English word snake comes from Old English snaca, itself from Proto-Germanic *snak-an-
(cf. Germanic Schnake "ring snake", Swedish snok "grass snake"), from Proto-Indo-European
root *(s)nēg-o- "to crawl", "to creep", which also gave sneak as well as Sanskrit nāgá "snake".[10]
The word ousted adder, as adder went on to narrow in meaning, though in Old English næddre
was the general word for snake.[11] The other term, serpent, is from French, ultimately from Indo-
European *serp- (to creep),[12] which also gave Ancient Greek hérpō (ἕρπω) "I crawl".

Evolution
A phylogenetic overview
of the extant groups
Modern snake Scolecophidia
s

Alethinophidi
a
 Note: the tree only indicates
relationships, not evolutionary
branching times.[13]

The fossil record of snakes is relatively poor because snake skeletons are typically small and
fragile making fossilization uncommon. Fossils readily identifiable as snakes (though often
retaining hind limbs) first appear in the fossil record during the Cretaceous period.[14] The earliest
known true snake fossils (members of the crown group Serpentes) come from the marine
simoliophiids, the oldest of which is the Late Cretaceous (Cenomanian age) Haasiophis
terrasanctus,[1] dated to between 112 and 94 million years old.[15]

Based on comparative anatomy, there is consensus that snakes descended from lizards.[16]:11[17]
Pythons and boas—primitive groups among modern snakes—have vestigial hind limbs: tiny,
clawed digits known as anal spurs, which are used to grasp during mating.[16]:11[18] The families
Leptotyphlopidae and Typhlopidae also possess remnants of the pelvic girdle, appearing as
horny projections when visible.

Front limbs are nonexistent in all known snakes. This is caused by the evolution of Hox genes,
controlling limb morphogenesis. The axial skeleton of the snakes’ common ancestor, like most
other tetrapods, had regional specializations consisting of cervical (neck), thoracic (chest),
lumbar (lower back), sacral (pelvic), and caudal (tail) vertebrae. Early in snake evolution, the
Hox gene expression in the axial skeleton responsible for the development of the thorax became
dominant. As a result, the vertebrae anterior to the hindlimb buds (when present) all have the
same thoracic-like identity (except from the atlas, axis, and 1–3 neck vertebrae). In other words,
most of a snake's skeleton is an extremely extended thorax. Ribs are found exclusively on the
thoracic vertebrae. Neck, lumbar and pelvic vertebrae are very reduced in number (only 2–10
lumbar and pelvic vertebrae are present), while only a short tail remains of the caudal vertebrae.
However, the tail is still long enough to be of important use in many species, and is modified in
some aquatic and tree-dwelling species.

Modern snakes greatly diversified during the Paleocene. This occurred alongside the adaptive
radiation of mammals, following the extinction of (non-avian) dinosaurs. The colubrids, one of
the more common snake groups, became particularly diverse due to preying on rodents, an
especially successful mammal group.

Origins

There is fossil evidence to suggest that snakes may have evolved from burrowing lizards, such as
the varanids (or a similar group) during the Cretaceous Period.[19] An early fossil snake relative,
Najash rionegrina, was a two-legged burrowing animal with a sacrum, and was fully terrestrial.
[20]
One extant analog of these putative ancestors is the earless monitor Lanthanotus of Borneo
(though it also is semiaquatic).[21] Subterranean species evolved bodies streamlined for
burrowing, and eventually lost their limbs.[21] According to this hypothesis, features such as the
transparent, fused eyelids (brille) and loss of external ears evolved to cope with fossorial
difficulties, such as scratched corneas and dirt in the ears.[19][21] Some primitive snakes are known
to have possessed hindlimbs, but their pelvic bones lacked a direct connection to the vertebrae.
These include fossil species like Haasiophis, Pachyrhachis and Eupodophis, which are slightly
older than Najash.[18]

Fossil of Archaeophis proavus.

This hypothesis was strengthened in 2015 by the discovery of a 113m year-old fossil of a four-
legged snake in Brazil that has been named Tetrapodophis amplectus. It has many snake-like
features, is adapted for burrowing and its stomach indicates that it was preying on other animals.
[22]
It is currently uncertain if Tetrapodophis is a snake or another species, in the squamate order,
as a snake-like body has independently evolved at least 26 times. Tetrapodophis does not have
distinctive snake features in its spine and skull.[23][24]

An alternative hypothesis, based on morphology, suggests the ancestors of snakes were related to
mosasaurs—extinct aquatic reptiles from the Cretaceous—which in turn are thought to have
derived from varanid lizards.[17] According to this hypothesis, the fused, transparent eyelids of
snakes are thought to have evolved to combat marine conditions (corneal water loss through
osmosis), and the external ears were lost through disuse in an aquatic environment. This
ultimately led to an animal similar to today's sea snakes. In the Late Cretaceous, snakes
recolonized land, and continued to diversify into today's snakes. Fossilized snake remains are
known from early Late Cretaceous marine sediments, which is consistent with this hypothesis;
particularly so, as they are older than the terrestrial Najash rionegrina. Similar skull structure,
reduced or absent limbs, and other anatomical features found in both mosasaurs and snakes lead
to a positive cladistical correlation, although some of these features are shared with varanids.
[citation needed]

Genetic studies in recent years have indicated snakes are not as closely related to monitor lizards
as was once believed—and therefore not to mosasaurs, the proposed ancestor in the aquatic
scenario of their evolution. However, more evidence links mosasaurs to snakes than to varanids.
Fragmented remains found from the Jurassic and Early Cretaceous indicate deeper fossil records
for these groups, which may potentially refute either hypothesis.[citation needed]

Distribution

There are over 2,900 species of snakes ranging as far northward as the Arctic Circle in
Scandinavia and southward through Australia.[17] Snakes can be found on every continent except
Antarctica, in the sea, and as high as 16,000 feet (4,900 m) in the Himalayan Mountains of Asia.
[17][25]:143
There are numerous islands from which snakes are absent, such as Ireland, Iceland, and
New Zealand[3][25] (although New Zealand's waters are infrequently visited by the yellow-bellied
sea snake and the banded sea krait).[26]

Taxonomy
See also: List of snake genera

All modern snakes are grouped within the suborder Serpentes in Linnean taxonomy, part of the
order Squamata, though their precise placement within squamates remains controversial.[4]

The two infraorders of Serpentes are: Alethinophidia and Scolecophidia.[4] This separation is
based on morphological characteristics and mitochondrial DNA sequence similarity.
Alethinophidia is sometimes split into Henophidia and Caenophidia, with the latter consisting of
"colubroid" snakes (colubrids, vipers, elapids, hydrophiids, and atractaspids) and acrochordids,
while the other alethinophidian families comprise Henophidia.[27] While not extant today, the
Madtsoiidae, a family of giant, primitive, python-like snakes, was around until 50,000 years ago
in Australia, represented by genera such as Wonambi.

There are numerous debates in the systematics within the group. For instance, many sources
classify Boidae and Pythonidae as one family, while some keep the Elapidae and Hydrophiidae
(sea snakes) separate for practical reasons despite their extremely close relation.

Recent molecular studies support the monophyly of the clades of modern snakes,
scolecophidians, typhlopids + anomalepidids, alethinophidians, core alethinophidians, uropeltids
(Cylindrophis, Anomochilus, uropeltines), macrostomatans, booids, boids, pythonids and
caenophidians.[13]

Families

Infraorder
Alethinophidia
15 families
Taxon Common
Family[4] Genera[4] Species[4] Geographic range[28]
author[4] name
Western India and Sri Lanka
through tropical Southeast Asia to
the Philippines, south through the
Indonesian/Malaysian island
Bonaparte, Wart group to Timor, east through New
Acrochordidae 1 3
1831 snakes Guinea to the northern coast of
Australia to Mussau Island, the
Bismarck Archipelago and
Guadalcanal Island in the
Solomon Islands.
False
Stejneger,
Aniliidae 1 1 coral Tropical South America.
1907
snake
Cundall, Dwarf
West Malaysia and on the
Anomochilidae Wallach, 1 2 pipe
Indonesian island of Sumatra.
1993 snakes
Günther, Burrowing Africa and the Middle East.[16][29]
Atractaspididae 12 64 [30]
1858 asps
Boidae Gray, 1825 8 43 Boas Northern, Central and South
America, the Caribbean,
southeastern Europe and Asia
Minor, Northern, Central and East
Africa, Madagascar and Reunion
Island, the Arabian Peninsula,
 Central and southwestern Asia,
India and Sri Lanka, the Moluccas
and New Guinea through to
Melanesia and Samoa.
Hoffstetter, Splitjaw
Bolyeriidae 2 2 Mauritius.
1946 snakes
Typical Widespread on all continents,
Colubridae Oppel, 1811 304[5] 1938[5]
snakes except Antarctica.[31]
Sri Lanka east through Myanmar,
Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam and
the Malay Archipelago to as far
Fitzinger, Asian pipe east as Aru Islands off the
Cylindrophiidae 1 8
1843 snakes southwestern coast of New
Guinea. Also found in southern
China (Fujian, Hong Kong and on
Hainan Island) and in Laos.
On land, worldwide in tropical
and subtropical regions, except in
Elapidae Boie, 1827 61 235 Elapids
Europe. Sea snakes occur in the
Indian Ocean and the Pacific.[32]
Mexican
Along the Pacific versant from
Loxocemidae Cope, 1861 1 1 burrowing
Mexico south to Costa Rica.
snake
Subsaharan Africa, India,
Myanmar, southern China,
Fitzinger, Southeast Asia and from the
Pythonidae 8 26 Pythons
1826 Philippines southeast through
Indonesia to New Guinea and
Australia.
From southern Mexico and
Central America, south to
northwestern South America in
Brongersma, Dwarf Colombia, (Amazonian) Ecuador
Tropidophiidae 4 22
1951 boas and Peru, as well as in
northwestern and southeastern
Brazil. Also found in the West
Indies.
Shield-
Müller,
Uropeltidae 8 47 tailed Southern India and Sri Lanka.
1832
snakes
Viperidae Oppel, 1811 32 224 Vipers The Americas, Africa and Eurasia.
Xenopeltidae Bonaparte, 1 2 Sunbeam Southeast Asia from the Andaman
1845 snakes and Nicobar Islands, east through
 Myanmar to southern China,
Thailand, Laos, Cambodia,
Vietnam, the Malay Peninsula and
the East Indies to Sulawesi, as
well as the Philippines.

Infraorder
Scolecophidia 3
families
Taxon Commo
Family[4] Genera[4] Species[4] Geographic range[28]
author[4] n name
From southern Central America to
Primitive
Taylor, northwestern South America.
Anomalepidae 4 15 blind
1939 Disjunct populations in northeastern
snakes
and southeastern South America.
Africa, western Asia from Turkey to
northwestern India, on Socotra
Island, from the southwestern United
States south through Mexico and
Central to South America, though
Slender not in the high Andes. In Pacific
Leptotyphlopida Stejneger,
2 87 blind South America they occur as far
e 1892
snakes south as southern coastal Peru, and
on the Atlantic side as far as
Uruguay and Argentina. In the
Caribbean they are found on the
Bahamas, Hispaniola and the Lesser
Antilles.
Most tropical and many subtropical
Typical regions around the world,
Merrem,
Typhlopidae 6 203 blind particularly in Africa, Madagascar,
1820
snakes Asia, islands in the Pacific, tropical
America and in southeastern Europe.

Legless lizards

Main article: Legless lizard

While snakes are limbless reptiles, which evolved from (and are grouped with) lizards, there are
many other species of lizards which have lost their limbs independently and superficially look
similar to snakes. These include the slow worm and glass snake.
Biology

An adult Barbados threadsnake, Leptotyphlops carlae, on an American quarter dollar.

Size

The now extinct Titanoboa cerrejonensis snakes found were 12.8 m (42 ft) in length.[8] By
comparison, the largest extant snakes are the reticulated python, which measures about 6.95 m
(22.8 ft) long,[7] and the anaconda, which measures about 5.21 m (17.1 ft) long and is considered
the heaviest snake on Earth at 97.5 kg (215 lb).[33]

At the other end of the scale, the smallest extant snake is Leptotyphlops carlae, with a length of
about 10.4 cm (4.1 in).[6] Most snakes are fairly small animals, approximately 1 m (3.3 ft) in
length.[34]

Perception

Thermographic image of a snake eating a mouse.

Pit vipers, pythons, and some boas have infrared-sensitive receptors in deep grooves on the
snout, which allow them to "see" the radiated heat of warm-blooded prey. In pit vipers, the
grooves are located between the nostril and the eye in a large "pit" on each side of the head.
Other infrared-sensitive snakes have multiple, smaller labial pits lining the upper lip, just below
the nostrils.[35]

Snakes use smell to track their prey. They smell by using their forked tongues to collect airborne
particles, then passing them to the vomeronasal organ or Jacobson's organ in the mouth for
examination.[35] The fork in the tongue gives snakes a sort of directional sense of smell and taste
simultaneously.[35] They keep their tongues constantly in motion, sampling particles from the air,
ground, and water, analyzing the chemicals found, and determining the presence of prey or
predators in the local environment. In water-dwelling snakes, such as the anaconda, the tongue
functions efficiently underwater.[35]

A line diagram from G.A. Boulenger's Fauna of British India (1890) illustrating the terminology
of shields on the head of a snake.

The underside is very sensitive to vibration. This allows snakes to be able to sense approaching
animals by detecting faint vibrations in the ground.[35]

Snake vision varies greatly, from only being able to distinguish light from dark to keen eyesight,
but the main trend is that their vision is adequate although not sharp, and allows them to track
movements.[36] Generally, vision is best in arboreal snakes and weakest in burrowing snakes.
Some snakes, such as the Asian vine snake (genus Ahaetulla), have binocular vision, with both
eyes capable of focusing on the same point. Most snakes focus by moving the lens back and forth
in relation to the retina, while in the other amniote groups, the lens is stretched. Many nocturnal
snakes have slit pupils while diurnal snakes have round pupils.

Skin

Main article: Snake scales

The skin of a snake is covered in scales. Contrary to the popular notion of snakes being slimy
because of possible confusion of snakes with worms, snakeskin has a smooth, dry texture. Most
snakes use specialized belly scales to travel, gripping surfaces. The body scales may be smooth,
keeled, or granular. The eyelids of a snake are transparent "spectacle" scales, which remain
permanently closed, also known as brille.
The shedding of scales is called ecdysis (or in normal usage, molting or sloughing). In the case of
snakes, the complete outer layer of skin is shed in one layer.[37] Snake scales are not discrete, but
extensions of the epidermis—hence they are not shed separately but as a complete outer layer
during each molt, akin to a sock being turned inside out.[38]

The shape and number of scales on the head, back, and belly are often characteristic and used for
taxonomic purposes. Scales are named mainly according to their positions on the body. In
"advanced" (Caenophidian) snakes, the broad belly scales and rows of dorsal scales correspond
to the vertebrae, allowing scientists to count the vertebrae without dissection.

Snakes' eyes are covered by their clear scales (the brille) rather than movable eyelids. Their eyes
are always open, and for sleeping, the retina can be closed or the face buried among the folds of
the body.

Molting

A snake shedding its skin.

Molting serves a number of functions. Firstly, the old and worn skin is replaced; secondly, it
helps get rid of parasites such as mites and ticks. Renewal of the skin by moulting is supposed to
allow growth in some animals such as insects; however, this has been disputed in the case of
snakes.[38][39]

Molting occurs periodically throughout the snake's life. Before a molt, the snake stops eating and
often hides or moves to a safe place. Just before shedding, the skin becomes dull and dry looking
and the eyes become cloudy or blue-colored. The inner surface of the old skin liquefies. This
causes the old skin to separate from the new skin beneath it. After a few days, the eyes clear and
the snake "crawls" out of its old skin. The old skin breaks near the mouth and the snake wriggles
out, aided by rubbing against rough surfaces. In many cases, the cast skin peels backward over
the body from head to tail in one piece, like pulling a sock off inside-out. A new, larger, brighter
layer of skin has formed underneath.[38][40]

An older snake may shed its skin only once or twice a year. But a younger snake, still growing,
may shed up to four times a year.[40] The discarded skin gives a perfect imprint of the scale
pattern, and it is usually possible to identify the snake if the discarded skin is reasonably intact.
[38]
This periodic renewal has led to the snake being a symbol of healing and medicine, as
pictured in the Rod of Asclepius.[41]
Scale counts can sometimes be used to tell the sex of a snake when the species is not distinctly
sexually dimorphic. A probe is inserted into the cloaca until it can go no further. The probe is
marked at the point where it stops, removed, and compared to the subcaudal depth by laying it
alongside the scales.[42] The scalation count determines whether the snake is a male or female as
hemipenes of a male will probe to a different depth (usually longer) than the cloaca of a female.
[42][clarification needed]

Skeleton

When compared, the skeletons of snakes are radically different from those of most other reptiles
(such as the turtle, right), being made up almost entirely of an extended ribcage.

The skeleton of most snakes consists solely of the skull, hyoid, vertebral column, and ribs,
though henophidian snakes retain vestiges of the pelvis and rear limbs.

The skull of the snake consists of a solid and complete neurocranium, to which many of the other
bones are only loosely attached, particularly the highly mobile jaw bones, which facilitate
manipulation and ingestion of large prey items. The left and right sides of the lower jaw are
joined only by a flexible ligament at the anterior tips, allowing them to separate widely, while the
posterior end of the lower jaw bones articulate with a quadrate bone, allowing further mobility.
The bones of the mandible and quadrate bones can also pick up ground borne vibrations.[43]
Because the sides of the jaw can move independently of one another, snakes resting their jaws on
a surface have sensitive stereo hearing which can detect the position of prey. The jaw-quadrate-
stapes pathway is capable of detecting vibrations on the angstrom scale, despite the absence of an
outer ear and the ossicle mechanism of impedance matching used in other vertebrates to receive
vibrations from the air.[44][45]

The hyoid is a small bone located posterior and ventral to the skull, in the 'neck' region, which
serves as an attachment for muscles of the snake's tongue, as it does in all other tetrapods.

The vertebral column consists of anywhere between 200 and 400 (or more) vertebrae. Tail
vertebrae are comparatively few in number (often less than 20% of the total) and lack ribs, while
body vertebrae each have two ribs articulating with them. The vertebrae have projections that
allow for strong muscle attachment enabling locomotion without limbs.
Autotomy of the tail, a feature found in some lizards is absent in most snakes.[46] Caudal
autotomy in snakes is rare and is intervertebral, unlike that in lizards, which is intravertebral—
that is, the break happens along a predefined fracture plane present on a vertebra.[47][48]

In some snakes, most notably boas and pythons, there are vestiges of the hindlimbs in the form
of a pair of pelvic spurs. These small, claw-like protrusions on each side of the cloaca are the
external portion of the vestigial hindlimb skeleton, which includes the remains of an ilium and
femur.

Snakes are polyphyodonts with teeth that are continuously replaced.[49]

Internal organs

Anatomy of a snake. 1 esophagus, 2 trachea, 3 tracheal lungs, 4 rudimentary left lung, 5 right
lung, 6 heart, 7 liver, 8 stomach, 9 air sac, 10 gallbladder, 11 pancreas, 12 spleen, 13 intestine, 14
testicles, 15 kidneys.

The snake's heart is encased in a sac, called the pericardium, located at the bifurcation of the
bronchi. The heart is able to move around, however, owing to the lack of a diaphragm. This
adjustment protects the heart from potential damage when large ingested prey is passed through
the esophagus. The spleen is attached to the gall bladder and pancreas and filters the blood. The
thymus gland is located in fatty tissue above the heart and is responsible for the generation of
immune cells in the blood. The cardiovascular system of snakes is also unique for the presence
of a renal portal system in which the blood from the snake's tail passes through the kidneys
before returning to the heart.[50]

The vestigial left lung is often small or sometimes even absent, as snakes' tubular bodies require
all of their organs to be long and thin.[50] In the majority of species, only one lung is functional.
This lung contains a vascularized anterior portion and a posterior portion that does not function
in gas exchange.[50] This 'saccular lung' is used for hydrostatic purposes to adjust buoyancy in
some aquatic snakes and its function remains unknown in terrestrial species.[50] Many organs that
are paired, such as kidneys or reproductive organs, are staggered within the body, with one
located ahead of the other.[50]

Snakes have no lymph nodes.[50]

Venom

See also: Snake venom, Venomous snake, and § Bite

Milk snakes are often mistaken for coral snakes whose venom is deadly to humans.

Cobras, vipers, and closely related species use venom to immobilize or kill their prey. The
venom is modified saliva, delivered through fangs.[16]:243 The fangs of 'advanced' venomous
snakes like viperids and elapids are hollow to inject venom more effectively, while the fangs of
rear-fanged snakes such as the boomslang merely have a groove on the posterior edge to channel
venom into the wound. Snake venoms are often prey specific—their role in self-defense is
secondary.[16]:243

Venom, like all salivary secretions, is a predigestant that initiates the breakdown of food into
soluble compounds, facilitating proper digestion. Even nonvenomous snake bites (like any
animal bite) will cause tissue damage.[16]:209

Certain birds, mammals, and other snakes (such as kingsnakes) that prey on venomous snakes
have developed resistance and even immunity to certain venoms.[16]:243 Venomous snakes include
three families of snakes, and do not constitute a formal classification group used in taxonomy.

The colloquial term "poisonous snake" is generally an incorrect label for snakes. A poison is
inhaled or ingested, whereas venom produced by snakes is injected into its victim via fangs.[51]
There are, however, two exceptions: Rhabdophis sequesters toxins from the toads it eats, then
secretes them from nuchal glands to ward off predators, and a small unusual population of garter
snakes in the U.S. state of Oregon retains enough toxins in their livers from the newts they eat to
be effectively poisonous to small local predators (such as crows and foxes).[52]

Snake venoms are complex mixtures of proteins, and are stored in venom glands at the back of
the head.[52] In all venomous snakes, these glands open through ducts into grooved or hollow
teeth in the upper jaw.[16]:243[51] These proteins can potentially be a mix of neurotoxins (which
attack the nervous system), hemotoxins (which attack the circulatory system), cytotoxins,
bungarotoxins and many other toxins that affect the body in different ways.[51] Almost all snake
venom contains hyaluronidase, an enzyme that ensures rapid diffusion of the venom.[16]:243

Venomous snakes that use hemotoxins usually have fangs in the front of their mouths, making it
easier for them to inject the venom into their victims.[51] Some snakes that use neurotoxins (such
as the mangrove snake) have fangs in the back of their mouths, with the fangs curled backwards.
[53]
This makes it difficult both for the snake to use its venom and for scientists to milk them.[51]
Elapids, however, such as cobras and kraits are proteroglyphous—they possess hollow fangs that
cannot be erected toward the front of their mouths, and cannot "stab" like a viper. They must
actually bite the victim.[16]:242

It has recently been suggested that all snakes may be venomous to a certain degree, with
harmless snakes having weak venom and no fangs.[54] Most snakes currently labelled
"nonvenomous" would still be considered harmless according to this theory, as they either lack a
venom delivery method or are incapable of delivering enough to endanger a human. This theory
postulates that snakes may have evolved from a common lizard ancestor that was venomous—
and that venomous lizards like the gila monster, beaded lizard, monitor lizards, and the now-
extinct mosasaurs may also have derived from it. They share this venom clade with various other
saurian species.

Venomous snakes are classified in two taxonomic families:

 Elapids – cobras including king cobras, kraits, mambas, Australian copperheads, sea
snakes, and coral snakes.[53]
 Viperids – vipers, rattlesnakes, copperheads/cottonmouths, and bushmasters.[53]

There is a third family containing the opistoglyphous (rear-fanged) snakes (as well as the
majority of other snake species):

 Colubrids – boomslangs, tree snakes, vine snakes, mangrove snakes, although not all
colubrids are venomous.[16]:209[53]

Reproduction

See also: Sexual selection in scaled reptiles

Although a wide range of reproductive modes are used by snakes, all snakes employ internal
fertilization. This is accomplished by means of paired, forked hemipenes, which are stored,
inverted, in the male's tail.[55] The hemipenes are often grooved, hooked, or spined in order to
grip the walls of the female's cloaca.[55]

Most species of snakes lay eggs which they abandon shortly after laying. However, a few species
(such as the king cobra) actually construct nests and stay in the vicinity of the hatchlings after
incubation.[55] Most pythons coil around their egg-clutches and remain with them until they
hatch.[56] A female python will not leave the eggs, except to occasionally bask in the sun or drink
water. She will even "shiver" to generate heat to incubate the eggs.[56]

Some species of snake are ovoviviparous and retain the eggs within their bodies until they are
almost ready to hatch.[57][58] Recently, it has been confirmed that several species of snake are fully
viviparous, such as the boa constrictor and green anaconda, nourishing their young through a
placenta as well as a yolk sac, which is highly unusual among reptiles, or anything else outside
of requiem sharks or placental mammals.[57][58] Retention of eggs and live birth are most often
associated with colder environments.[55][58]

The Garter snake has been studied for sexual selection

Sexual selection in snakes is demonstrated by the three thousand species that each use different
tactics in acquiring mates.[59] Ritual combat between males for the females they want to mate
with includes topping, a behavior exhibited by most viperids in which one male will twist around
the vertically elevated fore body of its opponent and forcing it downward. It is common for neck
biting to occur while the snakes are entwined.[60]

Facultative parthenogenesis

Parthenogenesis is a natural form of reproduction in which growth and development of embryos

occur without fertilization. Agkistrodon contortrix (copperhead) and Agkistrodon piscivorus
(cotton mouth) can reproduce by facultative parthenogenesis. That is, they are capable of
switching from a sexual mode of reproduction to an asexual mode.[61] The type of
parthenogenesis that likely occurs is automixis with terminal fusion, a process in which two
terminal products from the same meiosis fuse to form a diploid zygote. This process leads to
genome wide homozygosity, expression of deleterious recessive alleles and often to
developmental abnormalities. Both captive-born and wild-born A. contortrix and A. piscivorus
appear to be capable of this form of parthenogenesis.[61]

Reproduction in squamate reptiles is almost exclusively sexual. Males ordinarily have a ZZ pair
of sex determining chromosomes, and females a ZW pair. However, the Colombian Rainbow
boa, Epicrates maurus can also reproduce by facultative parthenogenesis resulting in production
of WW female progeny.[62] The WW females are likely produced by terminal automixis.

Behavior
Winter dormancy

In regions where winters are colder than snakes can tolerate while remaining active, local species
will brumate. Unlike hibernation, in which mammals are actually asleep, brumating reptiles are
awake but inactive. Individual snakes may brumate in burrows, under rock piles, or inside fallen
trees, or snakes may aggregate in large numbers at hibernacula.
Feeding and diet

Carpet python constricting and consuming a chicken.

African egg-eating snake eating an egg

All snakes are strictly carnivorous, eating small animals including lizards, frogs, other snakes,
small mammals, birds, eggs, fish, snails or insects.[16][3][17][63] Because snakes cannot bite or tear
their food to pieces, they must swallow prey whole. The body size of a snake has a major
influence on its eating habits. Smaller snakes eat smaller prey. Juvenile pythons might start out
feeding on lizards or mice and graduate to small deer or antelope as an adult, for example.

The snake's jaw is a complex structure. Contrary to the popular belief that snakes can dislocate
their jaws, snakes have a very flexible lower jaw, the two halves of which are not rigidly
attached, and numerous other joints in their skull (see snake skull), allowing them to open their
mouths wide enough to swallow their prey whole, even if it is larger in diameter than the snake
itself.[63] For example, the African egg-eating snake has flexible jaws adapted for eating eggs
much larger than the diameter of its head.[16]:81 This snake has no teeth, but does have bony
protrusions on the inside edge of its spine, which it uses to break shells when it eats eggs.[16]:81
While the majority of snakes eat a variety of prey animals, there is some specialization by some
species. King cobras and the Australian bandy-bandy consume other snakes. Pareas iwesakii and
other snail-eating colubrids of subfamily Pareatinae have more teeth on the right side of their
mouths than on the left, as the shells of their prey usually spiral clockwise[16]:184[64]

Some snakes have a venomous bite, which they use to kill their prey before eating it.[63][65] Other
snakes kill their prey by constriction.[63] Still others swallow their prey whole and alive.[16]:81[63]

After eating, snakes become dormant while the process of digestion takes place.[42] Digestion is
an intense activity, especially after consumption of large prey. In species that feed only
sporadically, the entire intestine enters a reduced state between meals to conserve energy. The
digestive system is then 'up-regulated' to full capacity within 48 hours of prey consumption.
Being ectothermic ("cold-blooded"), the surrounding temperature plays a large role in snake
digestion. The ideal temperature for snakes to digest is 30 °C (86 °F). So much metabolic energy
is involved in a snake's digestion that in the Mexican rattlesnake (Crotalus durissus), surface
body temperature increases by as much as 1.2 °C (2.2 °F) during the digestive process.[66]
Because of this, a snake disturbed after having eaten recently will often regurgitate its prey to be
able to escape the perceived threat. When undisturbed, the digestive process is highly efficient,
with the snake's digestive enzymes dissolving and absorbing everything but the prey's hair (or
feathers) and claws, which are excreted along with waste.

Locomotion

The lack of limbs does not impede the movement of snakes. They have developed several
different modes of locomotion to deal with particular environments. Unlike the gaits of limbed
animals, which form a continuum, each mode of snake locomotion is discrete and distinct from
the others; transitions between modes are abrupt.[67][68]

Lateral undulation

Main articles: Undulatory locomotion and Hydrophiinae

Crawling prints of a snake

Lateral undulation is the sole mode of aquatic locomotion, and the most common mode of
terrestrial locomotion.[68] In this mode, the body of the snake alternately flexes to the left and
right, resulting in a series of rearward-moving "waves".[67] While this movement appears rapid,
snakes have rarely been documented moving faster than two body-lengths per second, often
much less.[69] This mode of movement has the same net cost of transport (calories burned per
meter moved) as running in lizards of the same mass.[70]

Terrestrial lateral undulation is the most common mode of terrestrial locomotion for most snake
species.[67] In this mode, the posteriorly moving waves push against contact points in the
environment, such as rocks, twigs, irregularities in the soil, etc.[67] Each of these environmental
objects, in turn, generates a reaction force directed forward and towards the midline of the snake,
resulting in forward thrust while the lateral components cancel out.[71] The speed of this
movement depends upon the density of push-points in the environment, with a medium density
of about 8[clarification needed] along the snake's length being ideal.[69] The wave speed is precisely the
same as the snake speed, and as a result, every point on the snake's body follows the path of the
point ahead of it, allowing snakes to move through very dense vegetation and small openings.[71]

When swimming, the waves become larger as they move down the snake's body, and the wave
travels backwards faster than the snake moves forwards.[72] Thrust is generated by pushing their
body against the water, resulting in the observed slip. In spite of overall similarities, studies show
that the pattern of muscle activation is different in aquatic versus terrestrial lateral undulation,
which justifies calling them separate modes.[73] All snakes can laterally undulate forward (with
backward-moving waves), but only sea snakes have been observed reversing the motion (moving
backwards with forward-moving waves).[67]

Sidewinding

See also: Sidewinding

A neonate sidewinder rattlesnake (Crotalus cerastes) sidewinding.

Most often employed by colubroid snakes (colubrids, elapids, and vipers) when the snake must
move in an environment that lacks irregularities to push against (rendering lateral undulation
impossible), such as a slick mud flat, or a sand dune, sidewinding is a modified form of lateral
undulation in which all of the body segments oriented in one direction remain in contact with the
ground, while the other segments are lifted up, resulting in a peculiar "rolling" motion.[74][75] This
mode of locomotion overcomes the slippery nature of sand or mud by pushing off with only
static portions on the body, thereby minimizing slipping.[74] The static nature of the contact points
can be shown from the tracks of a sidewinding snake, which show each belly scale imprint,
without any smearing. This mode of locomotion has very low caloric cost, less than ⅓ of the cost
for a lizard to move the same distance.[70] Contrary to popular belief, there is no evidence that
sidewinding is associated with the sand being hot.[74]

Concertina

Main article: Concertina movement

When push-points are absent, but there is not enough space to use sidewinding because of lateral
constraints, such as in tunnels, snakes rely on concertina locomotion.[67][75] In this mode, the
snake braces the posterior portion of its body against the tunnel wall while the front of the snake
extends and straightens.[74] The front portion then flexes and forms an anchor point, and the
posterior is straightened and pulled forwards. This mode of locomotion is slow and very
demanding, up to seven times the cost of laterally undulating over the same distance.[70] This high
cost is due to the repeated stops and starts of portions of the body as well as the necessity of
using active muscular effort to brace against the tunnel walls.

Arboreal

Golden tree snake climbing a flower

The movement of snakes in arboreal habitats has only recently been studied.[76] While on tree
branches, snakes use several modes of locomotion depending on species and bark texture.[76] In
general, snakes will use a modified form of concertina locomotion on smooth branches, but will
laterally undulate if contact points are available.[76] Snakes move faster on small branches and
when contact points are present, in contrast to limbed animals, which do better on large branches
with little 'clutter'.[76]

Gliding snakes (Chrysopelea) of Southeast Asia launch themselves from branch tips, spreading
their ribs and laterally undulating as they glide between trees.[74][77][78] These snakes can perform a
controlled glide for hundreds of feet depending upon launch altitude and can even turn in midair.
[74][77]

Rectilinear

Main article: Rectilinear locomotion

The slowest mode of snake locomotion is rectilinear locomotion, which is also the only one
where the snake does not need to bend its body laterally, though it may do so when turning.[79] In
this mode, the belly scales are lifted and pulled forward before being placed down and the body
pulled over them. Waves of movement and stasis pass posteriorly, resulting in a series of ripples
in the skin.[79] The ribs of the snake do not move in this mode of locomotion and this method is
most often used by large pythons, boas, and vipers when stalking prey across open ground as the
snake's movements are subtle and harder to detect by their prey in this manner.[74]

Interactions with humans

Most common symptoms of any kind of snake bite envenomation.[80][81] Furthermore, there is vast
variation in symptoms between bites from different types of snakes.[80]

Bite

Main article: Snakebite

Vipera berus, one fang in glove with a small venom stain, the other still in place.

Snakes do not ordinarily prey on humans. Unless startled or injured, most snakes prefer to avoid
contact and will not attack humans. With the exception of large constrictors, nonvenomous
snakes are not a threat to humans. The bite of a nonvenomous snake is usually harmless; their
teeth are not designed for tearing or inflicting a deep puncture wound, but rather grabbing and
holding. Although the possibility of infection and tissue damage is present in the bite of a
nonvenomous snake, venomous snakes present far greater hazard to humans.[16]:209 The World
Health Organisation lists snakebite under the "other neglected conditions" category.[82]
Documented deaths resulting from snake bites are uncommon. Nonfatal bites from venomous
snakes may result in the need for amputation of a limb or part thereof. Of the roughly 725
species of venomous snakes worldwide, only 250 are able to kill a human with one bite.
Australia averages only one fatal snake bite per year. In India, 250,000 snakebites are recorded in
a single year, with as many as 50,000 recorded initial deaths.[83]

The treatment for a snakebite is as variable as the bite itself. The most common and effective
method is through antivenom (or antivenin), a serum made from the venom of the snake. Some
antivenom is species-specific (monovalent) while some is made for use with multiple species in
mind (polyvalent). In the United States for example, all species of venomous snakes are pit
vipers, with the exception of the coral snake. To produce antivenom, a mixture of the venoms of
the different species of rattlesnakes, copperheads, and cottonmouths is injected into the body of a
horse in ever-increasing dosages until the horse is immunized. Blood is then extracted from the
immunized horse. The serum is separated and further purified and freeze-dried. It is reconstituted
with sterile water and becomes antivenom. For this reason, people who are allergic to horses are
more likely to suffer an allergic reaction to antivenom.[84] Antivenom for the more dangerous
species (such as mambas, taipans, and cobras) is made in a similar manner in India, South Africa,
and Australia, although these antivenoms are species-specific.

Snake charmers

Main article: Snake charming

An Indian cobra in a basket with a snake charmer. These snakes are perhaps the most common
subjects of snake charmings.

In some parts of the world, especially in India, snake charming is a roadside show performed by
a charmer. In such a show, the snake charmer carries a basket that contains a snake that he
seemingly charms by playing tunes from his flutelike musical instrument, to which the snake
responds.[85] Snakes lack external ears, though they do have internal ears, and respond to the
movement of the flute, not the actual noise.[85][86]

The Wildlife Protection Act of 1972 in India technically proscribes snake charming on grounds
of reducing animal cruelty. Other snake charmers also have a snake and mongoose show, where
both the animals have a mock fight; however, this is not very common, as the snakes, as well as
the mongooses, may be seriously injured or killed. Snake charming as a profession is dying out
in India because of competition from modern forms of entertainment and environment laws
proscribing the practice.[85]

Trapping

The Irulas tribe of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu in India have been hunter-gatherers in the
hot, dry plains forests, and have practiced the art of snake catching for generations. They have a
vast knowledge of snakes in the field. They generally catch the snakes with the help of a simple
stick. Earlier, the Irulas caught thousands of snakes for the snake-skin industry. After the
complete ban of the snake-skin industry in India and protection of all snakes under the Indian
Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972, they formed the Irula Snake Catcher's Cooperative and switched
to catching snakes for removal of venom, releasing them in the wild after four extractions. The
venom so collected is used for producing life-saving antivenom, biomedical research and for
other medicinal products.[87] The Irulas are also known to eat some of the snakes they catch and
are very useful in rat extermination in the villages.

Despite the existence of snake charmers, there have also been professional snake catchers or
wranglers. Modern-day snake trapping involves a herpetologist using a long stick with a V-
shaped end. Some television show hosts, like Bill Haast, Austin Stevens, Steve Irwin, and Jeff
Corwin, prefer to catch them using bare hands.

Consumption

A "海豹蛇" ("sea-leopard snake", supposedly Enhydris bocourti) occupies a place of honor

among the live delicacies waiting to meet their consumers outside of a Guangzhou restaurant.

Snake meat, in a Taipei restaurant

While not commonly thought of as food in most cultures, in some cultures, the consumption of
snakes is acceptable, or even considered a delicacy, prized for its alleged pharmaceutical effect
of warming the heart. Snake soup of Cantonese cuisine is consumed by local people in autumn,
to warm up their body. Western cultures document the consumption of snakes under extreme
circumstances of hunger.[88] Cooked rattlesnake meat is an exception, which is commonly
consumed in parts of the Midwestern United States. In Asian countries such as China, Taiwan,
Thailand, Indonesia, Vietnam and Cambodia, drinking the blood of snakes—particularly the
cobra—is believed to increase sexual virility.[89] The blood is drained while the cobra is still alive
when possible, and is usually mixed with some form of liquor to improve the taste.[89]

In some Asian countries, the use of snakes in alcohol is also accepted. In such cases, the body of
a snake or several snakes is left to steep in a jar or container of liquor. It is claimed that this
makes the liquor stronger (as well as more expensive). One example of this is the Habu snake
sometimes placed in the Okinawan liquor Awamori also known as "Habu Sake".[90]

Snake wine (蛇酒) is an alcoholic beverage produced by infusing whole snakes in rice wine or
grain alcohol. The drink was first recorded to have been consumed in China during the Western
Zhou dynasty and considered an important curative and believed to reinvigorate a person
according to Traditional Chinese medicine.[91]

Pets

In the Western world, some snakes (especially docile species such as the ball python and corn
snake) are kept as pets. To meet this demand a captive breeding industry has developed. Snakes
bred in captivity tend to make better pets and are considered preferable to wild caught
specimens.[92] Snakes can be very low maintenance pets, especially compared to more traditional
species. They require minimal space, as most common species do not exceed five feet (1.5 m) in
length. Pet snakes can be fed relatively infrequently, usually once every 5 to 14 days. Certain
snakes have a lifespan of more than 40 years if given proper care.

Symbolism

Main article: Serpent (symbolism)

In Egyptian history, the snake occupies a primary role with the Nile cobra adorning the crown of
the pharaoh in ancient times. It was worshipped as one of the gods and was also used for sinister
purposes: murder of an adversary and ritual suicide (Cleopatra).
The reverse side of the throne of Pharaoh Tutankhamun with four golden uraeus cobra figures.
Gold with lapis lazuli; Valley of the Kings, Thebes(1347-37 BCE).

Medusa by 16th-century Italian artist Caravaggio.

Imperial Japan depicted as an evil snake in a WWII propaganda poster.

In Greek mythology snakes are often associated with deadly and dangerous antagonists, but this
is not to say that snakes are symbolic of evil; in fact, snakes are a chthonic symbol, roughly
translated as 'earthbound'. The nine-headed Lernaean Hydra that Hercules defeated and the three
Gorgon sisters are children of Gaia, the earth.[93] Medusa was one of the three Gorgon sisters who
Perseus defeated.[93] Medusa is described as a hideous mortal, with snakes instead of hair and the
power to turn men to stone with her gaze.[93] After killing her, Perseus gave her head to Athena
who fixed it to her shield called the Aegis.[93] The Titans are also depicted in art with snakes
instead of legs and feet for the same reason—they are children of Gaia and Uranus, so they are
bound to the earth.[citation needed]

The legendary account of the foundation of Thebes mentioned a monster snake guarding the
spring from which the new settlement was to draw its water. In fighting and killing the snake, the
companions of the founder Cadmus all perished - leading to the term "Cadmean victory" (i.e. a
victory involving one's own ruin).[citation needed]

Rod of Asclepius, in which the snake, through ecdysis, symbolizes healing.

Three medical symbols involving snakes that are still used today are Bowl of Hygieia,
symbolizing pharmacy, and the Caduceus and Rod of Asclepius, which are symbols denoting
medicine in general.[41]

India is often called the land of snakes and is steeped in tradition regarding snakes.[94] Snakes are
worshipped as gods even today with many women pouring milk on snake pits (despite snakes'
aversion for milk).[94] The cobra is seen on the neck of Shiva and Vishnu is depicted often as
sleeping on a seven-headed snake or within the coils of a serpent.[95] There are also several
temples in India solely for cobras sometimes called Nagraj (King of Snakes) and it is believed
that snakes are symbols of fertility. There is a Hindu festival called Nag Panchami each year on
which day snakes are venerated and prayed to. See also Nāga.[citation needed]

In India there is another mythology about snakes. Commonly known in Hindi as "Ichchhadhari"
snakes. Such snakes can take the form of any living creature, but prefer human form. These
mythical snakes possess a valuable gem called "Mani", which is more brilliant than diamond.
There are many stories in India about greedy people trying to possess this gem and ending up
getting killed.[citation needed]

The ouroboros is a symbol associated with many different religions and customs, and is claimed
to be related to alchemy. The ouroboros or uroboros is a snake eating its own tail in a clock-wise
direction (from the head to the tail) in the shape of a circle, representing the cycle of life, death
and rebirth, leading to immortality.[citation needed]

The snake is one of the 12 celestial animals of Chinese Zodiac, in the Chinese calendar.[citation
needed]
Many ancient Peruvian cultures worshipped nature.[96] They emphasized animals and often
depicted snakes in their art.[97]

Religion

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Main article: Snake worship

A snake associated with Saint Simeon Stylites.

Snakes are a part of Hindu worship. A festival, Nag Panchami, in which participants worship
either images of or live Nāgas (cobras) is celebrated every year. Most images of Lord Shiva
depict snake around his neck. Puranas have various stories associated with snakes. In the
Puranas, Shesha is said to hold all the planets of the Universe on his hoods and to constantly sing
the glories of Vishnu from all his mouths. He is sometimes referred to as "Ananta-Shesha",
which means "Endless Shesha". Other notable snakes in Hinduism are Ananta, Vasuki, Taxak,
Karkotaka and Pingala. The term Nāga is used to refer to entities that take the form of large
snakes in Hinduism and Buddhism.

Snakes have also been widely revered, such as in ancient Greece, where the serpent was seen as
a healer. Asclepius carried a serpent wound around his wand, a symbol seen today on many
ambulances.

In religious terms, the snake and jaguar are arguably the most important animals in ancient
Mesoamerica. "In states of ecstasy, lords dance a serpent dance; great descending snakes adorn
and support buildings from Chichen Itza to Tenochtitlan, and the Nahuatl word coatl meaning
serpent or twin, forms part of primary deities such as Mixcoatl, Quetzalcoatl, and Coatlicue."[98]
In both Maya and Aztec calendars, the fifth day of the week was known as Snake Day.

In Judaism, the snake of brass is also a symbol of healing, of one's life being saved from
imminent death.[99]

In some parts of Christianity, Christ's redemptive work is compared to saving one's life through
beholding the Nehushtan (serpent of brass).[100] Snake handlers use snakes as an integral part of
church worship in order to exhibit their faith in divine protection. However, more commonly in
Christianity, the serpent has been seen as a representative of evil and sly plotting, which can be
seen in the description in Genesis chapter 3 of a snake in the Garden of Eden tempting Eve.[101]
Saint Patrick is reputed to have expelled all snakes from Ireland while converting the country to
Christianity in the 5th century, thus explaining the absence of snakes there.

In Christianity and Judaism, the snake makes its infamous appearance in the first book of the
Bible when a serpent appears before the first couple Adam and Eve and tempts them with the
forbidden fruit from the Tree of Knowledge.[101] The snake returns in Exodus when Moses, as a
sign of God's power, turns his staff into a snake and when Moses made the Nehushtan, a bronze
snake on a pole that when looked at cured the people of bites from the snakes that plagued them
in the desert. The serpent makes its final appearance symbolizing Satan in the Book of
Revelation: "And he laid hold on the dragon the old serpent, which is the devil and Satan, and
bound him for a thousand years."[102]

In Neo-Paganism and Wicca, the snake is seen as a symbol of wisdom and knowledge.

Ballcourt marker from the Postclassic site of Mixco Viejo in Guatemala. This sculpture depicts
Kukulkan, jaws agape, with the head of a human warrior emerging from his maw.[103]

Medicine

The cytotoxic effect of snake venom is being researched as a potential treatment for cancers.[104]

See also
 Amphibians and reptiles portal

 Legend of the White Snake

 The Green Snake and the Beautiful Lily (Goethe's archetypal tale of consciousness)
 Limbless vertebrates
 List of Serpentes families
 List of snakes
 Ophiology
  Snake skeleton
 Spinal osteoarthropathy (reptile disease)
 The New Encyclopedia of Snakes
 The Snakes of Europe and Snakes of Europe Wikibooks:Snakes of Europe, a wikibook
 Venomous snake

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27928-1 Amphibians. Alabama: University of Alabama Press.
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  John 3:14  Mattison, Chris (2007). The New Encyclopedia of
  Genesis 3:1 Snakes. New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
  Revelation 20:2 p. 272. ISBN 978-0-691-13295-2.
  Sharer, Robert J.; Loa P. Traxler (2006). The Ancient
 McDiarmid, RW; Campbell, JA; Touré, T (1999).
Maya (6th (fully revised) ed.). Stanford, California: Stanford
Snake Species of the World: A Taxonomic and
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Geographic Reference. 1. Herpetologists' League.
p. 511. ISBN 1-893777-00-6.
104.  Vivek Kumar Vyas, Keyur Brahmbahtt,  Mehrtens, John (1987). Living Snakes of the World in
Ustav Parmar; Brahmbhatt; Bhatt; Parmar (February Color. New York: Sterling. ISBN  0-8069-6461-8.
2012). "Theraputic potential of snake venom in cancer  Nóbrega Alves, RôMulo Romeu; Silva Vieira,
therapy: current perspective". Asian Pacific Journal of Washington Luiz; Santana, Gindomar Gomes (2008).
Tropical Medicine. 3 (2): 156–162. doi:10.1016/S2221- "Reptiles used in traditional folk medicine:
conservation implications". Biodiversity and
1691(13)60042-8. PMC  3627178 . PMID  23593597. Conservation. 17 (8): 2037–2049. doi:10.1007/s10531-
007-9305-0.
Further reading  Romulus Whitaker (1996). நம்மை சுட்ரியுள்ள
பாம்புகள் (Snakes around us, Tamil). National Book
 Behler, John L.; King, F. Wayne (1979). The Audubon Trust. ISBN  81-237-1905-1.
Society Field Guide to Reptiles and Amphibians of  Rosenfeld, Arthur (1989). Exotic Pets. New York:
North America. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. p. 581. Simon & Schuster. p.  293. ISBN 978-0-671-47654-0.
ISBN 0-394-50824-6.  Spawls, Steven; Branch, Bill (1995). The Dangerous
 Bullfinch, Thomas (2000). Bullfinch's Complete Snakes of Africa. Sanibel Island, Florida: Ralph Curtis
Mythology. London: Chancellor Press. p.  679. ISBN 0- Publishing. p.  192. ISBN 0-88359-029-8.
7537-0381-5. 

Snake families
 Chordata
  Reptilia
 Squamata
 Serpentes

 Acrochordidae
 Aniliidae
 Anomochilidae
 Atractaspididae
 Boidae
 Bolyeriidae
 Colubridae
 Cylindrophiidae
Alethinophidia
 Elapidae
 Loxocemidae
 Pythonidae
 Tropidophiidae
 Uropeltidae
 Viperidae
 Xenopeltidae

 Anomalepididae
 Leptotyphlopidae
Scolecophidia
 Typhlopidae

Categories:

 Snakes
 Turonian first appearances
 Extant Late Cretaceous first appearances
 Animals by common name

List of Serpentes families

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Snakes
Scientific
classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Sauropsida
Order: Squamata
Suborder: Serpentes
Linnaeus,
 1758

This is an overview of the suborder Serpentes, its two infraorders (subdivisions) and the families
they contain. This is the group of reptiles commonly known as snakes.

Taxonomy
There are two infraorders of living snakes: Alethinophidia and Scolecophidia. This separation is
based primarily on morphological characteristics between family groups; however, more
recently, the comparison of mitochondrial DNA has played its part.

As with most taxonomic classifications, there are many different interpretations of the
evolutionary relationships. This had resulted in families being moved to different infraorders, the
merging or splitting of infraorders and families. For instance, many sources classify Boidae and
Pythonidae as the same family, or keep others, such as Elapidae and Hydrophiidae, separate for
practical reasons despite their extremely close relationship.

Alethinophidia 15
families
Family Common Names Example Species Example Photo

Acrochordidae Arafura file snake

File snakes
Bonaparte, 1831 (Acrochordus  arafurae)

Aniliidae False coral snake

Coral pipe snakes
Stejneger, 1907 (Anilius  scytale)

Anomochilidae Leonard's pipe snake,

Cundall, Wallach and Dwarf pipe snakes
Rossman, 1993 (Anomochilus  leonardi)

Atractaspididae Western purple-glossed snake

Mole vipers
Günther, 1858 (Amblyodipsas  unicolor)
Boidae Amazon tree boa
Boas
Gray, 1825 (Corallus  hortulanus)

Bolyeridae Round Island burrowing boa

Round island boas
Hoffstetter, 1946 (Bolyeria  multocarinata)

Colubridae Colubrids Grass snake (Natrix  natrix)

Oppel, 1811

Cylindrophiidae Red-tailed pipe snake

Asian pipe snakes
Fitzinger, 1843 (Cylindrophis  ruffus)

Cobras, coral snakes,

Elapidae King cobra
mambas, kraits, sea snakes,
Boie, 1827 (Ophiophagus  hannah)
sea kraits, Australian elapids

Loxocemidae Mexican burrowing snake

Mexican burrowing snakes
Cope, 1861 (Loxocemus  bicolor)

Pythonidae Pythons Indian python (Python  molurus)

Fitzinger, 1826

Tropidophiidae Dusky dwarf boa

Dwarf boas
Brongersma, 1951 (Tropidophis  melanurus)
Uropeltidae Shield-tailed snakes, short- Ocellated shield-tail
Müller, 1832 tailed snakes (Uropeltis  ocellatus)
Viperidae Vipers, pitvipers,
European asp (Vipera  aspis)
Oppel, 1811 rattlesnakes

Xenopeltidae Sunbeam snake

Sunbeam snakes
Bonaparte, 1845 (Xenopeltis  unicolor)
Scolecophidia 3
families
Family Common Names Example Species Example Photo
Anomalepidae Dawn blind snake
Dawn blind snakes
Taylor, 1939 (Liotyphlops  beui)

Leptotyphlopidae Texas blind snake

Slender blind snakes
Stejneger, 1892 (Leptotyphlops  dulcis)

Typhlopidae Black blind snake

Blind snakes
Merrem, 1820 (Typhlops  reticulatus)

See also
 List of snakes -- Overview of all snake families and genera.
 List of Lacertilia families, lizards.
 List of Anuran families, frogs.

References
 "Serpentes". Integrated Taxonomic Information System. Retrieved 4 August 2007.
 Suborder Ophidia (Serpentes) - Snakes (phylogeny) at New Reptile Database. Accessed 4
August 2007.

Snake families
 Chordata
 Reptilia
 Squamata
 Serpentes

Alethinophidia  Acrochordidae
 Aniliidae
 Anomochilidae
 Atractaspididae
  Boidae
 Bolyeriidae
 Colubridae
 Cylindrophiidae
 Elapidae
 Loxocemidae
 Pythonidae
 Tropidophiidae
 Uropeltidae
 Viperidae
 Xenopeltidae

 Anomalepididae
 Leptotyphlopidae
Scolecophidia
 Typhlopidae

भारत में पाये जाने वाले सांपों की प्रजातियां ( types of snakes in India) -

भारत मे 550 किस्म के साँप है ! जैसे एक cobra है ,viper है , karit है ! ऐसी 550 किस्म की साँपो की जातियाँ हैं ! इनमे से मुश्कि
जहरीले है सिर्फ 10 ! बाकी सब non poisonous है ! इसका मतलब ये हुआ 540 साँप ऐसे है जिनके काटने से आपको कुछ नहीं
मत करिए !

लेकिन साँप के काटने का डर इतना है (हाय साँप ने काट लिया ) और कि कई बार आदमी heart attack से मर जाता है !
cardiac arrest से मर जाता है ! तो डर इतना है मन मे ! तो ये डर निकलना चाहिए !

वो डर कैसे निकलेगा ????

जब आपको ये पता होगा कि 550 तरह के साँप है उनमे से सिर्फ 10 साँप जहरीले हैं ! जिनके काटने से कोई मरता है ! इन
जहरीला साँप है उसका नाम है ! russell viper ! उसके बाद है karit इसके बाद है viper और एक है cobra ! king cobra जिसको आ
| ये 4 तो बहुत ही खतरनाक और जहरीले है इनमे से किसी ने काट लिया तो 99 % chances है कि death होगी !
लेकिन अगर आप थोड़ी होशियारी दिखाये तो आप रोगी को बचा सकते हैं
होशियारी क्या दिखनी है ???

आपने दे खा होगा साँप जब भी काटता है तो उसके दो दाँत है जिनमे जहर है जो शरीर के मास के अंदर घुस जाते हैं ! औ
जहर छोड़ दे ता है ! तो फिर ये जहर ऊपर की तरफ जाता है ! मान लीजिये हाथ पर साँप ने काट लिया तो फिर जहर दिल
उसके बाद पूरे शरीर मे पहुंचेगा ! ऐसे ही अगर पैर पर काट लिया तो फिर ऊपर की और heart तक जाएगा और फिर पूरे
भी काटे गा तो दिल तक जाएगा ! और परू े मे खून मे पूरे शरीर मे उसे पहुँचने मे 3 घंटे लगें गे !

मतलब ये है कि रोगी 3 घंटे तक तो नहीं ही मरे गा ! जब परू े दिमाग के एक एक हिस्से मे बाकी सब जगह पर जहर पहुँच
death होगी otherwise नहीं होगी ! तो 3 घंटे का time है रोगी को बचाने का और उस तीन घंटे मे अगर आप कुछ कर ले त

क्या कर सकते हैं ?? ???

घर मे कोई परु ाना इंजेक्शन (injection) हो तो उसे ले और आगे जहां सई

ु (needle) लगी होती है वहाँ से काटे ! सई
ु (needle) जि
होती है उस प्लास्टिक वाले हिस्से को काटे | जैसे ही आप सुई के पीछे लगे पलास्टिक वाले हिस्से को काटें गे तो वो injec
की तरह हो जाएगा ! बिलकुल वैसा ही जैसा होली के दिनो मे बच्चो की पिचकारी होती है !

उसके बाद आप रोगी के शरीर पर जहां साँप ने काटा है वो निशान ढूँढे ! बिलकुल आसानी से मिल जाएगा क्यंकि
ू जहां स
सूजन आ जाती है और दो निशान जिन पर हल्का खून लगा होता है आपको मिल जाएँगे ! अब आपको वो injection ( जिस
आपने काट दिया है ) लेना है और उन दो निशान मे से पहले एक निशान पर रख कर उसको खीचना है ! जैसी आप निश
निशान पर चिपक जाएगा तो उसमे vacuum crate हो जाएगा ! और आप खींचेगे तो खून उस injection मे भर जाएगा ! बिल
पिचकारी से पानी भरते हैं ! तो आप इंजेक्शन से खींचते रहिए !और आप first time निकलेंगे तो दे खेंगे कि उस खून का रं ग
या dark होगा तो समझ लीजिये उसमे जहर मिक्स हो गया है !

तो जब तक वो dark और blackish रं ग blood निकलता रहे आप खिंचीये ! तो वो सारा जहर निकल आएगा ! क्यूंकि साँप जो
ज्यादा नहीं होता है 0.5 मिलीग्राम के आस पास होता है क्यूंकि इससे ज्यादा उसके दाँतो मे रह ही नहीं सकता ! तो 0.5 ,0.
बार मे आपने खीच लिया तो बाहर आ जाएगा ! और जैसे ही बाहर आएगा आप दे खेंगे कि रोगी मे कुछ बदलाव आ रहा
(चेतना) आ जाएगी ! साँप काटने से व्यक्ति unconsciousness हो जाता है या semi consciousness हो जाता है और जहर को ब
आ जाती है ! consciousness आ गई तो वो मरे गा नहीं ! तो ये आप उसके लिए first aid (प्राथमिक सहायता) कर सकते हैं !

इसी injection को आप बीच से कट कर दीजिये बिलकुल बीच कट कर दीजिये 50% इधर 50% उधर ! तो आगे का जो छे द ह
जाएगा और खून और जल्दी से उसमे भरे गा !
तो ये आप रोगी के लिए first aid (प्राथमिक सहायता) के लिए ये कर सकते हैं !
____________________________

दस
ू रा एक medicine आप चाहें तो हमेशा अपने घर मे रख सकते हैं बहुत सस्ती है homeopathy मे आती है ! उसका नाम ह
homeopathy medicine है किसी भी homeopathy shop मे आपको मिल जाएगी ! और इसकी potency है 200 ! आप दक
ु ान पर
! तो दक
ु ानदार आपको दे दे गा ! ये 5 मिलीलीटर आप घर मे खरीद कर रख लीजिएगा 100 लोगो की जान इससे बच जाएग
सिर्फ पाँच रुपए है ! इसकी बोतल भी आती है 100 मिलीग्राम की 70 से 80 रुपए की उससे आप कम से कम 10000 लोगो क
जिनको साँप ने काटा है !

और ये जो medicine है NAJA ये दनि

ु या के सबसे खतरनाक साँप का ही poison है जिसको कहते है क्रैक ! इस साँप का pois
खराब माना जाता है ! इसके बारे मे कहते है अगर इसने किसी को काटा तो उसे भगवान ही बचा सकता है ! medicine भ
उसी का ये poison है लेकिन delusion form मे है तो घबराने की कोई बात नहीं ! आयर्वे
ु द का सिद्धांत आप जानते है लोहा ल
जहर चला जाता है शरीर के अंदर तो दस
ू रे साँप का जहर ही काम आता है !

तो ये NAJA 200 आप घर मे रख लीजिये !अब दे नी कैसे है रोगी को वो आप जान लीजिये !

1 बंद
ू उसकी जीभ पर रखे और 10 मिनट बाद फिर 1 बंद
ू रखे और फिर 10 मिनट बाद 1 बंद
ू रखे | 3 बार डाल के छोड़ दीजि
है !

ये दवा रोगी की जिंदगी को हमेशा हमेशा के लिए बचा लेगी ! और साँप काटने के एलोपेथी मे जो injection है वो आम अस्
पाते ! डाक्टर आपको कहे गा इस अस्तपाताल मे ले जाओ उसमे ले जाओ आदि आदि |

और जो ये एलोपेथी वालो के पास injection है इसकी कीमत 10 से 15 हजार रुपए है ! और अगर मिल जाएँ तो डाक्टर एक
ठोक दे ता है ! कभी कभी 15 तक ठोक दे ता है मतलब लाख-डेड लाख तो आपका एक बार मे साफ | और यहाँ सिर्फ 10 रुप
उसकी जान बचा सकते हैं !

यह injection इतना effective है कि मैं इस दवा (NAJA) की गारं टी लेता हूँ ये दवा एलोपेथी के injection से 100 गुना (times) ज्या

तो ये जानकारी आप हमेशा याद रखे पता नहीं कब काम आ जाए हो सकता है आपके ही जीवन मे काम आ जाए ! या प
किसी रिश्तेदार के काम आ जाए! तो first aid के लिए injection की सुई काटने वाला तरीका और ये NAJA 200 homeopathy दव
- 1 बूंद तीन बार
रोगी की जान बचा सकती है |

Snake bites can be very dangerous, and we recommend

immediately seeking emergency medical care, if it is available.
Hospitals are the only source for getting antivenin. However,
there are scenarios when emergency medical assistance is hours
Coral snakes are the most
or even days away. This article catalogs some treatments that can
venomous in the U.S.A..
help in these situations.
Remember: "If red meets
yellow, kill a fellow".
Apply dampened activated charcoal to snake bite fang wounds as soon as possible. With some
snake bites, making a small slit in the fang lesions is necessary, while other bites leave large
enough holes for the activated charcoal to absorb well. Use a band-aid, cotton with medical tape,
or anything else that is available to firmly hold the dampened charcoal onto the wound. Check
periodically, and re-dampen the charcoal if it has dried out. Do not use DMSO to increase
absorption, for it will cause the venom to sink deeper into the body.

Next, take at least 2 teaspoons of dampened

activated charcoal powder internally. Make certain
to dampen the charcoal first, because it can cause
havoc for the lungs if you inhale the dust.

We found that there are varying results in the use

of tourniquets. The medical establishment is
preaching to never use them nowadays, and we
Milk snakes ('fake coral snakes') are not likewise acknowledge that there are inherent
poisonous. Remember: "If red meets black, dangers to using them. As such, it is necessary for
a friend to Jack". people to use their best judgment in deciding
whether a tourniquet should be applied.
The cottonmouth, otherwise Tourniquets can lead to the loss of a limb, but this
known as a water moccasin, is an acceptable risk in some instances. If you decide to use
spends most of its time in and a tourniquet, you should write "TK" and the time on the
around water. Beware of these victim's forehead, so medics will know how long it has
excellent swimmers. been applied, in case you get separated or injured yourself.

Some people use a tourniquet that is just tight enough to

slow the circulation, instead of entirely stopping it. This
method is designed to allow treatments to take effect
before the venom spreads throughout the body. If done
correctly, it eliminates the risks associated with
tourniquets.

Copperheads are known for their Echinacea oil is known to help neutralize snake bites. This
ability to camouflage well with property of echinacea was first discovered by the American
leaves and logs, which are their Indians. In addition, echinacea boosts the immune system,
favorite hide-outs. and thus helps to fight infections. In the event of a snake
bite, we strongly recommend taking a large dose of
echinacea supplements, and repeating every 6 hours. If
swallowing is difficult, then hold it in the mouth for as
long as possible for blood absorption through the cheeks
and tongue, before attempting to swallow. This technique
is recommended for the charcoal consumption too. Get
these supplies ready beforehand, because it is too late to go
shopping during a poison emergency. Only purchase
echinacea from herbal or health food stores, due to

There are many different types of

rattlesnakes, but the antivenin is
the same. You may hear the
infamous rattle, and the rattle on
the tail should be clearly visible.
supplement quality issues. Please read the article about activated charcoal for safety and
preparation instructions.

After the first 24 hours, activated charcoal will be largely ineffective. You may wish to try to
apply moistened bentonite clay topically during this time. Bentonite clay is known to remove
toxins, and is also advised for treating spider bites. For best results, mix echinacea powder with
the bentonite clay and water. Apply this paste to the wound. You may simply open echinacea
supplement capsules to obtain the powder. As with the activated charcoal and the echinacea,
have the bentonite clay ready beforehand. Bentonite clay is not found in most retailers, and it
must usually be purchased online, so get it now.

Always remember to seek medical attention at the earliest opportunity, because snake bite
victims should get an antivenin as soon as possible. These techniques are virtually guaranteed to
help a victim, but they may not be enough to save a person from a fatal snake bite.

There are four types of poisonous snakes in the United States, and they all tend to be
temperamental, despite what the new-age nature lovers would have us believe. These vicious
monsters include the copperhead, cottonmouth, rattlesnake, and the coral snake. It is
important to be able to recognize the different types of poisonous snakes, so that you can get the
best medical treatment. Being treated with the wrong type of antivenin can be fatal. Study the
images in this article carefully. If possible, it is best to kill the snake, and then take it with you to
the hospital, in order to get a verified identification of its species. The snake's head should be
severed, in order to be certain that it is dead. Be cautious of the fangs, which could convulse at
any time to inject venom.

Abstract
Snake envenomation is a global public health problem, with highest incidence in Southeast Asia.
Inadequate health services, difficult transportation and consequent delay in antisnake venom
administration are the main reasons for high mortality. Adverse drug reactions and inadequate
storage conditions limit the use of antisnake venom. The medicinal plants, available locally and
used widely by traditional healers, therefore need attention. A wide array of plants and their
active principles have been evaluated for pharmacological properties. However, numerous
unexplored plants claimed to be antidotes in folklore medicine need to be studied. The present
article reviews the current status of various medicinal plants for the management of snake bite.

Keywords: Antisnake venom, medicinal plants, pharmacological activity, snake bite

Go to:

INTRODUCTION
Snake envenomation is an important global health issue. It constitutes an occupational hazard
mainly in the field of agriculture. Highest incidence and mortality due to snake bites is reported
from South and Southeast Asian countries having extensive agricultural practices and diversity in
snake species.[1] Poor health services, difficult transportation, delay in the antisnake venom
administration especially in rural areas are the important factors responsible for high mortality.

It is estimated that in India alone, there are more than 2,00,000 venomous bites per year, of
which 35,000–50,000 are fatal.[2] The estimates are arbitrary as majority of deaths are
unreported. In rural areas, where most of the bites take place, the victims are mostly taken to
traditional healers, who neither report them to the authorities nor document the cases, hence
paucity of reliable epidemiological data.

There are more than 3000 known species of snakes of which around 300 are poisonous. In India
out of 216 species, approximately 53 are poisonous.[2] Bites are primarily due to the venomous
species of the families Elapidae and Viperidae. The common poisonous snakes in India mainly
include Indian 1spectacled cobra (Naja naja), 2.common krait (Bungarus caeruleus),
3.Russell's viper (Daboia russelii) and 4. saw-scaled viper (Echis carinatus) [Table 1]. 5.
Hump-nosed pit vipers (Hypnale hypnale and H. nepa) have been reported from South India.
[3]
Table 1

Common poisonous snakes in India

The snake venom is a complex mixture of enzymes including the procoagulants, non-enzyme
proteins, peptides, carbohydrates, amines, lipids and metal ions. The venom exerts neurotoxic,
cytotoxic and hemotoxic effects. The administration of antisnake venom (ASV), the only specific
treatment for snake bite, however, is associated with many drawbacks.

Antisnake venom and its limitations

Antivenom for ophidian bites is a suspension of antibodies, prepared mainly from horses.
Animals are hyper-immunized against the venom of a given species (monovalent) or venoms
from several different species at the same time (polyvalent). Infusion of ASV may lead to
adverse reactions ranging from early reactions (pruritus, urticaria) to potentially fatal
anaphylaxis[4] [Table 2]. The reported incidence of these reactions varies from 5 to 80%.[5–7]
There are also pyrogen reactions due to endotoxin contamination. Serum sickness may also
develop in certain cases.

Table 2

Adverse drug reactions profile of antisnake venom

Availability and issues in stockpiling

The production and supply of antivenom is associated with logistical, marketing, storage and
economic difficulties. The development is a costly, time-consuming process requiring ideal
storage conditions. The liquid form of ASV has a half life of 2 years. Storage at 0–4°C is
necessary, otherwise rapid deterioration sets in rendering it unfit for use. However, the
lyophilized form retains potency up to 5 years when stored in any cool, dark place. In India,
polyvalent antisnake venom is prepared from horses, which are hyper-immunized against the
venom of the four common poisonous snakes (Cobra, Krait, Russell's Viper and Saw-scaled
Viper).

Issue of specificity

Absolute specificity is an issue in management with ASV. The geographic and taxonomic
diversity in species leads to a significant variation in composition and antigenic reactivity of
venom.[8,9] So the use of a particular ASV may get restricted to a geographical area of relevant
specificity. Thus, monovalent ASV would be the solution. But in view of the cost and diverse
specificity, polyvalent ASV would provide answers to an extent, considering the medically
important species. However, because of paucity of reliable literature on distribution and diversity
of venomous species, ASV is not available for all species. This is one of the main obstacles of
immunotherapy.

Herbs as an alternative to antisnake venom

The plant kingdom provides an alternative to ASV. Medicinal plants have been used as folk
medicine for treatment of snake bites. Reliance on medicinal plants is primarily due to their
safety, effectiveness, cultural preferences, inexpensive nature and dependence on neighboring
forests.

Globally, traditional healers are practicing herbal medicine to cure snake envenomations;
however, the practice is not really recognized by modern medicine. The number of studies
evaluating the pharmacologically active principles against snake bites are few.[10,11] Though
novel phytotherapeutic agents have been isolated from plants due to vital leads from ethnic
groups, yet validation is still an issue. Emphasis should be on proper design of both in vivo and
in vitro studies, so that they relate exactly to the clinical situations.[12]

This review is an attempt to present a comprehensive account of numerous herbals used world
over for the treatment of snake bite. A thorough literature survey highlights the fact that plant
kingdom has tremendous resources which can be exploited for unidentified novel compounds
with antivenin activity or those supplementing the action of antisnake venom.

Herbal plants with antitoxin activity

The indigenous systems of medicine use medicinal plants for the treatment of snake bites. There
is a huge repository of plants reported to possess antisnake venom activity.[13,14] Investigation
of therapeutic potential of plants used for snake bites shows the presence of different
phytochemicals [Table 3].

Table 3

Phytochemicals isolated from plants used for snakebites

Screening of plants used in traditional medicine and determination of their active principles and
different activities is being undertaken. The active principles isolated have been associated with
various pharmacological properties and may provide a substantial contribution to the modern
therapeutics of snake bite.

Anti-inflammatory activity

Ethanolic extracts of Bixa orellana, Brownea rosa-de-monte, Dracontium croatii,

Struthanthus orbicularis, Gonzalagunia panamensis, and Trichomanes elegans are reported to
inhibit edema due to Bothrops asper venom.[15] Decrease of edema formation with aqueous
extracts of Casearia sylvestris Sw. has been noted in rats injected with lethal doses of Bothropic
venoms. Ellagic acid has inhibited edematogenic activity due to total venom and phospholipase
A2 (PLA2) from Bothrops jararacussu.[16]

Methanolic extract of seeds of Vitis vinifera L. has shown promise for the treatment of local
effects of viperine bites. The extract neutralized edema-inducing property of venom.[17] Cordia
verbenacea extract significantly reduced paw edema, induced by Bothrops jararacussu snake
venom.[18]

Different doses of Tamarindus indica seed extract upon preincubation with venom before assays
significantly neutralized edema.[19] Anacardium occidentale bark extract has also been shown to
neutralize edema induced by viper venom.[20]

Lupeol acetate from roots of Hemidesmus indicus R.Br. is documented to significantly neutralize
edema induced by Russell's Viper, in experimental animals, besides the cardiotoxicity,
neurotoxicity and respiratory changes induced by Naja kaouthia venom.[21]

Antiophidian properties are reported to be associated with triterpenoid saponins. Glycyrrhizin,

isolated from the roots of Glycyrrhiza glabra, has been found to be anti-inflammatory.[22]
Inhibition of edema due to Naja naja venom is reported with turmerin isolated from Curcuma
longa.[23]

Bidens pilosa is documented to have anti-inflammatory potential.[24] Strychnos nux-vomica

used by tribals for snake bites is reported to be anti-inflammatory.[25] Extracts of Andrographis
paniculata and Aristolochia indica have shown significant decrease in edema.[26] Partial
inhibition of edema has been reported with the aqueous extracts of Pentaclethra macroloba.[27]

Anti-hemorrhagic and anticoagulant activity

Prolongation of clotting time of blood plasma was observed with Brownea rosa-de-monte,
Pleopeltis percussa, Bixa orellana and Heliconia curtispatha, Trichomanes elegans, after pre-
incubation with venom.[15] Methanolic extracts of Mouriri pusa Garden, Byrsonima crassa
Niedenzu, Davilla elliptica St. Hills upon evaluation have shown complete neutralization of local
hemorrhage. Flavonoids namely myricetin, quercetin, amenthoflavone have been attributed the
antihemorrhagic potential. Quercetin is a potent lipoxygenase inhibitor.[28] Tamarindus indica
seed extract has neutralized the hemorrhage, indirect hemolysis and degradation of Bbeta chain
of human fibrinogen, caused by viper venom in experimental animals.[19]

The aqueous extract of leaves of Schizolobium parahyba significantly inhibited the coagulant,
hemorrhagic and fibrinogenolytic activities induced by Bothrops pauloensis and Crotalus
durissus terrificcus venoms and their isolated toxins after preincubation with venoms and toxins
before assays.[29] In vivo tests with polyphenols of Areca catechu L and Quercus infectoria Oliv
showed inhibition of the hemorrhagic activity of Calloselasma rhodostoma Kuhl venom and
dermonecrotic activity of Naja kauothia venom.[30]

Prolongation of clotting time of Echis carinatus venom-treated blood has been observed with the
aqueous extracts of Mucuna pruriens, Strophanthus hispidus, and Strophanthus gratus.[31]
Activation of coagulative activity by Mucuna pruriens seed extract is well documented in
literature.[32] Inhibition of fibrinocoagulation activity induced by Bothrops jararaca venom is
reported with the extracts of Masypianthes chamaedrys.[33] Neutralization of hemorrhage and
partial inhibition of procoagulant activity of venom and abolition of degradation of Aalpha and
Bbeta chains of human fibrinogen has been observed with Vitis vinifera seed extract; against
viper venom induced local effects.[17]

The organic acid from root extract of Hemidesmus indicus significantly antagonized
hemorrhagic, coagulant and anticoagulant activities in experimental rodents, induced with viper
venom.[34] Lupeol acetate from the plant has neutralized hemorrhage and defibrinogen induced
by Russell's Viper.[21] Inhibition of hemorrhage and dermonecrotic activities of venoms in vivo
is reported with methanolic extracts of leaves of Camellia sinensis. The action has been
attributed to complexation and chelation of plant phenolic compounds and venom proteins.[35]

Eclipta prostrata is used for snake bites in China and Brazil. The aqueous extract of Eclipta
prostrata and wedelolactone, a potent and selective 5-lipoxygenase inhibitor isolated from the
plant, has shown anti-hemorrhagic activity against Bothrops jararaca, Bothrops jararacussu
venoms and myotoxins, bothropstoxin and crotoxin.[36,37] Partial inhibition of hemorrhagic
activity has been observed with the butanolic extracts of Eclipta prostrata containing
demethylwedelolactone as the main constituent.[38]

Glycyrrhizin a thrombin inhibitor, from the roots of Glycyrrhiza glabra has shown anti-
thrombotic properties in vivo. Prevention of venom-induced changes in hemostasis, both in vivo
and in vitro, have also been noted.[22] Neutralization of hemorrhagic, fibrinolytic and
proteolytic activities of metalloproteases from Bothrops snake venoms is reported with a
triterpenoid saponin isolated from Pentaclethra macroloba.[39]

Ar-turmerone from Curcuma longa roots has shown neutralization of the lethal effect of
Crotalus durissus terrificus and hemorrhagic effect of Bothrops jararaca venoms.[40] Tannic
acid is documented to neutralize hemorrhage due to Crotalus adamanteus venom.[41] Baccharis
trimera has yielded clerodane diterpenoid, possessing anti-hemorrhagic properties against snake
venoms.[42] Neutralization of hemorrhage due to viper venom is documented with seed extract
of Strychnos nux-vomica.[43]
Enzyme inhibitory activity

Enzyme inhibiting and protein binding properties have been associated with chemically active
compounds of flavonoids, polyphenols, terpenoids, xanthene etc. The phytochemicals also
inhibit PLA2 activities of viper and cobra venom.[44] Phenolics, especially polyphenols, like
some tannins bind proteins, acting upon components of venom directly and disabling them to act
on receptors. They could also act by competitive blocking of the receptors.[45] Tannic acid has
been found to be a potent inhibitor of hyaluronidase.[41]

Inhibition of enzymatic activity is reported with extracts of Casearia sylvestris in experimental

animals, injected with lethal doses of Bothropic venoms.[16] Significant inhibition of PLA2
activity induced by Bothrops pauloensis and Crotalus durissus terrificcus venoms is documented
with the leaf extract of Schizolobium parahyba.[29] Neutralization of Vipera russelii venom
enzymes namely phospholipase, protease and hyaluronidase is reported with the bark extract of
Anacardium occidentale in a dose-dependent manner.[20]

Abolition of hyaluronidase and proteolytic activities of viper venom with methanolic extract of
seeds of Vitis vinifera has been reported.[17] Edunol, a pterocarpan isolated from Harpalyce
brasiliana was found to be antiproteolytic and an inhibitor of PLA2.[46] Inhibition of
azocaseinolytic activity of Bothrops jararaca venom has been seen with the extract of
Masypianthes chamaedrys.[33]

Lupeol acetate from roots of Hemidesmus indicus significantly neutralized PLA2 activity
induced by Russell's Viper.[21] Antihyaluronidase activity is reported with Mimosa pudica
against Naja naja, Vipera russelii and Echis carinatus venoms.[47]

Methanolic leaf extract of Azadirachta indica has shown significant inhibition of PLA2 enzymes
of Cobra and Russell's Viper venoms.[48] Withania somnifera has yielded a glycoprotein
inhibitor, found to be effective in cobra and viper bite. The compound inhibited the PLA2
activity of Naja naja.[49] 4-nerolidylcatechol has been isolated from Piper species. Various
species of the plant are reported to inhibit activity of PLA2 from venoms of Bothrops species.
[50]

Plant extracts of Andrographis paniculata and Aristolochia indica effectively inhibited the main
toxic enzymatic effects of Echis carinatus, responsible for a large number of deaths in India.
Inhibition of PLA2 and neutralization of procoagulant activity was observed with both the
extracts.[26] Aristolochic acid from Aristolochia radix is reported to inhibit the enzymatic and
pharmacological activities of PLA2 induced by Vipera russelii venom.[51,52]

In vitro tests with polyphenols from Areca catechu L and Quercus infectoria Oliv showed
inhibition of PLA2, proteases, hyaluronidase and L-amino acid oxidase of Naja naja kaouthia
and Calloselasma rhodostoma venoms.[30] Edunol, from Harpalyce brasiliana is reported to be
an inhibitor of PLA2.[46]

Tamarindus indica has shown potent venom neutralizing properties. Main hydrolytic enzymes
responsible for the early effects of envenomation by Russell's Viper (inflammation, local tissue
damage, and hypotension) have been inhibited by the seed extract, in a dose-dependent manner.
[19]

Methanolic extract of fresh leaves of Camellia sinensis showed inhibition of PLA2,

hyaluronidase, L-amino acid oxidase in venoms of Naja naja kaouthia and Calloselasma
rhodostoma, by in vitro neutralization.[35] Pentacyclic triterpenes, betulin and betulinic acid
extracted from Betula alba have demonstrated activity against PLA2.[53]

A triterpenoid saponin from Gymnema sylvestre, potassium salt of gymnemic acid has inhibited
ATPase induced by Naja naja venom.[54] Neutralization of PLA2 activity has been documented
with seed extract of Strychnos nux-vomica.[43] Eclipta alba is documented to inhibit PLA2
activity.[55]

Antibacterial and antiparasitic activity

Mikania laevigata and Mikania glomerata, having antiophidian, antibacterial and antiparasitic
activity, have been used in Brazil for the treatment of snake bites.[56] A broad spectrum of
antibacterial activity has been associated with root extract of Aristolochia bracteata in snake
bites.[57] Extracts of Delonix elata and Mollugo cerviana and Merremia tridentata have shown
significant antibacterial activity. Medicinal properties may be attributed to bioactive compounds
like alkaloids, glycosides, tannins found in these plants. They have been used for various
ailments including snake bites.[58]

Antimyotoxic activity

Ellagic acid from Casearia sylvestris aqueous extract has shown inhibition of myotoxic activity
in rats when tested against effects, from both total venom and PLA2 from genus Bothrops.[16]
Neutralization of myotoxic effects of Vipera russelii venom is reported with the bark extract of
Anacardium occidentale.[20] Significant inhibition of myotoxicity induced by Bothrops
pauloensis and Crotalus durissus terrificcus venoms and their isolated toxins by aqueous extract
of leaves of Schizolobium parahyba has been documented.[29]

Methanolic extract of seeds of Vitis vinifera has shown neutralization of myonecrotic properties
of viper venom.[17] Edunol from Harpalyce brasiliana was found to be antimyotoxic.[46]
Myotoxicity induced by Bothrops jararacussu snake venom and its main PLA2 homologues is
reported to be inhibited with Cordia verbenacea extract.[18]

Significant neutralization of myotoxic effects due to Russell's Viper have been observed with
extracts of Tamarindus indica.[19] The aqueous extract and wedelolactone, from Eclipta
prostrata, has shown antimyotoxic activity against Bothrops jararaca, and Bothrops jararacussu
venoms and two isolated myotoxins bothropstoxin and crotoxin.[36,37] The extracts of
genetically modified E.alba inhibited myotoxicity induced by PLA2 from the venoms of
Crotalus durissus terrificus and Bothrops jararacussu.[55]
Dried root extracts of Mimosa pudica have inhibited the myotoxicity due to Naja kaouthia
venom.[59] Curcuma longa has shown inhibition of myotoxicity due to Naja naja venom.[23]
Partial inhibition of myotoxic activity has been reported with the Pentaclethra macroloba.[27]

Antivenin activity

There is huge repository of medicinal plants used for treating snake bites [Table 4]. Many plants
have been conserved and used as antidotes for snake envenomations.[60] Increase in survival
rates of rats has been observed with Casearia sylvestris extract.[16] . Different species of
Echinacea are used in North America for treating snake bites.[61] The plant contains
echinacoside, cichoric acid, ketoalkenes, alkyl amides and polysaccharides.[62] Anisodamine, an
alkaloid isolated from Anisodus tanguticus with the chemical structure and pharmacological
action similar to atropine and scopolamine, has been proposed to be an effective drug for snake
bites.[63]

Table 4

Plants used for treating snakebites

Mucuna pruriens seeds are reported to neutralize toxicity due to Echis carinatus. A glycoprotein
with functional oligosaccharide chains isolated from the plant is said to be responsible for the
neutralization of venom-induced actions.[64] The seeds of the plant have been used as oral
prophylactics for snake bite in Nigeria. Experimental studies on rats pretreated with extract and
challenged with different snake venoms were done to investigate the effectiveness of anti-
Mucuna pruriens antibody, to neutralize the toxicity of snake venoms in vitro. It was observed
that pretreatment provided effective protection against lethality of venoms of Naja sputatrix and
moderate protection against Calloselasma rhodostma, showing involvement of immunological
neutralization.[65]

Significant neutralizing capacity against Macrovipera lebetina venom has been observed with
the dichloromethane extract of Artemisia campestris.[66] Antiophidian activity of Masypianthes
chamaedrys is reported in literature.[33] 12-methoxy-4-methylvoachalotine isolated from
Tabernaemontana catharinensis has inhibited the lethal activity of crotoxin, the main toxin of
Crotalus durissus terrificus.[67]
2-hydroxy-4-methoxy benzoic acid isolated form Hemidesmus indicus has shown antisnake
venom activity in experimental models. It increased the lethal action neutralization of venom by
polyvalent antiserum, suggesting the use of herbal antagonists for snake bites. It also reduced
venom-induced free radical generation and showed antiserum action potentiation.[68,69] Leaf
extract of Guiera senegalensis detoxified venom of Echis carinatus and Naja nigricollis in vitro.
Albino mice given reconstituted venom incubated with the extract, intraperitoneally, showed
reduction in mortality when compared with those given venom alone.[70] Root bark of Ehretia
buxifolia is shown to possess antisnake activity. Ehretianone, a quinonoid xanthene is the active
compound isolated from the plant.[44] Lipid peroxidation induced by viper venom in
experimental animals is reported to be inhibited with Strychnos nux-vomica seed extract. The
plant effectively neutralized viper venom lethality.[43] It contains caffeic acid and monomeric
caffeic acid, an antidote for snake bites.

Allium cepa containing sulfurous volatile oils is used in South America for snake bites.[71]
Protective effects of resverotrol (3, 4’, 5-trihydroxy trans stilbene) from Cissus assamica is well
documented.[72] Stem bark extract of Parkia biglobosa has shown neutralization of venoms of
Naja nigricollis and Echis ocellatus in experimental models.[73] Snake venom neutralization has
been associated with leaf extract of Acalypha indica.[74]

Inhibitory activity is reported with salireposide and benzoylsalireposide, phenolic glycosides

from Symplocos racemosa.[75] Bredemeyeroside D and B, triterpenoid saponins isolated from
Bredemeyera floribunda have exhibited antisnake venom activity.[76,77] Cordia ecalyculata and
Echinodorus grandiflorus are reportedly used in Brazil for various conditions including snake
bites.[78] Pentacyclic triterpenes or glycosides shown to possess antisnake venom activity have
been found in Alstonia scholaris, Aegle marmelos, Centipeda minima, Aloe vera,
Elephentopus scaber etc.[79] Antivenin activity has been reported with extracts of Crinum
jagus and Hibiscus aethiopicus Linn.[80,81]

Indian herbs with potential antivenin activity

Many Indian herbs have been used for the treatment of snake bites.[82–84] An ethno botanical
survey of folk plants used in snake bites in southern parts of Tamil Nadu reports the use of 72
medicinal plants in snake bites. Plant extracts of Aristolochia indica (terpenoids), Hemidesmus
indica (phenols), Gloriosa superba (esters), Strychnos nux-vomica, Rauwolfia serpentina
(alkaloids), Eclipta prostrata (wedelolactone), Achyranthes aspera (glycosides) and
Andrographis paniculata (terpenoids) have shown potent venom neutralizing effect. The plant
extracts and partially purified fractions were administered orally to rats, envenomed with rattle
snake venom. Significant protection against venom-induced changes in serum SOD and LPx
levels were seen, after administration of purified fractions.[85]

Trichosanthes tricuspidata is used in Bastar district of Chhattisgarh for snake bites. The plant
mainly contains pharmacologically important phytochemicals trichotetral, cucurbitane glycosides
and cucurbitacins.[86] Root bark of Ehretia buxifolia is shown to possess antisnake activity.[44]
Enicostemma axillare containing tannins is applied locally in snake bites.[58] Inhibition of
lethality, myotoxicity and toxic enzymes of Naja kaouthia venom has been reported with
aqueous and alcoholic root extracts of Mimosa pudica.[59]
Plants used for snake bites in Assam include Amaranthus spinosus (roots/stem), Amaranthus
viridis (stem, leaves), Argemone mexicana, Bryophyllum pinnatum (leaves), Commelina
bengalensis (roots), Pouzolzia indica, Cassia tora (roots).[87] In the Malwa region of Madhya
Pradesh, Eclipta alba (whole plant), Moringa oleifera (root, bark), Rauwolfia serpentina (spiral
roots) and Tephrosia purpurea (root) have been used in snake bites, with latter two having
excellent potential.[88]

Documentation of an ethno botanical survey and traditional medicines used by snake charmers in
Haryana highlighted the use of 19 different medicinal plants for snake bites.[89] An ethno
medicinal survey in Karnataka reports that mainly root extracts of some medicinal plants were
used either alone or as a formulation for snake envenomations.[90]

The Zingiberaceae family comprising of rhizomatous medicinal plants is characterized by the

presence of volatile oils and oleoresins. Various species of Curcuma, used extensively in Indian
households, find use in a wide range of disorders. Curcuma aromatica and Curcuma longa have
been used as an antidote in snake bites.[91] Amongst the various other Indian medicinal plants
used and recommended for treatment of snake bites, Vitex negundo, Emblica officinalis
significantly neutralized the Vipera russelii and Naja kaouthia venom-induced effects both in
vitro and in vivo studies. Triterpenoids from the root extract of Emblica officinalis and Vitex
negundo are believed to significantly neutralize antisnake activity of Vipera russelii and Naja
kauothia.[92]

β–sitosterol and stigmasterol from the root extract of Pluchea indica along with antiserum have
been proposed to help in neutralization of venom-induced effects.[93] Steroids form complexes
with venom, held together by “Vander Waals” and hydrophobic forces.

Viper venom induced lipid peroxidation is reported to be inhibited in experimental animals by

Strychnos nux-vomica seed extract.[43] Costus speciosus roots which contain diosgenin and
starch in the rhizome have been used for snake bites.[91] Ipomoea digitata contains
triterpenoids, phenolic compound and flavonoids and is used in snake bites. The root extract of
the plant has shown antioxidant activity.[94] Ethnic people have conserved plants like Acorus
calamus, Buchanania lanzan (stem bark), Moringa oleifera (stem, leaves), Achyranthes aspera,
and Gynandropsis gynandra, Bombax ceiba, whose rhizome paste is an antidote for snake bite
and scorpion sting.

CONCLUSION
Keeping in view the various limitations of ASV, herbal therapeutics for snake envenomations
seem to be a viable alternative. However, there are only a few species of plants, believed to be
effective for snake bites in traditional medicine whose pharmacological evaluation has been
undertaken so far. In view of a plethora of active compounds in the plant kingdom, an in-depth
scientific investigation is warranted to evaluate their antisnake venom potential, to derive
therapeutically effective natural products for snake bites.

Integration of traditional healers who rely mainly on medicinal plants is necessary. Exploration
of their materia medica for better alternatives for venom antidotes is essential. The benefit of
phytotherapy is controversial because pharmacological and toxicological activities are not well
studied and documented.

Complete phytochemical investigation of extracts and analysis of active principles to be used as

potent therapeutic agents along with well-designed studies evaluating the pharmacologically
active principles are necessary. Further, standardization of the basic active compound along with
toxicity and safety studies is mandatory. In view of the conflict of healthcare practitioners with
traditional medicine, validation of various reports may be carried out by corroborating their
results, and thus selecting plants with potential. Scientific validation of the conventional
therapies should be the long-term goal in order to test the veracity of the claims.

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Snake Bite
Snake bites are always dreaded for they may be fatal if the reptile is poisonous and no immediate
action is initiated to take out the venom from the victim's body. In fact, a snake bite takes place
when any snake sinks its teeth into the skin and it may result in a medical emergency if the
reptile is venomous. To be precise, children, whose body size is small, are generally at an
elevated risk for death or acute complications owing to snake bites.

Although neither all snakes are poisonous, nor their bites deadly, there are several varieties of
snake whose bites may result in immediate casualties. However, notwithstanding the poison
injected into a victim's body through a snake bite, it is possible to save the victims' lives by using
the appropriate anti-venom. When a snake sinks its teeth into the skin of any individual, the most
important thing is to take him/ her to an emergency room without wasting any time. Snake bites
usually do not have any critical effect if the victims receive timely treatment.

As snakes are able to survive in diverse environments, including land, sea, lakes, deserts,
grasslands and forests, many consider them to be amazing or extraordinary animals. Although
snakes are mostly considered to be menacing, the fact remains that these animals are always
more terrified of humans than the humans are scared of them. Barring a few exceptions like the
black mambas (Dendroaspis polylepis) and the king cobras (Ophiophagus hannah), most snakes
do not belligerently attack humans unless they are provoked by the latter.

It is interesting to note that although snakes do not have any limb, all varieties of snakes are
essentially carnivorous. They prey upon other animals, such as insects, other reptiles, birds,
relatively small mammals and occasionally even other snakes to feed themselves. There are
approximately 3000 species of snakes in the world and among these just around 400 species
actually inject poison or venom when they sink their teeth into the skin of other animals. There
are a number of snake species that seize their victims by constricting their bodies. By
constricting their bodies, these species of snakes actually suffocate their kill to death. Usually,
they tighten around the chest of the prey making it impossible for them to breathe or often
causing death by cardiac arrest. However, no snake kills its prey by crushing it. Conversely,
there are some species of snakes that catch their prey with the help of their teeth and
subsequently swallow them as a whole. This is common when they attack smaller animals like
birds or insects.

All snakes are cold-blooded animals denoting that they do not have the aptitude to raise their
body temperature to survive in cold environs. Usually, snakes have been found to be very
vigorous at temperatures ranging between 25°C and 32°C or between 77°F and 90°F.

The manner in which a snake actually bites

Poisonous snakes that inject venom when they sink their teeth in the skin of other animals have
transformed salivary glands. In fact, venom itself is transformed or modified type of saliva and in
all probability changed during the chemical digestive process. In addition, the different amounts
or extent of noxiousness of the venom also help snakes to kill their preys. When a snake sinks its
teeth into the skin of its prey and injects venom, what is termed as envenomation, the venom or
poison moves from the venom gland (salivary gland) to the fangs of the reptile passing though a
duct and finally into the body of the prey. To be precise, the venom of a snake is actually an
amalgamation of several materials, usually proteins, having different consequences. Speaking in
simple terms, these proteins contained in the venom of a snake can be categorized into four
different groups - cytotoxins, hemotoxins, neurotoxins and cardiotoxins. Below is a brief
description of the effects caused by each type of protein present in a snake's venom:

 Cytotoxins: This type of protein present in snake venom damages the tissues at the site
of the snake bite.
 Hemotoxins: This particular substance in snake venom results in internal hemorrhage.
 Neurotoxins: This poisonous substance damages the nervous system.
 Cardiotoxins: This particular protein present in snake venom affects the heart
straightaway.

Whom the snakes bite

According to a rough estimate more than five million snake bites take place every year across
the globe. Of these, as many as 125,000 victims succumb to snakes bites. In fact, snake bites are
frequent in regions having tropical climatic conditions as well as areas that are basically
agricultural. In fact, a vast population coexists with innumerable snakes in the above mentioned
regions. In a developed country like the US, around 5 to 10 people succumb to snake bites each
year. In significant instances in the US, many people are actually bitten by snakes while handling
them or even for harassing the reptiles. In effect, they provoke the snakes to bite them! It is
estimated that as many as 45,000 people in the US are bitten by snakes every year and of these
8000 are victims of snake bites by venomous animals.

The snakes that bite

Basically, two main families of snakes are responsible for majority of the venomous snake bites
and, hence, are perilous for the humans.
Snakes belonging to the elapid family (snakes having permanently erect fangs in the front of the
upper jaw) include the Asian and African cobras, the Asian kraits, the African mambas, the
Australian elapids comprising tiger snakes, costal taipan, death adders and king brown snake as
well as the American coral snakes. While all these species of snakes are extremely venomous,
even the lethal sea snakes are directly related to the Australian elapids.

Snakes belonging to the viper family (venomous Old World snakes having erectile, venom-
conducting fangs) include moccasins, rattlesnakes, including the diamondback rattlesnake and
timber rattlesnake found in the West; the Asian and African saw-scaled vipers, the American
lance-headed vipers, African Gaboon viper, the Asian Russell's viper and the puff adder.

Majority of the species of snakes belonging to the Colubrids - the most extensively dispersed and
diverse family of snakes - do not possess venom that may be harmful for the humans.
Nevertheless, a number of snake species belonging to this family, such as the twig snakes, brown
tree snake and the garter snake of Japan do have venoms and may prove to be treacherous for
humans. On the other hand, some other species of snakes belonging to the Colubrids family, such
as the king snakes, American garter snakes, rat snakes and racers do not possess any venom and,
hence, are basically not dangerous as far as humans are concerned.

Precisely speaking, snake bites caused by any of the snakes mentioned below are venomous and
may result in medical emergencies:

 Cobra
 Coral Snake
 Copperhead
 Cottonmouth (also known as water moccasin)
 All species of rattlesnake
 Different snake species found in zoos

As mentioned earlier, snakes are usually scared of humans and they will not bite unless they are
provoked in some manner or the other. Snakes do bite when they are surprised or intimidated,
but will generally keep away from people most of the time and bite when they find they are left
with no other option to protect themselves.

Most people are of the view that snakes found in water or near water bodies are venomous.
However, this conception is erroneous as majority of these snakes are not dangerous and in most
cases bites by them do not result in critical conditions. However, never ever try to ignore a snake
bite. If you don't know much about snakes or which species of snake has bit you, it is essential to
seek emergency medical help in case of all snake bites. Always treat all snake bites seriously.

Supplements and herbs

Several herbs have been found to be effective in treating snake bites. However, herbal treatment
for snake bites are basically aimed at fast recovery and should be initiated only after the initial
emergency medical treatment has been done. In fact, it is advisable to start herbal treatment for
snake bites only when the victim has recovered sufficiently to leave the hospital. This is truer for
children who have been bitten by snakes. You should always remember that you need to seek
emergency medical help if your child has been bitten by a snake. Don't waste time unnecessarily
to find the snake or any other reason.

See age-appropriate dosages of herbal remedies

 Herbs like Echinacea and goldenseal facilitate in treating as well as preventing infections - even
those that may be caused due to a snake bite. These two herbs are known to possess antibiotic
characteristics and aid in strengthening the immune system. If your child has been bitten by a
snake and is just out of the hospital after the emergency medical treatment, you may give him/
her one dosage of a blended formula of these two herbs thrice daily for five subsequent days.
Later, reduce the dosage to two every day for another five days. Here is a word of caution.
Never give Echinacea doses to your child for over ten days at a stretch. In case you ignore this
warning, you will find that the herbal treatment with Echinacea has been losing its usefulness
after ten days.
 Garlic is another herb that possesses potent antibiotic properties and is effective in detoxifying
blood. When your child has recovered from the initial consequences of a snake bite, you may
give him/ her one garlic tablet supplement daily for two weeks to help them to recuperate
faster. Alternately, you may also give your child one clove of fresh garlic thrice daily for two
weeks.

Aromatherapy
Commonly used essential oils for snake bite:

 Basil

Symptoms
The symptoms of snake bites may vary from being mild to acute. Usually snake bite symptoms
include swelling and bruising of the area around the spot of the snake bite and a very rapid pulse
rate. When infants and children become victims of snake bites they experience debility and
shortness of breath. In addition, they may also complain of nausea and vomit. In case the venom
of the snake is potent, the victim may also suffer from acute soreness as well as extreme swelling
at the place of the snake bite. Other symptoms of snake bites in children may include dilation of
the pupils, shock and seizures. In addition, they may experience uncontrolled shuddering or
tremors and their speech may become slurred. A severe snake bite, when enough of venom is
injected into the body of a child, may also result in paralysis and unconsciousness or fainting.
Hence, it is advisable that in case your child becomes a victim of a snake bite, act instantly and
seek medical help without wasting any time.

While the symptoms of snake bites are conditional on the species of snake, the amount of venom
injected as well as the age of the victim, normally all such victims are likely to experience the
following conditions after a snake bite:

 Blood loss from the wound or bruise caused by snake bite

  Burning sensation of the skin around the affected area
 Cloudy or confusing vision
 Seizures or spasm
 Diarrhea or dysentery
 Lightheadedness or dizziness
 Too much perspiration
 Unconsciousness
 Marks of snakes fangs on the skin
 Rise in body temperature or fever
 Enhanced thirst or feeling thirsty despite intake of sufficient fluids
 Lack of muscle coordination
 Queasiness and vomiting
 Fast pulse rate
 Debility or general feeling of weakness
 Lack of sensation (numbness) and tingling
 Death of tissues in the affected area
 Acute pain
 Swelling at the place of the snake bite

First aid
It is essential for people residing in localities where snake bites are too common to keep
themselves abreast regarding the first aid measures they need to undertaken when an individual
is bitten by a snake - venomous or otherwise. In fact, not only they, it is important for everyone
to have the basic knowledge regarding first aid treatment that need to be administered to people
bitten by snakes. You never know when it may become handy. Below, find a list of first aid
methods that ought to be provided to treat snake bite victims.

 Ensure that the snake bite victim remains calm and composed. Uplift the victim's spirit saying
that snake bites are curable and this can be done in an emergency room. Limit the movements
of the victim while ensure that the venom does not flow to the heart. Tie a piece of cloth or a
rope just above the affected area with a view to decrease the flow of blood from the region to
the heart.
 It is best if you have a pump suction device like the one manufactured by Sawyer - use it
following the instructions of the manufacturer.
 Get rid of all rings or other items that may cause constriction since the area around the snake
bite will swell. You may as well make a loose bandage or support to facilitate the restriction of
movement of the affected area.
 Remember, the area of the snake bite will gradually swell and become discolored if the snake
that bit the victim is venomous.
 If possible, keep an eye on the vital signs of the victim, including pulse rate, pace of breathing,
body temperature and blood pressure.
 In case you observe any symptoms of shock in the snake bite victim, lay the person horizontally,
lift his/ her feet approximately by a foot and also wrap the victim with a blanket.
 Seek immediate medical help. It is important not to waste any moment after a person has been
bitten by a snake.
  If the snake is dead, bring its corpse carefully. However, never try to waste time or risk another
snake bite by trying to look for the snake. If it is not easy to kill the snake, let it go free.
 In case you manage to get the snake, be careful about the animal's head while carrying it.
Remember, as a reflex action, a snake has the ability to bite once again an hour after the time of
its death.

Things to be avoided
When a snake sinks its teeth into the skin of a person, it may result in an emergency causing the
victim to behave panicky. Moreover, often people attending on the victim also initiate steps that
may prove to be harmful for the patients. So, having discussed what you should do to help a
snake bite victim, below, find a few points that you need to be careful to avoid. These are some
of the ‘don'ts' that will help the victim to recuperate faster.

 Never apply a tourniquet or strap near the area where the snake has sunk its teeth.
 Don't make the victim become over-exerted. Carry the victim to a safer place, if it is deemed
necessary.
 Avoid applying any type of cold compresses to the affected area.
 Don't incise the area of the snake bite with a razor, knife or any other sharp object.
 Never try to suck the snake venom out of the victim's body with your mouth.
 Don't give anything to the snake bite victim to eat or drink.
 Don't elevate the affected area above the level of the person's heart for it may increase the flow
of venom to the heart.
 Don't give the victim any medication, either painkillers or stimulants, without consulting a
qualified doctor.

How to prevent a snake bite

While it is impossible to suggest infallible or foolproof measures to avoid being bitten by a
snake, you may always adopt certain measures that will help you to prevent being a snake bite
victim. Actually, there are two thing to do to prevent a snake bite - be watchful and prepared if
you think you are venturing into any area where there may be snakes. Below, find a few tips that
may help you to prevent a snake bite.

 Always try and avoid going to places where you suspect snakes make have taken refuge.
Especially, be careful not to visit places like logs in open spaces or below the rocks.
 While walking, tap the place before you tread with a walking stick. This is especially important
when you are entering a place where it is dark and you cannot see your feet. Tapping the
ground or floor will provide the snakes with enough warning of your presence and to leave the
place.
 In case you are a frequent hiker, you ought to buy a snake bite kit that is available with stores
that keep hiking supplies. It is important not to use any of the outdated snake bite kits available
in the market - the ones that may include suction bulbs or razor blades.
 Wear long pants and also boots, if possible, when hiking in areas where snakes are found.
 Although majority of the snakes are not venomous, you need to be careful not to pick up or try
to play with snakes. One should be adequately trained before they can do such things.
  Never, ever provoke or incite a snake. In fact, most snake bites occur when people unwittingly
provoke snakes.

Other beneficial herbs

 Achiote
 Amla
 Bacuri
 Cajueiro
 Curry Tree
 Frankincense
 Gymnema
 Indian Acalypha
 Tonka Bean
 Wood Sage
 Zedoary

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