KNOWLEDGE

FOR A BRIGHTER
FUTURE

Alloy selection
for service in
caustic soda

A GUIDE TO THE USE OF

NICKEL-CONTAINING ALLOYS
 2

Alloy selection
for service in caustic soda

A GUIDE TO THE USE OF NICKEL-CONTAINING ALLOYS

Second Edition
Published 2019

The material presented in this publication has been prepared for the
general information of the reader and should not be used or relied
on for specific applications without first securing competent advice.

The Nickel Institute, its members, staff and consultants do not

represent or warrant its suitability for any general or specific use
and assume no liability or responsibility of any kind in connection
with the information herein.

This report was prepared by:

Michael Davies, November, 2011, revised December, 2013.
Consultant to the Nickel Institute.
Technical Editor: Geir Moe

Alloy selection for service in caustic soda

 3

Alloy selection for service

in caustic soda

Introduction
Caustic soda (i.e., sodium hydroxide, NaOH) and chlorine are Critical factors in caustic soda service include:
co-produced by the electrolysis of a sodium chloride solution. 1. The concentration of the caustic solution.
Both chemicals find worldwide application in the chemical 2. The temperatures to be encountered (including possible
and related process industries. Alloy selection for chlorine excursions).
is discussed in another Nickel Institute publication.1 Caustic
3. The presence of other chemicals in the caustic, as
soda ranks third in tonnage production among the inorganic
contaminants or additives.
chemicals; worldwide annual consumption is around
4. Tolerance limits for metallic ion contamination of the
65 million tonnes.
caustic itself (or of the process end-product).
Roughly half of all caustic soda produced is used in the 5. Residual or applied tensile stresses, which may affect
manufacture of other chemicals. Another 16% is consumed corrosion resistance.
by the pulp and paper industry. Other important uses are in 6. The economics of cost/life considerations.
the production of PVC, rayon, cellulose, textiles, petroleum
products, soaps, production of bleach, scrubbing acidic Metals and alloys most frequently considered for use in
components from industrial off-gases and the refining of caustic soda are carbon steel, stainless steels, nickel and high-
bauxite ore in the production of aluminium. nickel alloys. Some alloys, with their generic names, common
trade names, UNS numbers and nominal compositions are
A number of materials of construction may be used to given in Table 1.
produce and handle caustic solutions. Their suitability for
specific applications will depend upon factors associated
with the concentration and use of the caustic and the process
variables involved. A more detailed discussion of all aspects
of materials selection for caustic soda is available elsewhere.2

In general, factors to be considered in materials selection

include practicality, safety and health aspects, availability,
mechanical properties, corrosion resistance, risk/benefit
considerations and economics. Caustic soda is highly toxic by
either ingestion or inhalation and is a strong irritant to the
eyes, skin, and mucous membranes; that is, it is “corrosive”
in the physiological sense as well as being corrosive to
materials of construction. Beside potential burns to the eyes
or skin, fire may produce irritating or poisonous gases that are
harmful if inhaled.

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Table 1 Nominal composition of nickel-containing alloys many are used in Caustic Soda

Nominal composition, % ASTM Spec. b

UNS  Seamless
Alloy Numbera Ni C Cr Mo Cu Fe Plate tube and pipe
Group I – Commercially pure (C.P.) nickel and nickel-copper alloys
200 N02200 99.5 0.08 - - - 0.2 B162 B161
201 N02201 99.5 0.01 - - - 0.2 B162 B161
400 N04400 66.5 0.2 - - Bal 1.2 B127 B165
K500 N05500 66.5 0.25 - - Bal 1.2 B127 B165
Group II – Chromium-containing nickel alloys
600 N06600 76 0.08 15.5 - - 8 B168 B167
601 N06601 60 0.05 23 - - Bal B168 B167
825 N08825 42 0.03 21.5 3 2.25 30 B424 B163
625 N06625 61 0.05 21.5 9 - 2.5 B443 B444
C-22/622 N06022 56 0.01 21.5 13.5 - 4 B575 B622
C-276 N10276 58 0.01 15.5 16 - 5.5 B575 B622
33 R20033 32 0.08 33 1.6 3 32 B625 B622
59 N06059 60 0.01 23 15.5 - 0.7 B575 B622
Group III - Nickel-molybdenum alloys
B-2 N10665 69 0.01 1 28 - 2 B333 B622
Ni-Resist (castings)
Type 1 F41000 15 2 2 - - Bal - -
Type 2 F41002 20 2 2 - - Bal - -
Type D2 F43000 20 2 2 - - Bal - -
Ferritic stainless steels
430 S43000 - 0.05 17 - - Bal A240 A268
444 S44400 - 0.02 18 2 - Bal A240 A268
XM-33 S44626 - 0.03 26 1 - Bal A240 A268
XM-27 S44627 - 0.005 26 1 - Bal A240 A268
29-4 S44700 - 0.005 29 4.0 - Bal A240 A268
Austenitic stainless steels
304 S30400 8 0.04 18 - - Bal A240 A312
304L S30403 8 0.02 18 - - Bal A240 A312
316 S31600 10 0.04 16.5 2.1 - Bal A240 A312
316L S31603 10 0.02 16.5 2.1 - Bal A240 A312
800 N08800 33 0.07 21 - - Bal A240 B407
20 N08020 33 0.02 19.5 2.2 3.2 Bal A240 B729
28 N08028 32 0.03 27 3.5 1 Bal B709 B668
6%Mo c
S31254 18 0.01 20 6.2 0.7 Bal A240 A312
6%Moc N08367 24 0.01 21 6.2 - Bal A240 A312

Alloy selection for service in caustic soda

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Table 1 Nominal composition of nickel-containing alloys many are used in Caustic Soda cont'd

Nominal composition, % ASTM Spec. b

UNS  Seamless
Alloy Numbera Ni C Cr Mo Cu Fe Plate tube and pipe
Duplexstainless steel
2304 S32304 4 0.02 23 0.3 - Bal A240 A790
2205 S32205 5 0.02 22 3.2 - Bal A240 A790
2507 S32750 7 0.02 25 4 - Bal A240 A790
7-Mo Plus S32950 4 0.03 27.5 2 - Bal A240 A790
S32906 7 0.02 29 2.3 - Bal A240 A790
Copper-nickel alloys
90-10 C70600 10 - - - Bal 1.2 B171 B466
70-30 C71500 31 - - - Bal 0.8 B171 B466

a - UNS numbers beginning with an “N” indicate a nickel alloy, but the definition of a nickel alloy is different than that used by ASTM.
b - in ASTM specifications, most nickel alloys fall into the “B” specifications. However, due to a redefinition of a nickel alloy, a few alloys such as
Alloy 20 are being reclassified as stainless steels, and will be included in the “A” specifications. That work is still in progress.
c - the 6% Mo alloys are a series of stainless steels, many of which are proprietary, all with roughly 6%Mo content and roughly equivalent in performance.

CORROSION BEHAVIOUR - CAUSTIC SODA Corrosion rates can exceed the following rates under the
stated conditions:
Corrosion rates in aggressive chemicals usually decrease as
the pH increases. In alkaline solutions, the hydrogen ion is • 0.5 mm/y (20 mpy) above 10% NaOH at 100 °C (212 °F)
present in very low concentrations. Many metals, however, • 1.3 mm/y (50 mpy) above 40% at 80 °C (175 °F)
pass through a minimum corrosion rate at some pH, usually • 1.3 mm/y (50 mpy) in 55% caustic, as low as 50 °C (120 °F)
basic, and then suffer increased corrosion as pH continues Steels can be subject to a form of stress-corrosion cracking
to rise. Quite often, corrosion by alkalis leads to pitting and (SCC) to which the misnomer of “caustic embrittlement” has
other localized attack because they tend to form cathodic been applied. This environmental cracking occurs well below
films, and attack is concentrated at susceptible anodic areas. the critical corrosion parameters. The limiting parameters
Carbon and low-alloy steels, austenitic stainless steels, and of temperature and concentration for SCC (determined by a
survey of practical experience) are shown in Figure 1.
some nickel alloys may suffer either stress-corrosion cracking
or general corrosion in hot, concentrated caustic solutions. Because of the effect of residual stress in promoting this
type of attack, both welded and cold-worked (i.e., flared, bent)
Carbon steels and cast irons
fabricated steel equipment must be thermally stress-relieved to
Carbon and low-alloy steels are limited in caustic service
extend its life in caustic service. Figure 2 shows the suggested
by two considerations. Firstly, as the temperature and
regions, as defined by temperature and concentration, in which
concentration increase, iron reacts directly with caustic to post fabrication thermal stress relief (or an alternative alloy) is
form sodium salts and liberate hydrogen. recommended to avoid SCC in steels.3
Fe + 2NaOH —> Fe(ONa)2 + H2
Use of low-alloy steels is inadvisable if they will experience
Such reactions limit the use of iron-based alloys when iron dynamic loading. Under slow-strain rate conditions, the
contamination is unacceptable or where general corrosion passive film formed by reaction with caustic will rupture
defines the acceptable life (e.g., with steam heating coils to and nascent hydrogen is absorbed into the freshly exposed
prevent freezing). surface, causing embrittlement.

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For services where iron pick-up is undesirable, steel tanks are Types 304 and 316 have low corrosion rates in boiling caustic
frequently coated with an organic paint system to minimize soda at concentrations up to nearly 20%. An iso-corrosion
iron contamination. curve in mpy for these grades is shown in Figure 3.4

Cast iron is not usually used in caustic service, because Type 316 has a better resistance to pitting than Type 304 in
of the safety problems caused by its inherent brittleness. caustic solutions. The low-carbon grades perform marginally
However, ductile cast iron is sometimes acceptable, and the better than the high-carbon grades because of their
high-nickel cast irons, such as Ni-Resist® Types 1 (F41000) resistance to sensitization. This means that 316L is a good
and 2 (F41002) and the ductile Ni-Resist® Type D2 (F43000), choice for caustic solutions as long as operating conditions
are much more resistant than unalloyed cast iron in caustic are such that caustic SCC is not a problem.5
solutions up to about 70%.
As indicated in Figure 3, 300-series stainless steels are
Austenitic stainless steels susceptible to SCC in hot caustic, e.g., 15% NaOH at about
150 °C (300 °F). In practice, this is most often encountered in
The “18-8”-type stainless steels, exemplified by Types 304 (UNS
caustic-contaminated steam. Caustic cracking of stainless is
S30400) and 316 (S31600) and their low carbon equivalents
characterized by a gun-metal blueing effect, obvious on visual
Type 304L (S30403) and Type 316L (S31603), have a useful low
examination.
corrosion rate in caustic at all concentrations up to about 65 °C
(150 °F). Other limits are given in the literature but it is likely A NACE task group found little difference between the
that these are influenced by contaminants in the caustic soda. corrosivity of caustic soda made by the diaphragm cell

Figure 1 Relation of temperature and concentration of sodium Figure 2 Temperature and concentrations of caustic soda that
hydroxide to cause stress cracking of carbon steel require stress relief to prevent SCC of carbon steel
 °C  °F  °C  °F

150 300 150 300

Boiling point curve
Area C
Application of nickel alloys to be
considered in this area
125 g 125
kin 250 250
rac
e re C Nickel alloy trim for
Sev valves in areas B & C

100 100 Area B

200 200
Carbon steel
Temperature

Temperature

Stress relief welds

Cracking area and bends
75 75
Danger zone 150 150

50 Cracking reported 50 Area A

above curve
100 Carbon steel 100
No stress relief necessary
25 25

50 50

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50
Sodium hydroxide, wt % Sodium hydroxide, wt %

Alloy selection for service in caustic soda

 7

process and that made in mercury cells.6 This survey also molybdenum-free Alloy 800 (N08800) and the molybdenum-
found little difference in the corrosion resistance of Types containing Alloy 20 (N08020). Alloy 800 has been used in
304L and 316L in 50% or 73% caustic solutions, in which up to 73% caustic at 120 °C (250 °F) but is susceptible to
both alloys suffered active corrosion as well as some pitting caustic SCC above 150 °C (300 °F). Alloy 825 (N08825) with
attack. It seems probable that these products contained 3% Mo, is slightly more resistant than Alloy 800. These nickel-
unknown amounts of chlorates, as produced. chromium-iron alloys with and without molybdenum have
useful resistance up to 73% caustic at temperatures up to
An additional consideration is chloride contamination in about 120 °C (250 °F).
the caustic. Mercury cell production yields caustic with low
amounts of chloride, typically 20-30 ppm. Diaphragm cell Molybdenum is now a significant alloying element in the
production, on the other hand, yields caustic containing group of 6% Mo superaustenitic alloys. The molybdenum in
considerable chloride, e.g., up to 1% sodium chloride this type of alloy gives resistance to chloride pitting, crevice
(6,000 ppm Cl-). Membrane cells tend to produce lower corrosion, and chloride SCC. However, tests on the corrosion
chloride caustic with typically <0.01% sodium chloride. resistance of the 6% Mo (N08367) superaustenitic stainless
Mercury cell caustic production is being phased out steel and other alloys in boiling 50% NaOH showed that
throughout the world due to concerns in handling mercury this type of alloy is not suitable with a corrosion rate of 0.29
and avoiding pollution. mm/y (11.4 mpy) for UNS N08367. 7

High-performance austenitic alloys Alloy 28 (N08028) is another iron-nickel-chromium alloy

The original high-performance austenitic alloys were the that has useful resistance to caustic solutions, particularly if
contaminated, e.g. with chlorides. This alloy has been used for
Figure 3 Iso-corrosion chart for Type 304 and 316 stainless steels the evaporation of diaphragm cell NaOH. In this application,
in sodium hydroxide, with stress cracking boundary superimposed erosion by sodium chloride crystals can be a problem, and this
 °C  °F alloy showed considerably better performance than pure nickel.

600 At temperatures of the order of 300 °C (575 °F), even 25%

300
caustic will cause SCC of the high performance alloys. It is
very important, when both chlorides and caustic are present
Stress cracking zone
500 in an environment causing SCC, to know which is the active
250
species. If it is the chloride, a molybdenum-containing
Apparent stress-corrosion
superaustenitic steel will suffice to overcome the problem,
cracking boundary 400 whereas if caustic is the cause of the cracking, then a high-
200
Atmospheric nickel alloy will be needed.
Temperature

boiling point curve > 30

> 30 mpy mpy Ferritic stainless steels
150 300
30 Traditional ferritic stainless steels, such as Type 430 (S43000),
mpy
1 to 50 mpy 1 to 30 mpy have lower temperature limits in caustic than do the 18-8
100 austenitic stainless steels and are not generally as resistant
1 mpy 200 in caustic. For example, in 60% NaOH at 212 °F (100 °C), Type
444 (S44400) corroded at 0.61 mm/y (24 mpy), while Type
50 < 1 mpy 304 austenitic had a corrosion rate of 0.07 mm/y (3 mpy). 8
100 The ferritic grades are also susceptible to caustic cracking.
Melting
point curve In recent years, there has been wide-spread application of
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 extra-low interstitial, molybdenum-bearing ferritic stainless
Sodium hydroxide, wt % steels, such as Alloy XM-33 (S44626), in evaporator tubing.

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Performance has ranged from good to poor. Good performance The effect of chromium in the austenite phase was
is probably associated with oxidizing contaminants, such as investigated in a set of experimental duplex alloys. It was
chlorates, which tend to enhance passivity. found that corrosion resistance of the duplex steels was
directly proportional to their chromium content. The range
Failures, due to either localized or general corrosion, have of chromium contents in the experimental heats was from
been associated with one or more of the following factors: 26.54% to 29.04% with corrosion rates in boiling 60% NaOH
1. Contamination of the tubes with minute amounts of oil, grease of 0.39 mm/y to 0.05 mm/y (15.6 mpy to 2 mpy), respectively.
or other hydrocarbons in the production, heat- treatment or SCC tests in 50% NaOH at 137 °C (279 °F) showed that
fabrication. The superferritic grades readily absorb carbon S32906 was immune to cracking in this environment. 10
under such conditions, obviating the low-interstitial controls.
2. High temperatures in the first effect evaporator, Nickel 200, however, had a lower corrosion rate than any of the
i.e., in excess of 150 °C (300 °F). duplex alloys in pure caustic solutions at any test temperature.

3. Absence of or insufficient chlorate content. Because of the uncertainties about the amount of chlorides
4. Blockage of tubes with insoluble salts, and oxidizing salts, such as hypochlorites and chlorates,
creating locally high skin temperatures. extensive field corrosion tests should be made before
selecting duplex stainless steels for caustic soda service.
Typically, the extra-low interstitial (ELI) grades will
show <0.025 mm/y (1 mpy) under conditions in which Commercially Pure (C.P.) Nickel and its alloys
the conventional austenitic grades are attacked at rates The resistance of nickel and its alloys to general corrosion
>2.5 mm/y (100 mpy). and SCC increases with increasing nickel content. 11

Duplex stainless steels Nickel-based alloys, i.e. having more than 50% nickel, can
Duplex stainless steels usually have a microstructure be conveniently divided into two groups; those that do not
containing roughly equal amounts of ferrite and austenite. contain chromium, and those that do.
Modern grades typically containing 1-4% Mo as well, and are
strengthened and stabilized by 0.10% to 0.35% nitrogen. The Chromium-free nickel alloys
result is a family of stainless steels with high strength and These comprise a group of three generic types, C.P. Nickel
outstanding resistance (although not immunity) to chloride itself, nickel-copper (Alloy 400 and variants thereof) and
pitting and SCC. nickel-molybdenum alloys, e.g. Alloy B-2 (N10665). All of
these are generally resistant to caustic itself but are attacked
Corrosion testing in a range of caustic solutions at the stoichiometrically by chlorate or hypochlorite contaminants.
boiling point showed that duplex alloys with and without
molybdenum can be used in boiling solutions up to at least C.P. Nickel — is available in two variants, Nickel 200, and a
30% with negligible corrosion. 9 These tests also showed that low-carbon Nickel 201, both of which have excellent resistance
these duplex alloys were not susceptible to SCC in boiling to caustic soda, even as the hot anhydrous form, as shown in
caustic solutions from 20% to 70%. Figure 4. Except for silver, nickel is the most resistant metal
for high caustic concentrations at the elevated temperatures
The duplex alloy UNS S32950 and the ferritic alloy XM-27 which generally prevail. At concentrations up to 73% caustic, the
(S44627) stainless steels both showed good resistance to SCC corrosion rate is generally less than 0.025 mm/y (1 mpy). The
and corrosion in 50% caustic at 135 °C (275 °F).5 rates increase slightly above 73%, as shown.

Corrosion testing of various duplex stainless steels in 30% to Nickel 200 contains up to 0.10% carbon, which can
70% NaOH solutions found that their resistance was in the precipitate as graphitic carbon on heating above 425 °C
order of: (800 °F), which reduces the ductility of the alloy. This may
S32304<S32205<S32750<S32906 also occur upon prolonged heating at temperatures as low

Alloy selection for service in caustic soda

 9

as 315 °C (600 °F). Above 300 °C (570 °F), e.g., in molten where contamination by small amounts of copper and nickel
anhydrous caustic, the low-carbon Nickel 201 should be used is not detrimental, Alloy 400 can be useful for caustic service
to avoid graphite formation and attendant embrittlement and at a lower cost than pure nickel.
intergranular attack. 12
Alloy 400 is subject to caustic cracking at elevated temperatures
In most caustic applications Nickel 200 and Nickel 201 (e.g., in caustic-contaminated 300-400 psi steam) [215-230o C
are very resistant to caustic SCC at all concentrations and (420-450o F)]. It is also subject to liquid metal embrittlement (LME)
temperatures up to about 290 °C (550 °F). Though Nickel 200 by mercury and its salts. There have been instances of LME with
or 201 are usually most resistant, Alloy 400 and 600 are often Alloy 400 components used in handling mercury-cell caustic prior
used for higher strength. to final separation of mercury and its salts from the product.

Nickel 200 is subject to cracking in mercury and a few cases The solution-hardening variants of Alloy 400 (e.g., Alloys
of cracking have been attributed to mercury contamination of 404 and 405) and the age-hardening variants (e.g., Alloy
the caustic process feed.6 K500 (N05500)) have substantially the same corrosion
characteristics.
Nickel-copper alloys — Alloy 400 has corrosion resistance
similar to C.P. nickel for concentrations up to 73%, although it Nickel-molybdenum alloys — There is little occasion to use
is susceptible to caustic cracking in severe service. At higher Alloy B-2 in caustic service. Published data indicate that it
concentrations, the corrosion rate is somewhat greater than has excellent resistance, at least in lower concentrations in
C.P. nickel. In lower concentrations, and for service conditions the absence of powerful oxidants, but it finds no application
because of the excellent resistance of nickel itself.

Figure 4 Corrosion rates for Nickel 200 and low carbon Nickel 201 Chromium-bearing alloys
in sodium hydroxide
This group comprises Alloy 600 and its variants and the
 °C  °F
molybdenum-bearing grades, Alloy 625 (N06625) and Alloy
600 C-276 (N010276) and its variants.
300
Nickel-chromium-iron alloys — Alloy 600 exhibits resistance
Corrosion rates for similar to C.P. nickel up to and including the anhydrous
Alloy 200 and Alloy 201
500 product. It is favoured for heating coils, because of higher
250
strength at temperature than the pure nickel alloys. It may
cause a small amount of contamination from Cr (VI) ions,
5 mpy
400
compared to the use of Nickel 200. It is subject to caustic
200
cracking under severe conditions in prolonged exposure, and
Boiling point curve should be used in the stress-relieved condition.
Temperature

150 300 Alloy 600 offers an advantage, compared to Nickel 201 when
1 mpy a sulphur-bearing contaminant may be present, in being
less susceptible to nickel sulphide eutectic formation (a
100 0.1 mpy low-melting nickel-nickel sulphide compound which causes
200
intergranular penetration analogous to LME). It has been
used for the production of anhydrous caustic where sulphur
50 0.1 mpy was present. Alloy 600 has replaced Type 316 stainless heat
100 exchangers in a high-temperature process for the recovery
< 1 mpy Melting
point curve and reuse of chloride-bearing caustic (the stainless having
0 failed by chloride stress-corrosion cracking).
0 20 40 60 80 100
Sodium hydroxide, wt % Alloy 600 can offer an advantage over Nickel 200 in caustic

Nickel Institute
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from the diaphragm-cell process, in which chlorates and susceptible to dezincification), coppers, phosphor (tin) bronzes
hypochlorites are present. Being oxidizing in nature, these and cupronickels may be used for up to 70% caustic unless
accelerate corrosion of Nickel 200, whereas the resistance of powerful oxidants (e.g., chlorates) are present. A conventional
the chromium-bearing alloy is not greatly affected. bronze valve or pump is satisfactory to handle 25% caustic,
for example, for pH control. Copper alloys have given good
A variant of Alloy 600 is Alloy 601 (N06601) which is a
life in processes for dehydrating amines with hot 70% caustic,
solid-solution strengthened, higher-chromium (23% Cr) alloy.
in the total absence of oxygen or oxidizing agents. Aluminium
This alloy was developed primarily for high temperature
applications but shows excellent corrosion resistance in up to bronzes may be subject to dealuminification, due to the
amphoteric nature of the aluminium constituent.
98% caustic because of the high nickel content.
Corrosion resistance increases with nickel content, and the
The other chromium-containing nickel-based alloy that is
90-10 (C70600) cupronickel and 70-30 (C71500) grade are
sometimes used in caustic soda is Alloy 690. The corrosion
sometimes used for caustic service. Because of improved heat
rate of Nicrofer® 6030 (N06690) in 70% NaOH at 170 °C
transfer properties and strength, the 70-30 grade has been
(338 °F) was 0.03 mm/y (1.18 mpy). In the same tests, Alloy
used in evaporators up to 50% concentration in applications
400 and Alloy 33 (R20033) had the same corrosion rate (i.e.
in which copper contamination is acceptable.
0.03 mm/y), while Alloy 59 (N06059) corroded at 0.48 mm/y
(18.9 mpy) and Alloy C-22 (N06022) at 0.51 mm/y (20.1 mpy).13 Copper piping has sometimes been used for caustic soda
solutions in situations in which thermal stress relief of steel
Nickel-chromium-molybdenum alloys — High molybdenum
piping was impractical.16 In the absence of oxidizing agents
nickel alloys are intended for acid service, little being
(e.g. chlorites, chlorates), copper may be used up to 73%
published about caustic resistance. Their higher cost, as
NaOH to 100 °C (212 °F).
compared with Nickel 200 or Alloy 600, practically excludes
them from consideration, except in special applications where
higher strength or resistance to other corrodents is needed. ALLOYS IN CAUSTIC SODA PRODUCTION
These alloys are highly resistant to general corrosion and Caustic soda and its co-product, chlorine, are made by
SCC, compared to lower nickel alloys, however, they can be electrolysis of a sodium chloride solution. Sodium hydroxide is
attacked at high caustic concentrations and temperatures.14 It produced at the cathode, while chlorine is evolved at the anode.
should be noted that alloys such as C-276 and its variants, are
subject to a dealloying mechanism in boiling 50% NaOH.15 Mercury cells
Production of chlorine and caustic using mercury cells is rarely
In a special application, Alloy 625 has become the material of used now because of environmental concerns. Rubber-lined
choice for corrugated metal expansion joints in high pressure carbon steel was the conventional material of construction
steam, where environmental cracking of austenitic stainless for mercury-cell caustic. A fresh feed of about 25.5% sodium
steels occurs due to caustic carry-over while chloride carry- chloride brine diminishes to about 21% during electrolysis and
over may cause pitting of Alloy 600. These alloys are practically is recycled to the cell for continued electrolysis. Chlorine is
unaffected by hot caustic up to at least 320 °C (600 °F). produced at the carbon or titanium anodes while the mercury
at the cathode forms an amalgam (Na/Hg). In a separate vessel,
Copper and its alloys the denuder, the amalgam is reacted with demineralized water
It is sometimes mistakenly assumed that copper alloys are to obtain 50% NaOH of very high purity.
unsuitable for caustic service. This is probably due to the lack
of available data. Copper alloys are not, in fact, used in contact For the brine heaters, both Alloy 400 and titanium or its
with caustic to be employed in the rayon industry (because of variants, have been used. Titanium alloys are preferred,
colour problems) or soap industry (because of rancidity). because of the problem of liquid-metal cracking (LME) of the
nickel-base alloy by entrained mercury, as well as corrosion by
On the other hand, except for the yellow brasses (which are small amounts of chlorine or hypochlorites.

Alloy selection for service in caustic soda

 11

Diaphragm cells crystallized salt is recycled in the cell-feed liquor, the balance
This electrolytic process produces the highest percentage being purged by blow-down from the circuit to control build-up
of present-day production of sodium hydroxide. The salt of sulphates and other undesirable constituents in the cell liquor.
solution, contained in rubber or concrete-lined tanks, is
Specific equipment
electrolyzed, the carbon anode and steel cathode separated
50% Caustic — Evaporators
by an asbestos diaphragm. If naturally-occurring brines
The multiple-effect evaporators required for concentration
constitute the feed, they must be treated to remove calcium,
employ Nickel 200 or Nickel 201 tubing, tube-sheets,
iron, manganese and sulphates. The initial product, the cell
circulation piping, and the wetted surfaces of the evaporator
liquor leaving the electrolysis cell bank, contains only about
bodies. Alloy 600 has been employed where sulphur
10-12% caustic. The other constituents are unreacted sodium
compounds are present. A triple-effect evaporator for the
chloride (NaCl), sodium chlorate (NaClO3) plus traces of
production of 50% caustic is shown in Figure 5, while alloy
sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) and sodium sulphate (Na2SO4).
selection for specific areas is indicated in Figure 6. Table 2
Both chlorates and hypochlorites are powerful oxidants.
provides information on various applications of nickel-base
Impurities must be removed from the cell liquor and it must alloys and nickel cast irons in caustic soda equipment.
be concentrated to 50% or 73%, or to the anhydrous grade for
The adverse effect of chlorates in a triple-effect evaporator
commercial use. Multiple-effect evaporators of corrosion-resistant
has been reported. 17 Life of the first-effect tubing (the hottest
alloy construction are utilized to achieve these higher concentrations.
tubes and at the highest caustic concentration, 47-50%) was
Membrane cells found to vary from 3 to 12 years. The investigation showed
The membrane cell is analogous to the diaphragm cell except that that nickel pick-up in the caustic was directly proportional
the feed brine is more highly purified and the perfluorosulphone to the chlorate concentration in the cell liquor, within the
membrane has lower permeability than a diaphragm. 120-200 ppm range encountered. Corrosion of nickel and
Consequently, a high-quality concentrated sodium hydroxide is reduction of chlorate occurs simultaneously across the
produced. The caustic product from membrane cells is around first-effect heater. Laboratory studies at 148 °C (300 °F), the
30% NaOH and needs to be concentrated for commercial use. first-effect temperature, confirmed plant experience. Corrosion
rates for Nickel 200 increase dramatically with caustic
Chlorate removal — Sodium chlorate, being both an oxidizing containing 100 ppm or more of chlorate.
agent and a source of more sodium chloride upon reduction,
is an objectionable constituent. It is removed, either before Where chlorate contamination is a problem, some operators
or during the evaporation step by one of several proprietary have used the XM-33, depending on the chlorates, to maintain
processes to alleviate accelerated corrosion, which would passivity. The ferritic alloy XM-27 has been used successfully, but
otherwise occur at elevated temperatures. there have been some failures. Failures of XM-33 ferritic alloy in
this service has been due to intergranular attack (IGA). Short-
Many plants destroy chlorate, either before or during the term, low-temperature testing does not cause IGA, but such at-
evaporation process. The conventional treatment is extraction tack becomes more probable as time and temperature increase.
by ammonia, which also reduces the dissolved salt content. Contributory factors include crevices, corrosion products, and
There is a proprietary process that decomposes chlorate with perhaps elemental sulphur. This type of alloy is also susceptible
by-product hydrogen in the presence of a catalyst. Nickel 200 to SCC in hot caustic solutions at >30% concentration.
and Alloy 400 have been used for the reactor, feed heater and
feed/product interchanger in the hot caustic in this process. Another superferritic stainless steel, Alloy 29-4 (S44700),
has excellent resistance to boiling 50% NaOH, even in the
Sodium chloride removal — Residual sodium chloride, which presence of chlorates, and has become a standard material
concentrates during the evaporation process and crystallizes for caustic evaporator steam chests and other associated heat
out, must be removed by settling and filtration. Much of the exchangers.18

Nickel Institute
 12

50% Caustic — Salt settlers

Figure 5 Flow diagram of a triple-effect caustic soda
The salt settlers (sometimes with filters) are traditionally
evaporation system
Nickel 200. When cooling is required, the heat transfer
Triple-effect soda evaporation system
surfaces of the heat exchanger are also C.P. Nickel. Nickel
tubes have, however, failed in this application when seawater
Evaporator Condenser
was used as coolant, and replacement in Alloy 400, welded
Cooling
water with Alloy 625 was recommended. 19 The salt-settling tank
To and slurry-holding tank, prior to recycling of the crystallized
hotwell Product to salt, are frequently made of Alloy 400.
1E 2E 3E cooling
Motive system
CFR
LFE

steam 50% Caustic — Storage tanks and heat exchangers

Stress-relieved carbon steel tanks are employed, with specialty
To caustic internal organic coatings to minimize iron pick-up. For high
salt
separation purity grades, Nickel 200-clad steel tanks have also been
employed. The low-carbon 300-series stainless steels have
been used successfully, but they must be protected from
Cell liquor external chloride SCC. Ferritic or duplex stainless have also
been used because of their superior resistance to chloride SCC.

Figure 6 Flow diagram of a triple-effect caustic soda evaporation system

Brine Recycle Brine saturator

from well salt Brine heater Brine Salt
Alloy 400 treater Chlorine Hydrogen
Nickel 200

25%
Alloy salt Electrolytic
Brine pump Alloy 400 400 diaphragm
Alloy 400 Nickel 200 cell

Filter
12% caustic soda
16% salt
Water Water vapour
vapour Salt
73% or 50% separator Alloy 400
100% caustic Nickel caustic Nickel 200
201 Nickel Alloy 400
Alloy 200 Nickel 200
Nickel 200
COURTESY INCO ALLOYS INTERNATIONAL

Nickel 200 600

Nickel 201 50% Salt
DOWTHERM™ DOWTHERM™
in Nickel 200 caustic in
storage
Slurry
Out Nickel 200 tank Out
Alloy 400
Caustic Alloy 400
storage Multiple effect Multiple effect
evaporators Recycle evaporators
Nickel 200 salt

Alloy selection for service in caustic soda

 13

To maintain the caustic above its freezing point; internal More often, Alloy 400 or Alloy 625 is chosen for brackish
heating coils (or U-tube bundles) are employed. Tubes or seawater cooling. However, in one caustic membrane
and tube sheets are either Nickel 200 or Alloy 400, to heater/cooler handling 33% NaOH, failures were observed as
have equivalent thermal expansion of both components. coming from the seawater inside the tube, probably because
Alternatively, external shell and tube heat exchangers can be of marine fouling, microbial corrosion, or the alternating
used to provide the necessary heat to prevent freezing. These exposure to steam and seawater.
are normally made with nickel tubes and steam heating on
Plate heat exchangers are more often used than shell and
the shell side. These external heaters have the advantage of
tube exchangers for removing heat from caustic dilution
ease of inspection and maintenance.
operations. Type 304L or 316L are used for low temperatures
Heat exchangers used for cooling must be resistant not and concentrations, with Alloy 400 or nickel used at higher
only to caustic but also to the cooling water being used. For temperatures, >60 °C (140 °F). Elastomeric gaskets have been
example, a 6% molybdenum superaustenitic stainless steel successfully employed with safety screens to avoid caustic
might be used with high-chloride water if the process-side spray in case of a gasket failure.
conditions of caustic concentration and temperature permit.
73% and anhydrous caustic — Evaporators
Nickel 200 is the conventional material for caustic
Table 2 Applications of nickel alloys in caustic soda equipment evaporation to 73 %, having a low corrosion rate and causing
(typical examples, courtesy Special Metals)
minimal metal ion contamination. For higher concentrations,
up to the anhydrous product, high-temperature heat transfer
Brine Pumps Ni Resist and Alloy 400
Brine Heaters Nickel 200 and Alloy 400 fluids or molten salts are employed at temperatures to 315 °C
Evaporators (600 °F), or higher, and Nickel 201 is required, as previously
Bodies Nickel-clad steel or lined with Nickel 200 sheet noted, to avoid graphitic embrittlement. If sulphur compounds
Nickel 200 or Alloy 400 tube sheets
are known or anticipated, Alloy 600 is chosen. Because it is
Steam Chests Nickel 200, Alloy 400 or nickel-clad steel downtakes
Nickel 200 or Alloy 400 tubes susceptible to SCC, thermal stress relief is required. Where
Anhydrous Nickel 201 or Alloy 600 tubes this alloy has been employed with this precaution, service
Heat Exchangers Nickel 200 or Alloy 400 performance has been equivalent to Nickel 201.
Pumps
Bodies Nickel 200, Alloy 400 or Ni-Resist
73% and anhydrous caustic — Tanks and heaters
Shafts Nickel 200 or Alloy 400
Impellers Nickel 200, Alloy 400 or Ni-Resist The same stipulations described for 50% caustic apply, except
Valves & Fittings Nickel 200, Alloy 400 or Ni-Resist that resistant internal organic linings or nickel cladding are
Pipe Lines Nickel 200, Alloy 400 or Ni-Resist required to maintain product purity and obtain an economical
Filters
service life. For storage of 73% NaOH, nickel or nickel clad on
Bodies & Drums Nickel 200 or nickel-clad steel
Filter Cloth carbon steel is commonly used.
Backing Wire Alloy 400 or Nickel 200
Winding Wire
Piping, Valves ALLOYS FOR PROCESSES USING
Nickel 200, Alloy 400 or Ni-Resist
and Fittings CAUSTIC SODA
Settling Tanks Nickel-clad steel or lined with nickel sheet
Storage Tanks Nickel-clad steel or lined with nickel sheet There are a number of commercial processing areas in which
Crystallizers corrosion-resistant materials are required to withstand
Bodies Nickel-clad steel or lined with nickel sheet caustic conditions.
Shafts & Agitators Nickel 200 or Alloy 400
Centrifugals Alloy 400 baskets and wire cloth liners Petroleum refining
Tank Cars
Bodies Nickel-clad steel Mercaptans and other organic sulphur compounds may be
Coils Nickel 200 removed from refinery streams with either caustic soda or
Transfer Piping Nickel 200 or Alloy 400 caustic potash (potassium hydroxide - KOH). Since economy

Nickel Institute
 14

requires regeneration of the caustic, with temperatures and of the process equipment, Alloys 200 and 400 have been
concentrations which exceed the capability of steel, Alloy 400 commonly used for saponification vessels, replacing the
is frequently used for stripping-tower internals, tubular original steel and iron equipment.
heaters and reboilers. These handle caustic solutions up to
Corrosion rates in the top of a soap boiling kettle showed
45% concentration to about 150 °C (300 °F).
that Nickel 200, Alloy 400 and Alloy 600 were all effectively
When aminodiisopropanol is used for similar sulphur-removal unattacked (<0.0025 mm/y; <0.1 mpy) while mild steel corroded
operations, it is recovered by caustic treatment. In such recovery at 0.08  mm/y (3.2 mpy) and cast iron at 0.28 mm/y (11 mpy).6
units, steel would be corroded by sulphur-rich oils and austenitic
Sodium hydrosulphide (NaSH)
stainless steel, e.g., Type 316L is employed, the temperatures and
concentration of caustic not requiring high-nickel alloys.20 The reaction of hydrogen sulphide with 50% caustic produces
sodium hydrosulphide at about 45-50% concentration. The
Severe caustic corrosion of the crude transfer line immediately temperatures involved are at least 107 °C (225 °F). While
downstream of the caustic injection point can occur when 40% some producers have obtained reasonable reactor life with
caustic is injected into hot desalted crude oil to neutralize the 300-series austenitic stainless steels, Alloy 20 has proven
remaining HCl. This problem can be controlled by design of superior in cases where the austenitic steel has suffered
the injection point to ensure adequate mixing of the fluids general thinning. Field corrosion tests suggest that Alloy 600
and also is minimized if caustic is diluted to about 3% before should be the preferred alloy for this application.
injecting. Traces of caustic can become concentrated in boiler
Caustic fusion reactions
feedwater in boiler tubes that alternate between wet and dry
Reactions involving an organic compound and molten caustic
conditions because of overheating. This concentrated caustic
soda are referred to as caustic fusions. Because temperatures are
can cause corrosion, and cracking occurs under the deposits.20
usually above 315 °C (600 °F), Nickel 201 is the preferred material
Bauxite refining of construction, provided no sulphur compounds are present.
In the Bayer Process for treatment to separate alumina
When sulphur compounds are present (e.g., in the caustic
(Al2O3) from iron oxide in the ore, caustic soda is employed
fusion of benzene metasulphonic acid to produce resorcinol),
to solubilize the aluminium oxide and remove the insoluble stress-relieved Alloy 600 is preferred. Nickel 201 would be
iron component. The alumina is then crystallized out of the attacked in an intergranular mode by the nickel sulphide
cooling caustic solution. While carbon steel is suitable for eutectic which would form at the reaction temperature.
heating the caustic solution to moderately high temperatures
(there are certain inhibiting constituents in the process Pulp and paper
solution), Alloy 400 tubing is used in the higher-temperature Pulp and paper operations encounter a wide range of caustic
heaters. Either solid Nickel 200 or nickel-lined steel piping solutions that can cause major corrosion and cracking problems,
transfers the solution from the heaters to the reactors. depending on the process and the conditions encountered.

A study aimed at finding suitable alloys to replace nickel-lined Austenitic stainless steels are susceptible to caustic SCC
steel found that the duplex stainless steels 2304 (S32304) and above about 121 °C (250 °F) in pure NaOH solutions. When
2205 (S32205) and the austenitic Alloy 28 were much more sulphides are present, SCC of austenitic stainless steels can
resistant than the standard 300-series stainless steels. Any of occur at lower temperatures, such as hot sulphide-containing
these alloys would be suitable replacement in cases where the caustic solution (white liquor) which is used in the kraft
nickel-lined steel failed from caustic SCC.21 pulping process. In different process streams of pulp mills,
there are different concentrations of sulphide and hydroxide
Soap manufacture concentrations, along with other chemicals. In some areas,
Soaps are made by saponifying fatty acids with caustic soda. composite tubes with an external layer of 304L on an inner
To minimize iron contamination and extend the useful life shell of carbon steel are used, such as in the floor and lower

Alloy selection for service in caustic soda

 15

furnace water walls in kraft recovery boilers. SCC occurs

during boiler shutdown from exposure to the stagnant floor
water that is rich in sulphides and hydroxides. A systematic
study of this phenomenon found the following: 22

SCC did not occur in 304L in pure NaOH <100 °C (<212 °F) in

the range of solutions tested (up to saturation; >30 M).

304L stainless steel was not susceptible to SCC in Na2S

solutions at temperatures up to 100 °C (212 °F).

In the presence of sodium sulphide in sodium hydroxide

solutions, 304L stainless steel is susceptible to SCC at
temperatures as low as 50 °C (122 °F).

Cracking susceptibility and crack velocities increased with an

increase in temperature.

In recovery boilers, the solution composition possible at the

floor surface can cause SCC during boiler start up at
temperatures as low as 75 °C (167 °F).

MISCELLANY
When molten sodium is used as a carrier (e.g., in certain
hydrogenation reactions), traces of water in the reactants may
form anhydrous caustic dissolved in the sodium. Austenitic
stainless steels and even high-performance nickel-rich alloys
can crack very quickly at elevated temperatures. Stress-
relieved clad steel vessels are mandatory, using Nickel 200 or,
in the case of sulphur contamination, Alloy 600.

Nickel Institute
 16

References
 ickel Institute publication No. 10020, ‘Alloy Selection for
N
1 12
Anon, “Resistance to Corrosion,” publication no. 3M8-88 S-37
Service in Chlorine, Hydrogen Chloride and Hydrochloric (Huntington, WV: Inco Alloys Int., 1985), p. 33.
Acid’, updated 2013.
13
U. Heubner M. Kohler, “High-Alloy Materials for Aggressive
 TI Publication MS-6, “Materials Selector for Hazardous
M
2
Environments,” VDM report no. 26 (Werdol, Germany:
Chemicals — Vol. 6: Ammonia and Caustic Soda”. Materials ThyssenKrupp VDM GmbH, 1998), p. 122.
Technology Institute of the Chemical Process Industries, Inc.,
St. Louis, MO (1999). 14
Aziz Asphahani, “Corrosion of Nickel-Base Alloy” in Metals
Handbook—Corrosion, vol. 13, 9th ed., ed. J.R. Davis (Metals
 non, Corrosion Data Survey (Houston, TX: NACE
A
3
Park, OH: ASM International, 1987), p. 647.
International, 1985), p. 176.
15
G. Chambers “Caustic Dealloying Corrosion of High-
 .L. LaQue, H.R. Copson (1963), in “Sodium Hydroxide Advisor,”
F
4
Performance Alloys”, Stainless Steel World Conference,
ChemCor 6 (MTI/NACE/ NiDI/NIST, 1992).
February 12-14, 2002.
 .D. Craig, D.B. Anderson, eds., Handbook of Corrosion Data
B
5
16
C.P. Dillon, Corrosion Control in the Chemical Process
(Materials Park, OH: ASM International, 1997), pp. 761–790.
Industries, 2nd ed. (St. Louis, MO: MTI, 1994), 424 pp.
“ Corrosion Resistance of Nickel and Nickel-Containing Alloys
6

in Caustic Soda and Other Alkalies,” Corrosion Engineering

17
M. Yasuda, F. Takeya, F. Hine, “Corrosion Behavior of Nickel
Bulletin CEB-2, 1973, International Nickel Company, New in Concentrated NaOH Solutions Under Heat Transfer
York, NY. Conditions,” Corrosion, Vol 39 (10), October, 1983.

J.F. Grubb, ed., “AL-6XN Alloy” (Pittsburgh, PA: Allegheny

7 18
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 . Sabata,W.J. Schumacher, “Martensitic and Ferritic Stainless
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Alloys, ed. S. Lamb (Edmonton, AB, Canada: CASTI Publishing 19
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48–55.
 .-M. Horn et al. (1991), in Corrosion and Environmental
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9

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Wiley-VCH, 2000), p. 49. Petroleum Refining and Petrochemical Operations,” in
10
 . Leander, “Corrosion Characteristics of Different Stainless
D Metals Handbook—Corrosion, vol. 13, 9th ed., ed. J.R. Davis
Steels, Austenitic and Duplex, in NaOH Environment,” (Metals Park, OH: ASM International, 1987), p. 1269.
Stainless Steel World Conference, Maastricht, Netherlands 21
A. Cigada, G. Rondelli, B. Vincentini, M.F. Brunella, “Caustic
(2003), 9 pp.
Stress Corrosion Behavior of Some Duplex and Austenitic
11
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Alloys in Caustic Solutions”, NACE CORROSION 2006 Paper Corrosion and Protection, Brazilian Corrosion Congress, vol. 1
No. 06219 (1989), pp. 223–233.

Alloy selection for service in caustic soda

 17

22
 .M. Singh, O. Ige, J. Mahmood, “Stress Corrosion Cracking of
P
304L Stainless Steel in Sodium Sulfide-Containing Caustic
Solutions,” CORROSION/2003, paper no. 03518 (Houston, TX:
NACE International), 14 pp.

Nickel Institute
18

Alloy selection for service in caustic soda

 19

Nickel Institute
Nickel Institute
[email protected]
www.nickelinstitute.org

Published 2019