Understanding Change of

Direction Performance via

the 90° Turn and Sprint
Test
Jennifer Hewit, MSc, CSCS,1 John Cronin, PhD,1,2 Chris Button, PhD,1,3 and Patria Hume, PhD1
1
Institute of Sport and Recreation Research New Zealand AUT University, Auckland, New Zealand;
2
School of Exercise, Biomedical and Health Sciences Edith Cowan University, Joondalup,
Western Australia; and 3School of Physical Education, Otago University, Dunedin, New Zealand

SUMMARY (15), the ability to change direction or (Figure 2c). The right arm is driven
start and stop quickly (11), and any forward and upward across the body,
RAPID CHANGE OF DIRECTION
movement involving a rapid change of whereas the left arm is driven back-
(COD) MOVEMENTS ARE
direction [COD] in response to ward, causing the torso to rotate into
COMMONLY PERFORMED IN MANY
a sport-specific stimulus (7)). What is the new direction (Figure 2d). Body
TEAM SPORTS SUCH AS SOCCER, clear from these definitions is that weight is then transferred from a rela-
ICE HOCKEY, BASKETBALL, AND agility is multifactorial in nature and tively equal distribution between the
NETBALL. COD MOVEMENTS MAY comprised of 3 main components: legs to the lead leg. As the trail leg
OCCUR IN RESPONSE TO AN technical, physical, and perceptual pushes off (Figure 2e), the body is com-
OBJECT (E.G. BALL, PUCK, (12,14,16). Based on a deterministic pletely rotated into the new direction,
BOUNDARY LINE, ETC), IN model of agility (Figure 1), it can be and a straight sprint takes place.
RESPONSE TO PLAYER deduced that if one of these primary
MOVEMENTS (E.G. TEAMMATES), components is missing or lacking, the STRATEGY 2: FORWARD-MOVING
OR IN AN ATTEMPT TO EVADE AN overall agility performance may be SIDESTEP
OPPONENT. THERE ARE A WIDE compromised. As indicated in the The forward-moving sidestep (FMS)
VARIETY OF STRATEGIES USED TO model, important aspects of agility strategy begins with the player first
COMPLETE COD MOVEMENTS; are the COD factors, which include lowering into a small squat (Figure 3a
HOWEVER, LITTLE RESEARCH HAS both leg strength qualities and tech- and 3b). The player then begins trans-
INVESTIGATED THE STRATEGIES nique factors. Although there is an ferring their weight from an equal
OR TECHNICAL CUES THAT abundance of literature on leg strength distribution between the legs onto
RESULT IN SUPERIOR and power, relatively little is known the lead leg (left leg) (Figure 3c). The
PERFORMANCE. THIS ARTICLE about optimal techniques for changing arms remain extended at the sides as
PROVIDES A DESCRIPTION OF direction tasks. Hence, the aim of this the athlete begins to lower into
article was to explore some of the a slightly deeper squat. As the player
3 MOVEMENT STRATEGIES
technical considerations for superior sinks, increasing the forward lean of the
(FALSE-START PIVOT,
(i.e., faster) COD performance. torso, they simultaneously abduct their
FORWARD-MOVING SIDESTEP,
AND PIVOTING CROSSOVER). right arm away from their body while
STRATEGY 1: FALSE-START PIVOT
both flexing and externally rotating
In the false-start pivot (FSP) strategy, their lead leg (left leg) (Figure 3d). The
the movement is first initiated by player then increases the external
INTRODUCTION taking a small step with the trail leg rotation at the hip of the lead leg, as
ovement agility has been de- (right leg) in the opposite direction of

M fined in many different ways

(e.g., a rapid whole body
movement with a change of velocity
the straight sprint (Figure 2a and 2b).
As the player sinks into a wide squat,
the left leg (lead leg) externally rotates
KEY WORDS:
change of direction; technique; 90° turn;
agility; kinematics; critical features
or direction in response to a stimulus in the direction of the intended travel

82 VOLUME 32 | NUMBER 6 | DECEMBER 2010 Copyright Ó National Strength and Conditioning Association
Figure 1. Deterministic model of agility (adapted from Young et. al. (16)).

the right arm swings low across the the lead leg (left leg) (Figures 4a and slightly (internally) before takeoff.
body causing the torso to rotate to the 4b). However, in this strategy, the torso While the lead leg remains in contact
left. The trail leg (right leg) fully extends remains relatively vertical throughout, with the ground, the right leg crosses in
at the ankle, knee, and hip, driving the as opposed to leaning forward into front of the left as the right arm drives
body forward into the straight sprint a deep squat. As the right arm crosses backward and the left drives forward
(Figure 3e). As the trail leg pushes off, in front of the body, the left arm is (Figure 4e). The left leg now becomes
the lead leg touches down while the pulled behind, rotating the torso (Fig- the trail leg, pushing off in the same
right arm is driven upward and forward ure 4c). As shown through Figures 4c plane as the sprint.
in line with the body. and 4d, the whole body rotates,
whereas strategies 1 and 2 indicate MOVEMENT ANALYSIS
STRATEGY 3: PIVOTING rotation only in the lower body Based on principles of biomechanics,
CROSSOVER initially. As the body turns, the lead there appears to be various features of
The pivoting crossover (PC) move- leg pivots into external rotation, in- the 90° COD that produce superior
ment is initiated by an almost imme- creasing knee flexion as the weight is performances. These critical features,
diate abduction of both arms away further transferred (Figure 4d). In along with the rationale as to why this
from the body. Similar to the FMS, the contrast to the 2 previous strategies, feature would improve the perfor-
weight is transferred from both legs to the trail leg (right leg) is also pivoted mance, are listed in Table 1.

Figure 2. (a–e) False-start pivot.

Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-lift.org 83

Understanding COD Performance

Figure 3. (a–e) Forward-moving sidestep.

CRITICAL FEATURE 1 (LOWERING Although the initial step backward of CRITICAL FEATURE 2 (MOVING
THE CENTER OF MASS BEFORE the FSP may appear to be ineffective, it THE CENTER OF MASS INTO THE
THE TURN) does allow for effective use of the SPRINTING DIRECTION)
The relatively erect torso and minimal stretch-shortening cycle. By preloading As soon as the downward motion is
squat of the participant employing the the muscles of the trail leg with potential initiated, the body begins to transfer
FMS in particular do not allow for elastic energy, a greater amount of force weight into the new direction (to the
much force generation against the may potentially be produced over left). Force is applied horizontally, and
ground compared with a deeper squat. a greater amount of time (greater body parts are aligned in the desired
By lowering down into a deep squat, impulse). Given the relationship be- movement direction.
the leg muscles are preloaded and as tween impulse (force [f ] 3 time [t]) and
a result are able to produce greater momentum (mass [m] 3 velocity [v]), CRITICAL FEATURE 3 (ARMS AND
vertical and horizontal force into the this strategy could result in greater LEGS CLOSE TO THE BODY WHEN
ground, creating a larger ground re- movement velocity, which could argu- TURNING)
action force in the intended direction ably make up for the increased time The body’s rotational inertia (I) (re-
of travel at takeoff. taken by the initial step backward (6). sistance to turn) is primarily dependent

Figure 4. (a–e) Pivoting crossover.

84 VOLUME 32 | NUMBER 6 | DECEMBER 2010

 Table 1
Critical features of the 90° COD

COD strategy

False-start Forward-moving Pivoting Critical

Phase pivot sidestep crossover features Biomechanical rationale
2–3 frames Lowering the Rapid squatting motion increases stability and
after COM before enables explosive force and power application
rest (B) the turn through the stretch-shortening cycle when
used immediately
Moving the Helps contribute to increased momentum in the
COM into direction of travel
the sprinting
direction
Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-lift.org

Turn (C) Arms and legs Decreased rotational inertia (resistance to turn)
close to the when the body’s mass is distributed close to
body when the axis of rotation (i.e., the takeoff foot)
turning (I = mr2)
85

(continued)
86

Understanding COD Performance

Table 1
(Continued)
VOLUME 32 | NUMBER 6 | DECEMBER 2010

COD strategy

False-start Forward-moving Pivoting Critical

Phase pivot sidestep crossover features Biomechanical rationale
First foot COM ahead of Large takeoff distance equals a
takeoff the takeoff large step length (SL), which
(D) foot (takeoff results in increased velocity
distance) (v = SL 3 SF). Decreased
stability in the direction of
travel helps promote
momentum of the COM in
that direction

Second Full lateral Applying force over a longer time

foot extension (impulse) will result in
takeoff of the increased velocity as long as
(E) takeoff leg the force is at least maintained
(f 3 t = m 3 v)
Intense Extension of the arms (increased
driving rotational inertia) stops trunk
action of and pelvic rotation both
the arms through the turn and
counteracting the turning
effect of the lower extremities
when sprinting, allowing the
body to continue in a straight
line in the new direction

COD = change of direction; COM = center of mass; SF = step frequency.

upon the distribution of the body’s Once the player has rotated into the performed, the faster the rotation will
mass around the axis of rotation (I = new direction (second foot takeoff ), cease and the sooner the player can
mr2). Increased rotational inertia (arms the takeoff distance is similar across all continue on in the sprinting direction.
wide) increases the stability of the the 3 strategies. However, at this point, The intense driving action of the arms
rotating body but results in a decreased the participant employing a FMS strat- once the body has completed the turn
turning effect. By bringing the arms egy uses a lateral takeoff, whereas the can assist in the takeoff velocity when
(mass, m) closer to the body (axis of pivoting participants are able to accelerating (1,8,10), although it is
rotation, r) during the turn, a faster potentially generate more force in the important to note that this driving
rotation will occur while still maintain- direction of travel at takeoff through action must be performed in line with
ing stability through the squat and a foot placement parallel to the di- the body, as opposed to lifting the arms
postural adjustments already being rection of travel (9). away from the sides, which would
employed (2,9). create a tendency to rotate.
CRITICAL FEATURE 5 (FULL
LATERAL EXTENSION OF THE
CRITICAL FEATURE 4 (CENTER OF TAKEOFF LEG) SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
MASS AHEAD OF THE TAKEOFF There are conflicting reports as to
FOOT) The COD movement strategies that
whether superior sprinting perform- athletes commonly employ and the
The distance of the center of mass in ances use a full triple joint extension
relation to the takeoff foot when it technical cues to improve activity
(ankle, knee, and hip). By applying and/or sport-specific COD have
leaves the ground is known as the force into the ground over a longer
takeoff distance. The larger this dis- received little attention and provide
time as the leg extends fully, a greater an exciting area for research. Of the 3
tance is, the greater the step length will velocity can be attained (f 3 t = m 3 v)
be, resulting in increased takeoff veloc- COD movement strategies discussed,
(5,9). However, it may be an abbrevi- the fastest COD time through both the
ity and a faster sprint (assuming that ated range of motion at these joints
the frequency of each step is main- first and the second steps in the new
that is more beneficial for tasks that direction likely occurs with the PC.
tained) (10). The takeoff distance of the require quick adjustments to their
first foot take off is clearly larger for the The slowest of the 3 strategies is likely
direction and speed (3,10,13). Because the FMS (Table 2). It appears that 2
participants using the FSP and PC minimizing the amount of time taken
strategies than the FMS. In both the technical characteristics may be critical
to complete a directional change is the features to a superior 90° COD move-
pivoting strategies, the participants goal of this movement, a full extension
begin with a wider stance, which ment performance when using the PC:
at the ankle, knee, and hip may not be aggressive driving arm action through
allows for a greater takeoff distance essential.
once the pivot has been completed. In the turn and a limited forward lean
contrast, the FMS participant begins The perpendicular position of the trail (both of which are critical features of
with a narrower stance and the takeoff leg at takeoff in relation to the rest of effective sprinting). Differences using
is completed before any foot adjust- the body, as well as the movement a static start compared with a dynamic
ments (pivot, false start, etc). If a wider direction, may not be as effective at situation need further investigation.
base of support was employed by this producing the large propulsive forces Several factors (i.e., individual anthro-
participant, then the takeoff distance as a foot positioned in the intended pometric measures, physical coordina-
would not be increased as the takeoff direction of motion. When placed tion, situation-dependent requirements,
foot will always be the foot closest to parallel to the intended direction, the etc) may contribute to the ability to
the new direction, as opposed to the foot is able to produce potentially execute these strategies with a superior
rear foot in the pivoting strategies. greater amounts of force into the performance. A greater distribution of
Additionally, by creating a simulta- ground through plantarflexion as op- body mass from the axis of rotation will
neous or near simultaneous takeoff and posed to eversion with a perpendicular increase the rotational inertia that the
touchdown of contralateral legs, the (lateral) foot placement (4). player must overcome when turning.
flight phase is minimized or possibly CRITICAL FEATURE 6 (INTENSE Therefore, certain adaptations or adjust-
eliminated, thereby increasing the DRIVING ACTION OF THE ARMS) ments to the COD movement strategy
ground contact time (GCT). Because As the athlete reaches the final portion may be needed to overcome this factor.
propulsive force can only be produced of the turn, a rapid elbow extension Likewise, an athlete who is less pro-
when in contact with the ground, the occurs. This movement increases the ficient at completing rapid movements,
increased GCT may allow for greater rotational inertia, causing the body to those involving proprioceptive aware-
impulse to be generated than might slow (or stop) the turning effect (9). ness or gross/fine motor skills, may not
occur if the flight phase was increased. This movement may be more notice- be as successful at the same COD
An increase in generated impulse able in the PC strategy but is present to movement strategy as a more proficient
would likely result in a faster sprint some extent in all 3 strategies. The athlete. However, this aspect has the
time (f 3 t = m 3 v) (5,9). more rapid this movement is potential to be improved with practice.

Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-lift.org 87

Understanding COD Performance

Table 2
Extent of critical feature employment for the 90° COD

Strategy Lowering Moving COM Small Large TO Full lateral Intense

COM before into new rotational distance extension driving
the turn direction inertia at 1st TO at 2nd TO arms

False-start pivot OK - OK OK + +
Forward-moving sidestep OK - - - + OK
Pivoting crossover + + + + OK +
COD = change of direction; COM = center of mass; OK = observed but not to the extent described; TO = takeoff; + = fully present; 2 = not present.

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