Selection rules and transition moment integral

In chemistry and physics, selection rules define the transition probability from one eigenstate to another eigenstate. In
this topic, we are going to discuss the transition moment, which is the key to understanding the intrinsic transition
probabilities. Selection rules have been divided into the electronic selection rules, vibrational selection rules (including
Franck-Condon principle and vibronic coupling), and rotational selection rules.

1. Introduction
2. Transition Moment
3. Transition Moment Integral
4. Electronic Selection Rules
4.1. Electronic transitions in atoms
4.2. Electronic transitions in molecules
5. Vibrational Selection rules
6. Franck-Condon Principle
6.1. Vibronic Coupling
7. Rotational Selection rules
8. Concluding Remarks
9. References
10. Outside Links
11. Problems
12. Introduction
13. Transition Moment
14. Transition Moment Integral
15. Electronic Selection Rules
15.1. Electronic transitions in atoms
15.2. Electronic transitions in molecules
16. Vibrational Selection rules
17. Franck-Condon Principle
17.1. Vibronic Coupling
18. Rotational Selection rules
19. References
20. Outside Links
21. Contributors

Introduction
The transition probability is defined as the probability of particular spectroscopic transition to take place. When an
atom or molecule absorbs a photon, the probability of an atom or molecule to transit from one energy level to another
depends on two things: the nature of initial and final state wavefunctions and how strongly photons interact with an
eigenstate. Transition strengths are used to describe transition probability. Selection rules are utilized to determine
whether a transition is allowed or not. Electronic dipole transitions are by far the most important for the topics covered
in this module.
Transition Moment
In an atom or molecule, an electromagnetic wave (for example, visible light) can induce an oscillating electric or
magnetic moment. If the frequency of the induced electric or magnetic moment is the same as the energy difference
between one eigenstate Ψ1 and another eigenstate Ψ2, the interaction between an atom or molecule and the
electromagnetic field is resonant (which means these two have the same frequency). Typically, the amplitude of this
(electric or magnetic) moment is called the transition moment. In quantum mechanics, the transition probability of one
molecule from one eigenstate Ψ1 to another eigenstate Ψ2 is given by |M 21|2, and M 21 is called the transition
dipole moment, or transition moment, from Ψ1 to Ψ2. In mathematical form it can be written as

M 21=∫Ψ2μ Ψ1dτ

The Ψ1 and Ψ2 are two different eigenstates in one molecule, M 21 is the electric dipole moment operator. If we have
a system with n molecules and each has charge Qn, and the dipole moment operator is can be written as

μ =∑nQnx n

the x n is the position vector operator.

Transition Moment Integral

Based on the Born-Oppenheimer approximation, the fast electronic motion can be separated from the much slower
motion of the nuclei. As a result, the total wavefunction can be separated into electronic, vibrational, and rotational
parts:

Ψ(r,R)=ψe(r,Re)ψv(R)ψr(R)

The Born-Oppenheimer approximation assumes that the electronic wavefunction, ψe, is approximated in all electronic
coordinates at the equilibrium nuclear coordinates (R e). Since mass of electrons is much smaller than nuclear mass,
the rotational wavefunction, ψr, only depends on nuclear coordinates. The rotational wavefunction could provide
important information for rotational selection rules, but we will not consider the rotational wavefuntion any further for
simplicity because most of the spectra are not rotationally resolved. With the rotational part removed, the transition
moment integral can be expressed as

where the prime and double prime represent the upper and lower states respectively. Both the nuclear and electronic
parts contribute to the dipole moment operator. The above equation can be integrated by two parts,
with μn and μe respectively. A product of two integral is obtained:

Because different electronic wavefunctions must be orthogonal to each other, hence

is zero, the second part of the integral should be zero.

The transition moment integral can be simplified as
 The above equation is of great importance because the first integral defines the electronic selection rules, while the
second integral is the basis of vibrational selection rules.

Electronic Selection Rules

Electronic transitions in atoms

Atoms are described by the primary quantum number n, angular momentum quantum number L, spin quantum
number S, and total angular momentum quantum number J. Based on Russell-Saunders approximation of electron
coupling, the atomic term symbol can be represented as L J.
2S+1

1. The total spin cannot change, ΔS=0;

2. The change in total orbital angular momentum can be ΔL=0, ±1, but L=0 ↔ L=0 transition is not allowed;
3. The change in the total angular momentum can be ΔJ=0, ±1, but J=0 ↔ J=0 transition is not allowed;
4. The initial and final wavefunctions must change in parity. Parity is related to the orbital angular momentum
summation over all elections Σli, which can be even or odd; only even ↔ odd transitions are allowed.

Electronic transitions in molecules

The electronic-state configurations for molecules can be described by the primary quantum number n, the angular
momentum quantum number Λ, the spin quantum number S, which remains a good quantum number, the quantum
number Σ (S, S-1, ..., -S), and the projection of the total angular momentum quantum number onto the molecular
symmetry axis Ω, which can be derived as Ω=Λ+Σ. The term symbol for the electronic states can be represented as

.
Group theory makes great contributions to the prediction of the electronic selection rules for many molecules. An
example is used to illustrate the possibility of electronic transitions via group theory.

1. The total spin cannot change, ΔS=0; the rule ΔΣ=0 holds for multiplets;

If the spin-orbit coupling is not large, the electronic spin wavefunction can be separated from the electronic
wavefunctions. Since the electron spin is a magnetic effect, electronic dipole transitions will not alter the
electron spin. As a result, the spin multiplicity should not change during the electronic dipole transition.

2. The total orbital angular momentum change should be ΔΛ=0, ±1;

For heteronuclear diatomic molecules with C∞v symmetry, a Σ+ ↔ Π transition is allowed according to ΔΛ
selection rule. In order to prove the allowance of this transition, the direct product
of Σ+ ⊗Π yields Π irreducible representation from the direct product table. Based on the C∞v character
table below, the operator in the x and y direction have doubly degenerate Π symmetry. Therefore, the
transition between Σ +
↔ Π must be allowed since the multiplication of any irreducible representation with
itself will provide the totally symmetric representation. The electronic transition moment integral can be
 nonzero. We can use the same kind of argument to illustrate that \(\Sigma ^ - \leftrightarrow \Phi\) transition
is forbidden.

\ C∞v character table

\ C∞v E \(\ 2C_\infty ^\Phi}\) ... \(\infty \sigma _v\)

Σ+ 1 1 ... 1 z (x2+y2), z2

Σ- 1 1 ... -1 Rz

Π 2 \(\ 2\cos (\Phi )\) ... 0 (x, y), (Rx, Ry) xz, yz

Δ 2 \ 2cos(2Φ) ... 0 (x2-y2), xy

\(\Gamma\) 2 \ 2cos(3Φ) ... 0

... ... ... ... ...

3. Parity conditions are related to the symmetry of the molecular wavefunction reflecting against its symmetry axis.
For homonuclear molecules, the g ↔ u transition is allowed. For heteronuclear molecules, + ↔ + and - ↔ -
transitions apply;

For hetero diatomic molecules with C∞v symmetry, we can use group theory to reveal
that Σ+↔Σ+ and Σ− ↔Σ−transitions are allowed, while Σ+ ↔Σ− transitions are forbidden. The direct
product of either Σ+ ⊗Σ+ or Σ− ⊗Σ− yields the same irreducible representation Σ based on the +
direct
product table. The z component of the dipole operator has Σ symmetry. The transition is allowed because the
+

electronic transition moment integral can generate the totally symmetric irreducible representation Σ+. We can
use the same method to prove that Σ+ ↔Σ− transitions are forbidden.

Similarly, for a molecule with an inversion center, a subscript g or u is used to reveal the molecular symmetry
with respect to the inversion operation, i. The x, y, and z components of the transition dipole moment operator
have u inversion symmetry in molecule with inversion center (g and u are short for gerade and ungerade in
German, meaning even and odd). The electronic transition moment integral need to yield totally symmetric
irreducible representation Ag for allowed transitions. Therefore, only g ↔ u transition is allowed.

Vibrational Selection rules

1. Transitions with Δv=±1, ±2, ... are all allowed for anharmonic potential, but the intensity of the peaks become weaker
as Δv increases.
2. v=0 to v=1 transition is normally called the fundamental vibration, while those with larger Δv are called overtones.
3. Δv=0 transition is allowed between the lower and upper electronic states with energy E 1 and E2 are involved, i.e. (E1,
v''=n) → (E2, v'=n), where the double prime and prime indicate the lower and upper quantum state.

The geometry of vibrational wavefunctions plays an important role in vibrational selection rules. For diatomic
molecules, the vibrational wavefunction is symmetric with respect to all the electronic states. Therefore, the Franck-
Condon integral is always totally symmetric for diatomic molecules. The vibrational selection rule does not exist for
diatomic molecules.
For polyatomic molecules, the nonlinear molecules possess 3N-6 normal vibrational modes, while linear molecules
possess 3N-5 vibrational modes. Based on the harmonic oscillator model, the product of 3N-6 normal mode
wavefunctions contribute to the total vibrational wavefunction, i.e.

ψvib =∏3N−6ψ1ψ2ψ3...ψ3N−6

where each normal mode is represented by the wavefunction ψi. Comparing to the Franck-Condon factor for diatomic
molecules with single vibrational overlap integral, a product of 3N-6 (3N-5 for linear molecules) overlap integrals
needs to be evaluated. Based on the symmetry of each normal vibrational mode, polyatomic vibrational
wavefunctions can be totally symmetric or non-totally symmetric. If a normal mode is totally symmetric, the vibrational
wavefunction is totally symmetric with respect to all the vibrational quantum number v. If a normal mode is non-totally
symmetric, the vibrational wavefunction alternates between symmetric and non-symmetric wavefunctions as v
alternates between even and odd number.

If a particular normal mode in both the upper and lower electronic state is totally symmetric, the vibrational
wavefunction for the upper and lower electronic state will be symmetric, resulting in the totally symmetric integrand in
the Franck-Condon integral. If the vibrational wavefunction of either the lower or upper electronic state is non-totally
symmetric, the Franck-Condon integrand will be non-totally symmetric.

We will use CO2 as an example to specify the vibrational selection rule. CO 2 has four vibrational modes as a linear
molecule. The vibrational normal modes are illustrated in the figure below:

The vibrational wavefunction for the totally symmetric C-O stretch, v1, is totally symmetric with respect to all the
vibrational quantum numbers. However, the vibrational wavefunctions for the doubly degenerate bending modes, v 2,
and the antisymmetric C-O stretch, v3, are non-totally symmetric. Therefore, the vibrational wavefunctions are totally
symmetric for even vibrational quantum numbers (v=0, 2, 4...), while the wavefunctions remain non-totally symmetric
for v odd (v=1, 3, 5...).

Therefore, any value of Δv1 is possible between the upper and lower electronic state for mode v 1. On the other hand,
modes v2 and v3include non-totally symmetric vibrational wavefunctions, so the vibrational quantum number can only
change evenly, such as Δv=± 2, ±4, etc..

Franck-Condon Principle
Franck-Condon principle was proposed by German physicist James Franck (1882-1964) and U.S. physicist Edward
U. Condon (1902-1974) in 1926. This principle states that when an electronic transition takes place, the time scale of
this transition is so fast compared to nucleus motion that we can consider the nucleus to be static, and the vibrational
transition from one vibrational state to another state is more likely to happen if these states have a large overlap. It
successfully explains the reason why certain peaks in a spectrum are strong while others are weak (or even not
observed) in absorption spectroscopy.

The second integral in the above equation is the vibrational overlap integral between one eigenstate and another
eigenstate. In addition, the square of this integral is called the Franck-Condon factor:

It governs the vibrational transition contribution to the transition probability and shows that in order to have a large
vibrational contribution, the vibrational ground state and excited state must have a strong overlap.
The above figure shows the Franck-Condon principle energy diagram, since electronic transition time scale is small
compared to nuclear motion, the vibrational transitions are favored when the vibrational transition have the smallest
change of nuclear coordinate, which is a vertical transition in the figure above. The electronic eigenstates favors the
vibrational transition v'=0 in the ground electronic state to v"=2 in the excited electronic state, while peak intensity of
v'=0 to v"=0 transition is expected to be low because the overlap between the v'=0 wavefunction and v''=0
wavefunction is very low.

The figure above is the photoelectron spectrum of the ionization of hydrogen molecule (H 2), it is also a beautiful
example to formulate the Franck-Condon principle. It shows the appropriate energy curves and the vibrational energy
levels, and with the help of the Franck-Condon principle, the transition between ground vibrational state v 0" and
excited vibrational state v2' is expected to be the most intense peak in the spectrum.

Vibronic Coupling
Why can some electronic-forbidden transitions be observed as weak bands in spectrum? It can be explained by the
interaction between the electronic and vibrational transitions. The word "vibronic" is the combination of the words
"vibrational" and "electronic." Because the energy required for one electronic state to another electronic state
(electronic transition, usually in the UV-Vis region) is larger than one vibrational state to another vibrational state
(vibrational transition, usually in the IR region), sometimes energy (a photon) can excite a molecule to an excited
electronic and vibrational state. The bottom figure shows the pure electronic transition (no vibronic coupling) and the
electronic transition couples with the vibrational transition (vibronic coupling).
We now can go back to the original question: Why can some electronic-forbidden transitions be observed as weak
bands in spectrum? For example, the d-d transitions in the octahedral transition metal complexes are Laporte
forbidden (same symmetry, parity forbidden), but they can be observed in the spectrum and this phenomenon can be
explained by vibronic coupling.

Now we consider the Fe(OH2)62+ complex which has low spin d6 as ground state (see figure above). Let's examine the
one-electron excitation from t2g molecular orbital to eg molecular orbital. The octahedral complex has Oh symmetry and
therefore the ground state has A1g symmetry from the character table. The symmetry of the excited state, which is the
direct product of all singly occupied molecular orbitals (e g and t2g in this case):

Γt2g⊗Γeg=T1g+T2g
 The transition moment integral for the electronic transition can be written as

M =∫ψ′∗μ ψdτ

where ψ is the electronic ground state and ψ' is the electronic excited state. The condition for the electronic transition
to be allowed is to make the transition moment integral nonzero. The μ^ is the transition moment operator, which is
the symmetry of the x^, y^, z^ operators from the character table. For octahedral symmetry, these operators are
degenerate and have T1u symmetry. Therefore, we can see that both1T1g←1A1g and 1T2g←1A1g are electronically forbidden
by the direct product (do not contain the totally symmetric A 1g):

T1g× T1u× A1g=A1u+Eu+T1u+T2u

T2g× T1u× A1g=A2u+Eu+T1u+T2u

For octahedral complex, there are 15 vibrational normal modes. From the Oh character table we can get these
irreducible representations:

Γvib=a1g+eg+2t1u+t2g+t2u

When we let the vibrational transition to couple with the electronic transition, the transition moment integral has the
form:

M =∫ψ∗e′ψ∗v′μ ψeψvdτ

For the vibronic coupling to be allowed, the transition moment integral has to be nonzero. Use these vibrational
symmetries of the octahedral complex to couple with the electronic transition:

A1g×{T1g× T1u× A1g}=A1u+Eu+T1u+T2u

Eg×{T1g× T1u× A1g}=Eg× {A1u+Eu+T1u+T2u}=A1u+A2u+2Eu+2T1u+2T2u

T1u×{T1g× T1u× A1g}=T1u× {A1u+Eu+T1u+T2u}=A1g+…

T2g×{T1g× T1u× A1g}=T2g× {A1u+Eu+T1u+T2u}=A1u+A2u+2Eu+3T1u+4T2u

T2u×{T1g× T1u× A1g}=T2u× {A1u+Eu+T1u+T2u}=A1g+…

Since the t1u and t2u representation can generate the totally symmetric representation in the integrand. Therefore,
we can see that t1uand t2u can couple with the electronic transition to form the allowed vibronic transition. Therefore,
the d-d transition band for Fe(OH2)62+complex can be observed through vibronic coupling.

Rotational Selection rules

1. Transitions with ΔJ=±1 are allowed;
Photons do not have any mass, but they have angular momentum. The conservation of angular momentum is the
fundamental criteria for spectroscopic transitions. As a result, the total angular momentum has to be conserved after
a molecule absorbs or emits a photon. The rotational selection rule relies on the fact that photon has one unit of
quantized angular momentum. During the photon emission and absorption process, the angular moment J cannot
change by more than one unit.

Let's consider a single photon transition process for a diatomic molecule. The rotational selection rule requires that
transitions with ΔJ=±1 are allowed. Transitions with ΔJ=1 are defined as R branch transitions, while those with ΔJ=-1
are defined as P branch transitions. Rotational transitions are conventional labeled as P or R with the rotational
quantum number J of the lower electronic state in the parentheses. For example, R(2) specifies the rotational
transition from J=2 in the lower electronic state to J=3 in the upper electronic state.

2. ΔJ=0 transitions are allowed when two different electronic or vibrational states are involved: (X'', J''=m) → (X',
J'=m).

The Q branch transitions will only take place when there is a net orbital angular momentum in one of the electronic
states. Therefore, Q branch does not exist for 1Σ ↔1Σ electronic transitions because Σ electronic state does not
possess any net orbital angular momentum. On the other hand, the Q branch will exist if one of the electronic states
has angular momentum. In this situation, the angular momentum of the photon will cancel out with the angular
momentum of the electronic state, so the transition will take place without any change in the rotational state.

The schematic of P, Q, and R branch transitions are shown below:

 With regard to closed-shell non-linear polyatomic molecules, the selection rules are more complicated than diatomic
case. The rotational quantum number J remains a good quantum number as the total angular momentum if we don't
consider the nuclear spin. Under the effect of single photon transition, the change of J is still limited to a maximum
of ± 1 based on the conservation of angular momentum. However, the possibility of Q branch is greatly enhanced
irrelevant to the symmetry of the lower and upper electronic states. The rotational quantum number K is introduced
along the inertial axis. For polyatomic molecules with symmetric top geometry, the transition moment is polarized
along inertial axis. The selection rule becomes ΔK=0.

Concluding Remarks

References
1. Schwartz, S. E. J. Chem. Educ. 1973, 50, 608-610. doi:10.1021/ed050p608
2. Byers, L. R. J. Chem. Educ. 1975, 52, 790. doi:10.1021/ed052p790
3. Ahmed, F. J. Chem. Educ. 1987, 64, 427-428. doi:10.1021/ed064p427
4. Dunbrack, R. L. J. Chem. Educ. 1986, 63, 953-955. doi:10.1021/ed063p953
5. Standard, J. M., Clark, B. K. J. Chem. Educ. 1999, 76, 1363-1366. doi:10.1021/ed076p1363
6. Ellis, A. M., Fehér, M., & Wright, T. G. (2005). Transition probabilities. Electronic and photoelectron spectroscopy:
fundamentals and case studies(pp. 51-64). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Outside Links
 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selection_rule
 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franck-Condon_principle
 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vibronic_coupling

Contributors
 Chun-Yi Lin (University of California, Davis)
 Zhou Lu (University of California, Davis)

Source:http://chemwiki.ucdavis.edu/Physical_Chemistry/Spectroscopy/Fundamentals/Selection_rules_
and_transition_moment_integral