GENERAL EDUCATION - MATHEMATICS

I. Fundamentals of Mathematics
Part 1- Content Update

The Number System

Imaginary
Complex Irrational
Real Non-Integers Counting
Rational
Integers Zero

Negative
Counting

Counting Numbers: numbers that we use in counting; also called natural numbers. Using the roster method, N = {1, 2, 3,
4…}
Whole Numbers: union of the number zero and the set of counting numbers. Again using the roster method, W = {0, 1, 2,
3, 4…}
Integers: the union of the set of counting numbers, their negatives, and zero. Using the roster method, I = {…-4, -3, -2,
-1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4…}
Operations on Integers
I. Addition

 Like signs: add the absolute values, and prefix the negative sign if the addends are negative
 Unlike signs: get the absolute values of the numbers and subtract the smaller absolute from the other and
prefix the negative sign if the negative addend has the larger absolute value.
E.g. -4 + (-6) = -10
-2 + 7 = 7 – 2 = 5
3 + (-9) = -(9-3) = -6
II. Subtraction – If the minuend and subtrahend are both positive and the minuend is greater than the subtrahend, proceed
to subtract forthwith. Otherwise, change the sign of the supposed subtrahend and proceed as in addition.
E.g. 8-3 = 5
4-5 = 4 + -(5) = -1

III. Multiplication (Division) – to multiply (or Divide) two integers with

 Like signs: get the product (or quotient) of their absolute values.
 Unlike signs: get the negative of the product (or quotient) of their absolute values
E.g -5 x -4 = 20
-3 x (2) = -6
12 ÷ (-3) = -4
Divisibility Rules
2 - Number ends with 0; 2, 4, 6 or 8, meaning the number is even. e.g. 512
3 - Sum of the digits (digital root) is divisible by 3. e.g. 216
4 - Last two digits form a number that is divisible by 4. e.g. 1012
5 - Last digit is 0 or 5. e.g. 340
6 - Divisible by 2 and 3. e.g. 192
7 - Difference obtained after subtracting twice the last digit from the number formed by the remaining digits is divisible
by 7. e.g. 364
8 - Last three digits form a number that is divisible by 8. e.g. 1024
9 - Sum of the digital root is divisible by 9. e.g. 423

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10 - Last digit is 0. e.g. 3540
11 - Difference between the sum of the 1st, 3rd, 5th… digits, and the sum of the 2nd, 4th, 6th, … digits is divisible by 11.
e.g. 90816
12 - Divisible by both 3 and 4. e.g. 4128
13 - The sum of four times the last digit and the number formed by the remaining digits is divisible by 13
e.g. 182 is divisible by 13 since 4 times 2 is 8, and 18 + 8 = 26 which is divisible by 13.
+ 8 = 26 which is divisible by 13
Note: Divisibility rules for two or more relatively prime numbers (GCF is 1) may be combined to serve as a divisibility
rule for their product.
e.g. The rules for 3, 4, and 13 may be combined to serve as the rule for their product 156 since 3, 4 and 13 are
relatively prime.

Prime and Composite Numbers

Prime- counting number that has exactly two factors e.g. 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19…
Composite- counting number that has more than two factors e.g. 4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15…
*Note that 1 is neither prime nor composite and that 2 is the only even prime number
Prime factorization

- Refers to both the process as well as to the result of the process of expressing a counting number as the
product of its prime factors.
- If the counting number is already prime, its prime factorization is the number itself.

e.g. 126: 2 x 32 x 7
Methods of getting the prime factorization of numbers
Repeated division by primes
e.g. 2 126
3 63
3 21
7

Thus, the prime factorization for 126 is 2 x 32 x 7

Factor tree
126

e.g. Again using 126:

2 63

9 7

Thus, again, the prime factorization

3 3
for 126 is 2 x 32 x 7

Greatest Common Factor (GCF) – largest whole number divisor of the given numbers. The GCF of two numbers, say a
and b, is denoted by (a, b)
e.g. The GCF of 8 and 28 is 4

Methods of Finding the GCF

Intersection of Sets Method – for each of the given numbers, list their factors from least to greatest and pick out the
greatest factor that is common to all list.
e.g. Find (8,28)
8: {1,2,4,8}
28: {1,2,4,7,14,28} The GCF is thus 4.
Prime Factorization – write the prime factorization for each of the given numbers so that common, and only common,
prime factors are in the same column. The GCF is the product of the lowest powers occurring in columns common to all
prime factorization.
e.g. Find (12,15,90)
12: 22 x 3
15: 3x5

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 90: 2 x 32 x 5
3 = 3 (GCF)

Euclidean Algorithm (may be used if we are looking for the GCF of only two numbers). The procedure may be best
understood through an illustration. e.g. For 24 and 28
1. Divide the larger number by the other. 28 ÷ 24 = 1, with a remainder of 4.
2. If there is a reminder, divide the last divisor 24 ÷ 4 = 6, with no remainder.
By this remainder.
Repeat this step until no reminder is left.
3. The GCF is the last divisor. The GCF is thus 4.

Least Common Multiple (LCM) of two or more counting numbers – the smallest non-zero number that is a multiple of
the given numbers. The LCM of two number, say a and b, is denoted by [a , b].
e.g. The LCM of 5, 6 and 8 is 120 because it is the smallest non- zero number
that is a multiple of 5, 6 and 8.

Methods of finding the LCM

Intersection of Sets Method – for each of the given numbers, list their multiples from least to greatest, and pick out the
smallest non –zero multiple that is common to all lists.
e.g. Find [12, 15, 30]

12: {0, 12, 24, 36, 48, 60, 72, 84, 96, 108, 120, …}
15: {0, 15, 30, 45, 60, 75, 90, 105, 120, 135, …}
30: {0, 30, 60, 90, 120, 150, …}

Prime Factorization – write the prime factorization for each of the given numbers so that common, and only common,
prime factors are in the same column. The LCM is the product of the highest power occurring in a column of any of the
prime factorization. e.g. Again, for 12, 15 and 30, we have
12: 22 x 3
15: 3x5
30: 2 x 3 x 5
22 x 3 x 5 = 60 (LCM)

Euclidean Algorithm – the LCM of two numbers may be obtained by dividing their product by their GCF. In symbols,

[a, b] =

e.g. Find the LCM of 12 and 15

[12, 15] = (12x15)/((12, 15) ) = 180/3= 60
Repeated Division – The task is to divide the two numbers by a common prime factor and dividing the resulting quotients
also by a common prime factor. This step is repeated until the resulting quotients are already prime (GCF=1) The LCM is
product of the prime divisors and the relatively prime quotients. This may better be understood through an illustration.
2 12 30
3 6 15
2 5
The LCM is therefore 60.

Fractions
Meanings
a. Part of a whole or a group
b. Indicated division
c. Ratio
Kinds of Fractions
As to relation between the numerator and the denominator.
a. Proper – the numerator is less than the numerator. E.g. ¾
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 b. Improper – the numerator is equal to or greater than the denominator
As to relation of the denominators of two or more fractions
a. Similar- the denominators are equal. e.g. 2/5 and 4/5
b. Dissimilar- the denominators are not equal. e.g. 3/7 and 4/9

Other Classes
a. Equivalent- fractions having the same value e.g. 3/7 and 9/21
b. Mixed- composed of a whole number and a proper fraction (e.g. 5 ¼ )
Rules involving Zero
a. Zero numerator and non-zero denominator- the value is zero
b. Zero denominator- no value, undefined
c. Zero value- the numerator is zero
Operations on Fractions
1. Multiplication- multiply numerator by numerator and denominator by denominator to get the numerator and
denominator and denominator respectively of the product
2. Division- multiply the supposed dividend by the reciprocal of the supposed divisors
3. Addition (Subtraction)
a. Similar Fractions – ass (subtract) the numerators and copy the common denominator
b. Dissimilar Fractions – use a common denominator (preferably the least) to make the addends (minuend
and subtrahend) similar and do as in the preceding rule.
Simplifying Fractions
A fraction is in simplest form if the numerator and the denominator are relatively prime (their GCF is 1). Thus, to simplify
fractions, express both the numerator and the denominator as products of a number and their GCF. The fraction is then
decomposed into two fractions one of which has the GCF both as its numerator and its denominator. This fraction reduces
to 1. The other fraction thus is the desired simplest form.
e.g. Simplify
= x
Ordering Fractions
Two fractions are equivalent if their cross products are equal. otherwise, that fraction the numerator of which was used to
get the greater of the two cross products is the larger fraction.
Since the two cross products 3(20) and 4(15) are both 60 and therefore equal, the two fractions are equivalent.
On the other hand, for the two fractions below, the left cross product is 7(8) or 56 while the right cross-product is 66.
Thus, the fraction on the right is greater.
Decimals
The place value chart

HundredTen
thousand
thousand Hundred thousandths
hundredths Ten thousand
thousandsTens thousandths
onesTenths
100000 10000 100 10 1 . . .. 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001 0.00001
Operations on decimals
Addition (Subtraction)
Addition of decimals is facilitated by writing them in a column so that their decimal points are aligned. Thus aligned,
digits with the same place values would be in the same column, and the addends (or the minuend and the subtrahend) are
added (for subtracted) as if they were whole numbers, the decimal point in the sum (difference) in the same position as the
addends (minuend and subtrahend).

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Multiplication
Multiply the numbers as if they were whole and so place the decimal point in the result as to have as many decimal places
in it as there are in the factors combined.
e.g. To multiply
21.4 x 0.32, we write
214 x 32 = 6848
Since there are a total of 3 decimal place the decimal point between 6 and 8 to have also 3 decimal places
in the result. Thus, 21.4 x 0.32 = 6.848

Division
To divide a
a. Decimal by a whole number, do as in dividing whole numbers but writing the decimal point directly above that
of the dividend
b. Number by a decimal, multiply both dividend and divisor by that power of ten such that the divisor becomes the
least whole number, and then proceed as in (a) above.

Conversion
1. Fraction to Decimals
Divide the numerator by the denominator e.g. 5/8 = 0.625
2. Decimals to Percent
Multiply by 100%. The same result may be had by moving the decimal point two place to the right and prefixing
the % sign. e.g. 62.5%=62.5%÷100%=.625
3. Percent to decimals
Divided by 100%. The same result may be had by removing the % sign and moving the decimal point two places
to the left. e.g. 62.5%=62.5%÷100%=.625

4. Decimals to fractions
a. Terminating Decimals
Multiply the decimal by a fraction the numerator and denominator of which are both equal to such power of
ten with as many zeroes as there are decimal places in the given decimal, and then simplify.
E.g. 0.625 = 0.625 x = =
b. Repeating Decimals
The procedure is outlined below together with an example to illustrate each step.
To convert x=0.16
1. Multiply the number by such power of 10 as would move one repeating portion across the decimal point.
100x=16.6
2. Multiply the number by such power of 10 as would move the repeating portion next to the decimal point.
10x=1.6
3. Subtract the result of step 2 from that of step 1.
90x=15
4. Simplify
X= =
Ratio and Proportion
Ratio - comparison of two numbers a and b, where b ≠ 0, and expressed as “a to b”, or “a:b”, or “a/b”.
Proportion - a statement of equality between two ratios
Given two equal ratios, one comparing a to b and another comparing c to d, the proportion may be expressed thus:
a:b :: c : d, or alternatively, a/b = c/d.
in either of the above forms, a and d are referred to as extremes, while b and c are referred to as the means.
Note: if a/b = c/d, its alternation(a/c = b/d) and inversion (b/a = d/c) are both true provided a, b, c, d ≠ 0.

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Finding the missing term of a proportion – as ratios may be treated as fractions, and proportion as equations relating
two equivalent fractions, then a missing term of a proportion may be found by equating the cross products and solving for
the unknown. Stated differently, the product of the means equals the product of the extremes. In symbols, given the
proportion a:b :: c:d,
ad=bc
e.g. Find k in 3:5 :: k:30
Solution: ad=bc
3(30) = 5k
K = 18
Word Problems Involving

Direct Proportion – the ratios of two quantities being compared is constant.

e.g. Five bananas weigh as much as 3 star apples. At this rate, how many star apples will weigh as much as 30 bananas?

The ratio of the weight of bananas b1:a1 = b2: a2

To that of apples is 5:3 5:3 = 30: a2
We thus have 5a2= 3 ( 30)
a2 = 18
Inverse Proportion – the product of two quantities being compared is constant.

e.g. If 10 of a certain car model a=r×t

running for 3 hours use up 150 liters r1 × t1 = r2 × t2
of gas, how many of the same car 10 × 3 = r2 × 6
model running for 6 hours will 5=r2
up the same amount of gas?

Partitive Proportion
If a quantity q is to be proportioned into p1, p2, p3,…, pn, so that the partitions are in the ratio a1, a2, a3,…, an
Then the size of the Kth partition may be computed as follows:
e.g. If 24 hours is to be partitioned into 3 parts so that the parts are in the ratio 1: 2: 5, how many hours would the third
part be?
Per Cent – Literally meaning per hundred, it is one way of writing fractions in which the denominator is required to be
100 is written as “%” and read as “per cent”

Percentage, Base and Rate – In the statement 15 is 30% of 50, three quantities are involved – Percentage (P), rate (R),
and base (B)
Percentage – is that which bear to the base in the same ratio as the rate.
The statement “15 is 30% of 50” is telling us that 15 (the percentage) bears to 50 (the base) in the same ratio as 30% (the
rate). In symbols, 15 = 30% x 50.
The basic formula P=R x B, has two other useful forms: R = P/B and B = P/R

II. ELEMENTARY ALGEBRA

A. Properties of Real Number
1. Closure Property – For any real numbers a and b, a + b and a × b are also real numbers
2. Commutative Property – For any real numbers a and b, a + b = b + a and a x b = b = a.
3. Associative Property – For any real numbers a, b and c, (a + b) + c = a + (b + c) and (a x b) x c = a x (b
x c)
4. Existence of Identity Elements – For any real number a, there exist real numbers 0 and 1, such that a + 0
= a and a x 1 = a.
5. Existence of Inverses – For any real number a there exists a – a such that a + -a = 0, and a 1/a such that a
x 1/a = 1.
6. Distributive Property – For any real number a, b and c, a(b + c) = ab + ac.

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 B. Properties of Equality
1. Reflexive – If a is a real number, a = a
2. Symmetric – if a and b are real umbers and a = b, then b = a
3. Transitive – if a, b and c are real numbers and a = b and b = c, then a = c

C. Some Basic Term

1. Variable – any symbol that is used to represent an element of a set e.g x, y, 0
2. Domain – the set of all elements represented by a particular variable
3. Constant – a symbol with only one element in its variable e.g. 3, -2, 𝛑
4. Algebraic Expression - a constant, a variable, or any combination of constant and variables involving
indicated operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, raising to a power, or extraction of a
root) on them.

e.g. -4 25x2 – 1, 3x3 – 2xy + y2, , 2x -

5. Polynomial – an algebraic expression consisting only of non-negative integer powers of variables, and
with no variable in a denominator. Among the examples of the algebraic expression above, only the last is
not polynomial.
6. Term of a polynomial – a constant or a constant multiplied by non-negative integer powers of variables.
A polynomial with only one 1 item is monomial; polynomial with 2 is a binomial and a polynomial with 3
is a trinomial.
e.g.
-24x2y3z4 is a monomial
2x2 – 3y = xy3 is a trinomial
7. Numerical Coefficient – that constant that is multiplied by non-negative powers of variables in a term.
8. Literal Coefficient – the non-negative powers of variables in a term.
e.g. In -2x3y2, the numeral coefficient is -2, while the literal coefficient is x 3y2
9. Similar Terms – terms with the same literal coefficient. If the terms are not similar, they are said to be
dissimilar.
10. Degree of a term – sum of the exponents of all variable factors of a term.
11. Degree of a polynomial – degree of that term of the polynomial with the highest degree.

D. Evaluating Algebraic Expression

Evaluating algebraic expression refers to the process of finding the value of the expression upon
substitution of the given values for the respective variables.
e.g. Evaluate x2y3 – 2y2 + 4 when x = 2 and y = -1
(2)2(-1)3 – 2(-1)2 + 4
4(-1) – 2(1) + 4
-2
Equation – statement expressing in symbols the relationship of equality between two quantities.

Linear Equations in one variable – an equation that can be written in the form ax + b = 0, where a and b are
constant and a ≠ 0. e.g. 3x -4 = 0, 4 – 2x = 3x + 5

Adding and Subtraction Property of Equality (APE, SPE)

If a, b and c are real numbers and a = b, then
a + c = b + c,
a–c=b–c
Multiplication and Division Property of Equality ( MPE, DPE)
If a, b and c are real numbers and a = b, then
a x c = b x c,
a / c = b / c, provided c ≠ 0.
Solution of an equation – refers to an element of the domain of the variable that makes the e equation true.

Solving Linear Equations – refers to the process of finding, through the use of the properties of equality, all the
solutions of the equation
Some pointers in solving linear equations
1. Simplify each side of the equation by
a. Removing grouping symbols using the distributive law
b. Removing fractions by multiplying both sides of the equation and the constant on the other

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 2. Use the APE/SPE to have all variables only on one side of the equation and the constant on the other
3. Use the MPE/DPE to make the numerical coefficient of the variable equal to 1.
Solving Word Problems Involving Linear Equations
Some Pointers
1. Read the problem carefully.
2. Determine what is to be found.
3. Choose a variable to represent an unknown, usually that which needs to be found.
4. Translate word phrases to algebraic expressions.
5. Formulate the equation.
6. Solve the equation.
7. Solve the problem

Example 1.
Three times the sum of the number and five is 21. What is the number?
3(x + 5) = 21
3x + 15 = 21
X=2

Example 2.
Arman is twice as old as Andrea. Two years ago, Arman was there three times as old as Andrea. Find their
ages now.
m = 2n
m – 2 = 3(n-2)
2n – 2 = 3n – 6
4=2

Inequalities
Inequality - is a statement that says one quantity is less than (<) or greater than (>) another (strict
inequality). In some instances, however, one quantity may be less than or equal to (≤) , or greater than or
equal to () to another.
e.g. 3 < 5x – 2, 4x – 5 x + 15

Compound Inequality – a compound statement that says one quantity is less than (or greater than) another
but is greater than (or less than) a third. e.g. -4 < 2x – 3 ≤ 9
Properties of Inequality –
1. Trichotomy – If a and b are real umbers, then a < b, a =b or a > b.
2. Transitive – if a < b and b < c, then a < c and If a > b and b > c, then a > c
3. Addition Property – If a, b and c are real numbers and a < b, then a + c < b + c.
If a, b and c are real numbers and a > b, then a.
Solution of a Linear Inequality – an element of the domain of the variable which makes the inequality true.
Solving a Linear Inequality – the process of finding, through the use of the properties of inequality, all the solutions of
the inequality
Note: Solving a linear inequality is similar to solving linear equations except that instead of using the properties
of equality, we use the properties of inequality e.g. -4 ≤ 2x – 3 ≤ 9

III. STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY

Definitions:

1. Statistics - Collection of methods for planning experiments, obtaining data, and then organizing,
summarizing, presenting, analyzing, interpreting, and drawing conclusions.
2. Variable - Characteristic or attribute that can assume different values
3. Random Variable - A variable whose values are determined by chance.
4. Population - All subjects possessing a common characteristic that is being studied.
5. Sample - A subgroup or subset of the population.
6. Parameter - Characteristic or measure obtained from a population.

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 7. Statistic (not to be confused with Statistics) - Characteristic or measure obtained from a sample.
8. Descriptive Statistics - Collection, organization, summarization, and presentation of data.
9. Inferential Statistics - Generalizing from samples to populations using probabilities. Performing
hypothesis testing, determining relationships between variables, and making predictions.
10. Qualitative Variables - Variables which assume non-numerical values.
11. Quantitative Variables- Variables which assume numerical values.
12. Discrete Variables - Variables which assume a finite or countable number of possible values.
Usually obtained by counting.
13. Continuous Variables - Variables which assume an infinite number of possible values. Usually
obtained by measurement.
14. Nominal Level- Level of measurement which classifies data into mutually exclusive, all
inclusive categories in which no order or ranking can be imposed on the data.
15. Ordinal Level - Level of measurement which classifies data into categories that can be ranked.
Differences between the ranks do not exist.
16. Interval Level - Level of measurement which classifies data that can be ranked and differences
are meaningful. However, there is no meaningful zero, so ratios are meaningless.
17. Ratio Level - Level of measurement which classifies data that can be ranked, differences are
meaningful, and there is a true zero. True ratios exist between the different units of measure.
18. Random Sampling - Sampling in which the data is collected using chance methods or random
numbers.
19. Systematic Sampling- Sampling in which data is obtained by selecting every kth object.
20. Convenience Sampling - Sampling in which data is which is readily available is used.
21. Stratified Sampling-Sampling in which the population is divided into groups (called strata)
according to some characteristic. Each of these strata is then sampled using one of the other
sampling techniques.
22. Cluster Sampling - Sampling in which the population is divided into groups (usually
geographically). Some of these groups are randomly selected, and then all of the elements in
those groups are selected.

Measures of Central Tendency

Mean

This is what people usually intend when they say "average"

Population Mean:

Sample Mean:

Frequency Distribution:
The mean of a frequency distribution is also the weighted mean.

Median
The data must be ranked (sorted in ascending order) first. The median is the number in the middle.
To find the depth of the median, there are several formulas that could be used, the one that we will use is:
Depth of median = 0.5 * (n + 1)
Raw Data
The median is the number in the "depth of the median" position. If the sample size is even, the depth of the median will be
a decimal -- you need to find the midpoint between the numbers on either side of the depth of the median.
Ungrouped Frequency Distribution
Find the cumulative frequencies for the data. The first value with a cumulative frequency greater than depth of the median
is the median. If the depth of the median is exactly 0.5 more than the cumulative frequency of the previous class, then the
median is the midpoint between the two classes.
Grouped Frequency Distribution
This is the tough one.

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Since the data is grouped, you have lost all original information. Some textbooks have you simply take the midpoint of the
class. This is an over-simplification which isn't the true value (but much easier to do). The correct process is to
interpolate.
Find out what proportion of the distance into the median class the median by dividing the sample size by 2, subtracting the
cumulative frequency of the previous class, and then dividing all that bay the frequency of the median class.
Multiply this proportion by the class width and add it to the lower boundary of the median class.

Mode
The mode is the most frequent data value. There may be no mode if no one value appears more than any other. There may
also be two modes (bimodal), three modes (trimodal), or more than three modes (multi-modal).
For grouped frequency distributions, the modal class is the class with the largest frequency.

Midrange
The midrange is simply the midpoint between the highest and lowest values.

Summary
The Mean is used in computing other statistics (such as the variance) and does not exist for open ended grouped frequency
distributions (1). It is often not appropriate for skewed distributions such as salary information.
The Median is the center number and is good for skewed distributions because it is resistant to change.
The Mode is used to describe the most typical case. The mode can be used with nominal data whereas the others can't.
The mode may or may not exist and there may be more than one value for the mode (2).
The Midrange is not used very often. It is a very rough estimate of the average and is greatly affected by extreme values
(even more so than the mean).
Property Mean Median Mode Midrange
Always Exists No (1) Yes No (2) Yes
Uses all data values Yes No No No
Affected by extreme values Yes No No Yes

Measures of Variation

Range
The range is the simplest measure of variation to find. It is simply the highest value minus the lowest value.
RANGE = MAXIMUM - MINIMUM
Since the range only uses the largest and smallest values, it is greatly affected by extreme values, that is - it is not resistant
to change.

Variance
"Average Deviation"
The range only involves the smallest and largest numbers, and it would be desirable to have a statistic which involved all
of the data values.
The first attempt one might make at this is something they might call the average deviation from the mean and define it
as:

The problem is that this summation is always zero. So, the average deviation will always be zero. That is why the average
deviation is never used.

Population Variance
So, to keep it from being zero, the deviation from the mean is squared and called the "squared deviation from the mean".
This "average squared deviation from the mean" is called the variance.

Unbiased Estimate of the Population Variance

One would expect the sample variance to simply be the population variance with the population mean replaced by the
sample mean. However, one of the major uses of statistics is to estimate the corresponding parameter. This formula has

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the problem that the estimated value isn't the same as the parameter. To counteract this, the sum of the squares of the
deviations is divided by one less than the sample size.

Standard Deviation
There is a problem with variances. Recall that the deviations were squared. That means that the units were also squared.
To get the units back the same as the original data values, the square root must be taken.

The sample standard deviation is not the unbiased estimator for the population standard deviation.
The calculator does not have a variance key on it. It does have a standard deviation key. You will have to square the
standard deviation to find the variance.

Sum of Squares (shortcuts)

The sum of the squares of the deviations from the means is given a shortcut notation and several alternative formulas.

PROBABILITY RULES

"OR" or Unions
Mutually Exclusive Events
Two events are mutually exclusive if they cannot occur at the same time. Another word that means mutually exclusive is
disjoint.
If two events are disjoint, then the probability of them both occurring at the same time is 0.
Disjoint: P(A and B) = 0
If two events are mutually exclusive, then the probability of either occurring is the sum of the probabilities of each
occurring.

Specific Addition Rule

Only valid when the events are mutually exclusive.
P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B)
Example 1:
Given: P(A) = 0.20, P(B) = 0.70, A and B are disjoint
I like to use what's called a joint probability distribution. (Since disjoint means nothing in common, joint is what they
have in common -- so the values that go on the inside portion of the table are the intersections or "and"s of each pair of
events). "Marginal" is another word for totals -- it's called marginal because they appear in the margins.
B B' Marginal
A 0.00 0.20 0.20
A' 0.70 0.10 0.80
Marginal 0.70 0.30 1.00
The values in red are given in the problem. The grand total is always 1.00. The rest of the values are obtained by addition
and subtraction.

Non-Mutually Exclusive Events

In events which aren't mutually exclusive, there is some overlap. When P(A) and P(B) are added, the probability of the
intersection (and) is added twice. To compensate for that double addition, the intersection needs to be subtracted.

General Addition Rule

Always valid.
P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) - P(A and B)

Example 2:
Given P(A) = 0.20, P(B) = 0.70, P(A and B) = 0.15

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 B B' Marginal
A 0.15 0.05 0.20
A' 0.55 0.25 0.80
Marginal 0.70 0.30 1.00

Interpreting the table

Certain things can be determined from the joint probability distribution. Mutually exclusive events will have a probability
of zero. All inclusive events will have a zero opposite the intersection. All inclusive means that there is nothing outside of
those two events: P(A or B) = 1.
B B' Marginal
A A and B are Mutually Exclusive if this . .
value is 0
A' . A and B are All Inclusive if this value is .
0
Marginal . . 1.00

"AND" or Intersections
Independent Events
Two events are independent if the occurrence of one does not change the probability of the other occurring.
An example would be rolling a 2 on a die and flipping a head on a coin. Rolling the 2 does not affect the probability of
flipping the head.
If events are independent, then the probability of them both occurring is the product of the probabilities of each occurring.

Specific Multiplication Rule

Only valid for independent events
P(A and B) = P(A) * P(B)

Example 3:
P(A) = 0.20, P(B) = 0.70, A and B are independent.
B B' Marginal
A 0.14 0.06 0.20
A' 0.56 0.24 0.80
Marginal 0.70 0.30 1.00
The 0.14 is because the probability of A and B is the probability of A times the probability of B or 0.20 * 0.70 = 0.14.

Dependent Events
If the occurrence of one event does affect the probability of the other occurring, then the events are dependent.

Conditional Probability
The probability of event B occurring that event A has already occurred is read "the probability of B given A" and is
written: P(B|A)

General Multiplication Rule

Always works.
P(A and B) = P(A) * P(B|A)
Example 4:
P(A) = 0.20, P(B) = 0.70, P(B|A) = 0.40
A good way to think of P(B|A) is that 40% of A is B. 40% of the 20% which was in event A is 8%, thus the intersection is
0.08.
B B' Marginal
A 0.08 0.12 0.20
A' 0.62 0.18 0.80
Marginal 0.70 0.30 1.00
Independence Revisited
The following four statements are equivalent
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 1. A and B are independent events
2. P(A and B) = P(A) * P(B)
3. P(A|B) = P(A)
4. P(B|A) = P(B)
The last two are because if two events are independent, the occurrence of one doesn't change the probability of the
occurrence of the other. This means that the probability of B occurring, whether A has happened or not, is simply the
probability of B occurring.

BASIC GEOMETRY

Finding the Area and Perimeter

What is Area?

The area is the amount of two-dimensional space taken up by the object. It is measured in square units.

Formulas for Finding Area

 Area of the rectangle =  length × width
 Area of the Square = s², where ‘s’ = sides of the square
 The area of a triangle is A = 12 b × h  where’ b’ is the base and ‘ h’ is the height
 Area of the circle = πr² where ‘ r ‘ is the radius
 The area of the parallelogram is A = b × h; here b = base and h =vertical height
 Area of parallelogram = base × height
 Area of rhombus = base × height
 The Area of trapezium = 1/2 (sum of parallel sides) × (perpendicular distance between them)

What is Perimeter?
A perimeter is the total boundary of the two-dimensional shape. If you want to provide a fencing around the entire field
you need its perimeter. Suppose you want to lay a pathway inside the field to keep a watch on your field you need its
perimeter. The units of the perimeter are, cm, m etc.

Formulas for Finding Perimeter

 Perimeter of Rectangle: We can see that in the rectangle the two sides are parallel and equal and also all the
angles are 90 degrees. P = l+ b+ l+ b = 2l + 2b = 2 ( l + b )

 Perimeter of Square: So a rectangle with all its sides equal is a square. A perimeter of a square is 4 × S
 The Perimeter of a Triangle: is given by P = (a + b + c), where a, b and c are the 3 sides of the triangle.
 Perimeter of Parallelogram = 2 (sum of adjacent sides)
 Perimeter of Rhombus = 4 × side

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