The human brain is the center of the human nervous system.

Enclosed in the cranium, the human brain has the same general
structure as that of other mammals, but is over three times
larger than the brain of a typical mammal with an equivalent
body size.[1] Most of the spatial expansion comes from
the cerebral cortex, a convoluted layer of neural tissue which
covers the surface of the forebrain. Especially expanded are
the frontal lobes, which are associated withexecutive
functions such as self-control, planning, reasoning, and abstract
thought. The portion of the brain devoted to vision,
the occipital lobe, is also greatly enlarged in human beings.
Brain evolution, from the earliest shrew-like mammals
through primates to hominids, is marked by a steady increase
in encephalization, or the ratio of brain to body size. The human
brain has been estimated to contain 80 or 90 billion (~85 109)
non-neuronal cells (glial cells) and an approximately equal
number of (~86 109) neurons,[2] of which about 10 billion (1010)
are cortical pyramidal cells. These cells pass signals to each
other via as many as 1000 trillion (1015, 1 quadrillion) synaptic
connections.[3] Due to evolution and synaptic pruning, however,
the modern human brain has been shrinking over the past
28,000 years.[4][5]
The brain monitors and regulates the body's actions and
reactions. It continuously receives sensory information, and
rapidly analyzes these data and then responds accordingly by
controlling bodily actions and functions. The brainstem controls
breathing, heart rate, and otherautonomic processes that are
independent of conscious brain functions. The neocortex is the
center of higher-order thinking, learning, and memory.
The cerebellum is responsible for the body's balance, posture,
and the coordination of movement.
Despite being protected by the thick bones of the skull,
suspended in cerebrospinal fluid, and isolated from the
bloodstream by the blood-brain barrier, the human brain is
susceptible to many types of damage and disease. The most
common forms of physical damage are closed head injuries such
as a blow to the head, a stroke, or poisoning by a wide variety of
chemicals that can act as neurotoxins. Infection of the brain,
though serious, is rare due to the biological barriers which
protect it. The human brain is also susceptible to degenerative
disorders, such asParkinson's disease, multiple sclerosis,
and Alzheimer's disease. A number of psychiatric conditions,
such as schizophrenia and depression, are widely thought to be
associated with brain dysfunctions, although the nature of such
brain anomalies is not well understood.

The adult human brain weighs on average about 3 lb (1.5 kg)

[7]
with a size (volume) of around 1130cubic centimetres (cm3) in
women and 1260 cm3 in men, although there is substantial
individual variation.[8] Men with the same body height and body
surface area as women have on average 100g heavier brains,
[9]
although these differences do not correlate in any simple way
with gray matter neuron counts or with overall measures of
cognitive performance.[10] Neanderthals, an extinct subspecies
of modern humans, had larger brains at adulthood than present-
day humans.[11] The brain is very soft, having a consistency
similar to soft gelatin or soft tofu.[12] Despite being referred to
as "grey matter", the live cortex is pinkish-beige in color and
slightly off-white in the interior. At the age of 20, a man has
around 176,000 km and a woman about 149,000 km of
myelinated axons in their brains.[13]
The cerebral hemispheres form the largest part of the human brain and
are situated above most other brain structures. They are covered with
a cortical layer with a convoluted topography.[14] Underneath
the cerebrum lies the brainstem, resembling a stalk on which the
cerebrum is attached. At the rear of the brain, beneath the cerebrum
and behind the brainstem, is the cerebellum, a structure with a
horizontally furrowed surface that makes it look different from any
other brain area. The same structures are present in other mammals,
although the cerebellum is not so large relative to the rest of the brain.
As a rule, the smaller the cerebrum, the less convoluted the cortex. The
cortex of a rat or mouse is almost completely smooth. The cortex of a
dolphin or whale, on the other hand, is more convoluted than the cortex
of a human.
The dominant feature of the human brain is corticalization. The cerebral
cortex in humans is so large that it overshadows every other part of the
brain. A few subcortical structures show alterations reflecting this
trend. The cerebellum, for example, has a medial zone connected mainly
to subcortical motor areas, and a lateral zone connected primarily to the
cortex. In humans the lateral zone takes up a much larger fraction of
the cerebellum than in most other mammalian species. Corticalization is
reflected in function as well as structure. In a rat, surgical removal of
the entire cerebral cortex leaves an animal that is still capable of
walking around and interacting with the environment.[15] In a human,
comparable cerebral cortex damage produces a permanent state ofcoma.
The amount of association cortex, relative to the other two categories,
increases dramatically as one goes from simpler mammals, such as the rat
and the cat, to more complex ones, such as the chimpanzee and the
human.[16]
The cerebral cortex is essentially a sheet of neural tissue, folded in a
way that allows a large surface area to fit within the confines of the
skull. Each cerebral hemisphere, in fact, has a total surface area of
about 1.3 square feet.[17] Anatomists call each cortical fold a sulcus, and
the smooth area between folds a gyrus.
Four lobes

Outwardly, the cerebral cortex is nearly symmetrical, with left

and right hemispheres. Anatomists conventionally divide each
hemisphere into four "lobes", the:

 Frontal lobe
 Parietal lobe
 Occipital lobe
 Temporal lobe

The bones of the human skull

This categorization does not actually arise from the structure
of the cortex itself: the lobes are named after the bones of
the skull that overlie them. There is one exception: the border
between the frontal and parietal lobes is shifted backward to
the central sulcus, a deep fold that marks the line where the
primary somatosensory cortex and primary motor cortex come
together. Although the division of the cortex into hemispheres
and lobes is very general and perhaps lack the precision of
specifying by brain coordinates (e.g. Talairach space) or
through the region of specific brain cytoarchitecture
(e.g. Brodmann areas, or deep brain structures), it is
nevertheless useful for discussing general brain anatomy or the
locating of lesions in a general area of the brain.
There is a fifth lobe to the cerebral cortex known as the insula
or insular cortex, which is only visible if the temporal lobe is
pulled down during dissection at the lateral sulcus.
Major folds
Although there are enough variations in the shape and placement of gyri
and sulci (cortical folds) to make every brain unique, most human brains
show sufficiently consistent patterns of folding that allow them to be
named. Many of the gyri and sulci are named according to the location on
the lobes or other major folds on the cortex. These include:

 Superior, Middle, Inferior frontal gyrus: in reference to the

frontal lobe
 Precentral and Postcentral sulcus: in reference to the central
sulcus
 Trans-occipital sulcus: in reference to the occipital lobe

Deep folding features in the brain, such as the inter-hemispheric

and lateral fissure, which divides the left and right brain, and the lateral
sulcus, which "splits-off" the temporal lobe, are present in almost all
normal subjects.

The anatomy of the brain is complex due its intricate structure and
function. This amazing organ acts as a control center by receiving,
interpreting, and directing sensory information throughout the body.
There are three major divisions of the brain. They are the forebrain, the
midbrain, and the hindbrain.
Anatomy of the Brain: Brain Divisions

The forebrain is responsible for a variety of functions including receiving

and processing sensory information, thinking, perceiving, producing and
understanding language, and controlling motor function. There are two
major divisions of forebrain: the diencephalon and the telencephalon.
The diencephalon contains structures such as the thalamus and
hypothalamus which are responsible for such functions as motor control,
relaying sensory information, and controlling autonomic functions. The
telencephalon contains the largest part of the brain, the cerebrum. Most
of the actual information processing in the brain takes place in
the cerebral cortex.

The midbrain and the hindbrain together make up the brainstem. The
midbrain is the portion of the brainstem that connects the hindbrain and
the forebrain. This region of the brain is involved in auditory and visual
responses as well as motor function.

The hindbrain extends from the spinal cord and is composed of

the metencephalon andmyelencephalon. The metencephalon contains
structures such as the pons and cerebellum. These regions assists in
maintaining balance and equilibrium, movement coordination, and the
conduction of sensory information. The myelencephalon is composed of
the medulla oblongata which is responsible for controlling such autonomic
functions as breathing, heart rate, and digestion.

Anatomy of the Brain: Structures

The brain contains various structures that have a multitude of functions.

Below is a list of major structures of the brain and some of their
functions.

Basal Ganglia
 • Involved in cognition and voluntary movement
• Diseases related to damages of this area are Parkinson's and
Huntington's
Brainstem
• Relays information between the peripheral nerves and spinal cord
to the upper parts of the brain
• Consists of the midbrain, medulla oblongata, and the pons
Broca's Area
• Speech production
• Understanding language
Central Sulcus (Fissure of Rolando)
• Deep grove that separates the parietal and frontal lobes
Cerebellum
• Controls movement coordination
• Maintains balance and equilibrium
Cerebral Cortex
• Outer portion (1.5mm to 5mm) of the cerebrum
• Receives and processes sensory information
• Divided into cerebral cortex lobes
Cerebral Cortex Lobes
• Frontal Lobes -involved with decision-making, problem solving, and
planning

• Occipital Lobes-involved with vision and color recognition

• Parietal Lobes - receives and processes sensory information

• Temporal Lobes - involved with emotional responses, memory, and

speech
Cerebrum
• Largest portion of the brain
• Consists of folded bulges called gyri that create deep furrows
Corpus Callosum
 • Thick band of fibers that connects the left and right brain
hemispheres
Cranial Nerves
• Twelve pairs of nerves that originate in the brain, exit the skull,
and lead to the head, neck and torso
Fissure of Sylvius (Lateral Sulcus)
• Deep grove that separates the parietal and temporal lobes
Limbic System Structures
• Amygdala - involved in emotional responses, hormonal secretions,
and memory

• Cingulate Gyrus - a fold in the brain involved with sensory input

concerning emotions and the regulation of aggressive behavior

• Fornix - an arching, fibrous band of nerve fibers that connect the

hippocampus to the hypothalamus

• Hippocampus - sends memories out to the appropriate part of the

cerebral hemisphere for long-term storage and retrievs them when
necessary

• Hypothalamus - directs a multitude of important functions such as

body temperature, hunger, and homeostasis

• Olfactory Cortex - receives sensory information from the olfactory

bulb and is involved in the identification of odors

• Thalamus - mass of grey matter cells that relay sensory signals to

and from the spinal cord and the cerebrum
Medulla Oblongata
• Lower part of the brainstem that helps to control autonomic
functions
Meninges
• Membranes that cover and protect the brain and spinal cord
Olfactory Bulb
 • Bulb-shaped end of the olfactory lobe
• Involved in the sense of smell
Pineal Gland
• Endocrine gland involved in biological rhythms
• Secretes the hormone melatonin
Pituitary Gland
• Endocrine gland involved in homeostasis
• Regulates other endocrine glands
Pons
• Relays sensory information between the cerebrum and cerebellum
Reticular Formation
• Nerve fibers located inside the brainstem
• Regulates awareness and sleep
Substantia Nigra
• Helps to control voluntary movement and regualtes mood
Tectum
• The dorsal region of the mesencephalon (mid brain)
Tegmentum
• The ventral region of the mesencephalon (mid brain).
Ventricular System - connecting system of internal brain cavities filled
with cerebrospinal fluid
• Aqueduct of Sylvius - canal that is located between the third
ventricle and the fourth ventricle

• Choroid Plexus - produces cerebrospinal fluid

• Fourth Ventricle - canal that runs between the pons, medulla

oblongata, and the cerebellum

• Lateral Ventricle - largest of the ventricles and located in both

brain hemispheres

• Third Ventricle - provides a pathway for cerebrospinal fluid to flow

Wernicke's Area
 • Region of the brain where spoken language is understood
• ***********
The

The brain can be subdivided into several distinct regions:

• The cerebral hemispheres form the largest part of the brain, occupying the anterior and
middle cranial fossae in the skull and extending backwards over the tentorium cerebelli. They are
made up of the cerebral cortex, the basal ganglia, tracts of synaptic connections, and the
ventricles containing CSF.
• The Diencephalon (not shown above) includes the thalamus, hyopthalamus, epithalamus and
subthalamus, and forms the central core of the brain. It is surrounded by the cerebral
hemispheres.
• The Midbrain (not shown) is located at the junction of the middle and posterior cranial fossae.
• The Pons sits in the anterior part of the posterior cranial fossa- the fibres within the structure
connect one cerebral hemisphere with its opposite cerebellar hemisphere.
• The Medulla Oblongata is continuous with the spinal cord, and is responsible for automatic
control of the respiratory and cardiovascular systems.
• The Cerebellum overlies the pons and medulla, extending beneath the tentorium cerebelli and
occupying most of the posterior cranial fossa. It is mainly concerned with motor functions that
regulate muscle tone, coordination, and posture.

The cerebral hemispheres are supplied by three main arteries:

• anterior cerebral artery

• middle cerebral artery
• posterior cerebral artery

(the areas supplied by each artery can be seen by clicking on the names above)

Stenosis or occlusion in any of these arteries will have an effect on the area of brain they supply; the
effect will depend on the degree of occlusion, and where in the artery the occlusion is (if it is in one of
the terminal branches the effect may be fairly small, but if it is at the base of the artery the effect will be
very large).

Occlusion results in ischaemic damage to the cerebral tissues- this is called an 'ischaemic stroke'- and
will therefore affect whatever system that particular region controls, often leaving a permanent residual
deficit even if the cause of the ischaemia resolves.