AP Calculus AB 
 
Notes 2018‐2019 
 
 
Arbor View HS 
 
 
Name:

Period:
 

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Table of Contents
1.2 Finding Limits Graphically and Numerically (48)...................................................................................4 

1.3 Evaluating Limits Analytically (57) ........................................................................................................7 

1.4 Continuity and One-Sided Limits (68)...................................................................................................10 

1.5 Infinite Limits (80) .................................................................................................................................14 

3.5 Limits at Infinity (192) ...........................................................................................................................18 

2.1 The Derivative and the Tangent Line Problem (94) ..............................................................................20 

2.2 Basic Differentiation Rules (105) ..........................................................................................................23 

2.2 Day 2 Rates of Change (109) .................................................................................................................26 

2.3 Product and Quotient Rules (117) ..........................................................................................................29 

2.3 Day 2 Trigonometric & Higher-Order Derivatives (121) ......................................................................32 

2.4 Day 1 Chain Rule (127) .........................................................................................................................36 

2.4 Day 2 Chain Rule (132) .........................................................................................................................39 

2.5 Day 1 Implicit Differentiation (132) ......................................................................................................42 

2.5 Day 2 Implicit Differentiation (132) ......................................................................................................45 

2.6 Day 1 Related Rates (144) .....................................................................................................................47 

2.6 Day 2 Related Rates (144) .....................................................................................................................50 

3.1 Extrema on an Interval (160) .................................................................................................................53 

3.2 Rolle’s & Mean Value Theorems (168) .................................................................................................55 

3.3 Increasing/Decreasing f(x)s and the 1st Derivative Test (174) ..............................................................58 

3.4 Concavity and the 2nd Derivative Test (184) ........................................................................................61 

3.6 Summary of Curve Sketching (202) ......................................................................................................64 

3.7 Optimization (211) .................................................................................................................................68 

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3.8 Newton’s Method (222) .........................................................................................................................72 

3.9 Differentials (228) ..................................................................................................................................74 

4.1 Antiderivatives and Indefinite Integration (242)....................................................................................79 

4.2 Area (242) ..............................................................................................................................................83 

4.3 Riemann Sums and Definite Integrals (265) ..........................................................................................87 

4.4 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (275) .......................................................................................90 

Slope Fields (Appendix pg. A6)...................................................................................................................94 

4.5 Integration by Substitution (288) ...........................................................................................................97 

4.6 Numerical Integration (300).................................................................................................................100 

5.1 The Natural Log Function: Differentiation (314) ................................................................................103 

5.2 The Natural Log Function: Integration (324).......................................................................................106 

5.3 Inverse Functions (332) .......................................................................................................................109 

5.4 Exponential f(x)s: Differentiation & Integration (341) ........................................................................112 

5.5 Bases Other than e and Applications (351) ..........................................................................................115 

5.6 Differential Equations: Grow and Decay (361) ...................................................................................118 

5.7 Differential Eqs: Separation of Variables (369)...................................................................................120 

5.8 Inverse Trig Functions - Differentiation (380).....................................................................................123 

5.9 Inverse Trig Functions - Integration (388) ...........................................................................................126 

7.7 Indeterminate Forms and L'Hopital's Rule (530) .................................................................................128 

6.1 Area of Region Between Two Curves (412) ........................................................................................130 

6.2 Volume the Disk Method (421) ...........................................................................................................133 

6.3 Volume the Shell Method (432)...........................................................................................................137 

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Notes #1-1
Date: ______
1.2 Finding Limits Graphically and Numerically (48)
Letter of recommendation:
participate in class, stand lim f(x) = L * The limit (L) of f(x) as x approaches c.
out – in a good way! x  c

1) A penny: .01 = x 2  3x  2
lim =?
2) Go ½ the distance x  2 x2
each time over 10 ft.
x 1.75 1.9 1.999 2 2.001 2.1 2.25
y ?

1cos x
Ex.1 Find lim numerically and graphically.
x  0 x

 3 x  -2
Ex.2 lim f ( x)   ?
x  2  1 x  -2
“hiccup” function

* Existence at the
point is irrelevant.

Limits that fail to exist:

1. f(x) approaches different values from the left and right
sides of c. lim  f ( x)  lim  f ( x)
x  c x  c
from the left from the right

Diving board f(x) 2 x  1

Ex.3 lim f ( x) if f ( x)  
0 x  1
Exists everywhere else.
x 1
lim f ( x) 
x 0

lim f ( x) 
x 3

4
 2. Unbounded Behavior
x y
1
Ex.4 lim 
x  0 x

3. Oscillating Behavior
1
Ex.5 lim tan   
x  0  x

The Formal Definition of a Limit (52)

We start with the informal: L is the limit of f(x) as x
approaches c if f(x) gets close to L as x gets close to c.

lim f(x) = L
x  c

The description is informal because the underlined phrases

do not have precise meaning.

Lowercase Greek: ε-δ Definition of a Limit: for each ε > 0 there exists a δ > 0
δ – delta (x)
such that if 0  x  c   , then f ( x)  L   .
ε – epsilon (y)
excludes c
Alphabetical order.
L+ε
L
L–ε

c–δ c c+δ

0 x c 
5
y=x So for f(x) = x, lim x if ε < .5,
x2 4
then δ < .5 and so on….

Ex.6 Find the limit L. Then find δ > 0 such that

f ( x)  L  0.01 whenever 0  x c   .

a) lim x b) lim 2 x  6
x3 x4

Ex.7 Find the limit L. Then use the ε-δ Definition to prove
that the limit is L.
a) lim 5x b) lim 2 x 1
x 1 x4

Summary: Ex.8 The sum of the prime divisors of 2010 is:

a) 211 b) 208 c) 76 d) 77 e) 78
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Notes #1-2
Date:______
1.3 Evaluating Limits Analytically (57)
What are we class? Techniques of Finding Limits
1. Direct Substitution
See continuity in 1.4.
lim f(x) = f(c) if f(x) is continuous at c.
xc

Ex.1 Find the limit:

a) lim 2 x  7 b) lim 3 x  22
x  2 x5

x
c) lim sin d) lim 4
x3 2 x5

Composite functions
see (59) Ex.4 x c xL x c
 x c

lim g(x) = L & lim f(x) = f(L), then lim f(g(x)) = f lim g ( x) = f(L)

Properties of Limits (57)

Ex.2-5 lim f(x) = 5, lim f(x) = 4 and lim g(x) = 8
x3 x 8 x3

a. lim [f(x) + g(x)] = b. lim [f(x) – g(x)] =

x3 x3

f ( x)
c. lim [f(x)]2 = d. lim =
x3 x3 g ( x )

e. lim 6f(x) = f. lim g  x  =

x3 x3

g. lim f(g(x)) = h. lim sec x

x3 x 

7
 0
2. Dividing Out Technique   = indeterminate form
0
3
Know the sum and 8 x  27
difference of cubes!
Ex.6 Find the lim for:
xc 2 x 3
x3 + 125 a) c = 0 b) c = 2

c) c = 1.5

Ex.7 Find the limit:

x 2  4 x 5 3( x x) 3x
6
a) lim b) lim
64x – 1 x5 x 5 x  0 x

3. Rationalizing Technique (the numerator)

Ex.8 Find the limit:
x 1  2 7 z  7
Don’t multiply out a) lim b) lim
the denominator. x3 x 3 z0 z

Memorize these!
sin x Ex.9 Find the limit using the Special Trig Limits (64)
lim 1
x
1cos 2 x
x 0
x
lim
1  cos x
0 a) lim b) lim
x 0 x x  0 3x x0 sin(5x)

8
 1 1
Complex fraction 
Ex.10 Evaluate the limit, if it exists: lim x 2.
x 2
x2
1 1
a) b)  c) 1 d) -1 e) dne
4 4

tan 1 x
tanθ = Ex.11 Evaluate the limit, if it exists: lim
x1 1
.
sin x 1
1 1  
a) 0 b) c) d) e)
4 2 2 2  4

The Squeeze Theorem aka Sandwich Theorem (63)

If h(x) < f(x) < g(x) & lim h(x) = L & lim g (x) = L
xc xc

then lim f (x) = L .

xc

1
Ex.12 Use the graph of f(x) = x2sin and the Squeeze
x
Theorem to find lim f (x) if -x2 < f(x) < x2.
x0

2008 #5
5 x 4 8 x 2
Ex.13 lim
x0
3x 4 16 x 2
Summary: 1 5
(A)  (B) 0 (C) 1 (D) (E) dne
2 3

9
Notes #1-3
Date: ______
1.4 Continuity and One-Sided Limits (68)
Can be traced without A function is continuous (uninterrupted) at c if:
lifting your pencil.
1. f(c) is defined.
2. lim f(x) exists.
xc
3. lim f(x) = f(c).
xc

A discontinuity is removable if f can be made continuous by

redefining f(c), i.e. the value at that single point.

c c c

Defined at c? _____ _____ _____

Limit at c? _____ _____ _____
Removable? _____ _____ _____

A function is continuous:
A) on an open interval if it continuous at each point in the interval.
B) everywhere if it is continuous on (-∞, ∞).
C) on a closed interval [a, b] if it is continuous on (a, b) and
+ from the right
lim f ( x) = f (a) and lim f ( x) = f (b) .
– from the left x  a x  b

a b a b a b

Match (A-C) ____ ____ ____

10
Discontinuities Ex.1 Discuss the continuity of the function:
Removable
Jump 1 x 2 5 x  6
Infinite
a) f ( x)  2 b) f ( x) 
5 x x 3

2 x 1 x2
The Greatest Integer 5 x 2
f(x) is a Step function c) f ( x)   x  d) f(x) =
or staircase. 1
x  2 x 2
Graphing calc under
2
catalog int(

Ex.2 Find the limits from the graph of f(x):

a) lim f ( x) d) lim f ( x)
x  1 4 x  1 4
3 3
b) lim f ( x) 2 e) lim f ( x) 2
x  1 1 x  1 1

1 2 1 2
c) lim f ( x) f) lim f ( x)
x 1 x 1

11
 Ex.3 Find the limit of:
x
a) lim x 5  b) lim 2 x 6  c) lim 

x  5 x3 
x 1 x

See Properties of If f & g are continuous at c, then…

Limits (57).
1. af
2. f +/– g
3. f · g are continuous at c.
f
4. , g(c) ≠ 0
g
5. f(g(x)), restrictions

(73) Some functions are continuous at every point in their domain:

1. Polynomial
2. Rational Given #2 above and #1 & #4
3. Radical y = 2x5 + 5 – cosx is continuous.
4. Trigonometric

Existence theorems The Intermediate Value Theorem (often 1 point on AP exam):

tell you something Suppose f(x) is continuous on [a, b]. If k is any number
exists, but do not give
you a method for between f(a) and f(b), then there is at least one number c in
finding them. [a, b] such that f(c) = k.
A person was 2 feet If f(a) = 2 and f(b) = 5, then
tall f(a) when she was there is a f(d) = 3 (three in
1 year old (a) and she this case) and a f(c) = 4
was 5 feet tall f(b)
when she was 14 somewhere on [a, d].
a b
years old (b). At
some point (c) she
must have been 4 feet Ex.4 Explain why the function has a zero in the given
tall (k) because interval: f(x) = x3 + x2 – 1; [0, 1].
human growth is
continuous over an
interval of time.
Ex.5 Use the Intermediate Value Theorem and the bisection
method to estimate the zero of f(x) = ex – 3x; [0, 1].

12
 Ex.6 Find value(s) for a, so that the function
 x2  a2 x x2
f  x    is continuous.
 4  2 x2 x2


Ex.7 Find values for a and b, so that the function

 5, x  4

f ( x)   2ax  b, 4  x  3 is continuous.

 bx  5
 x3

2008 #77 Ex.8 The figure shows the graph of a function f with
domain 0 < x < 4. Which of the limits exist?

I. lim  f ( x)
x2
II. lim  f ( x)
x2
III. lim f ( x)
Summary: x2

(A) I (B) II (C) I & II (D)I & III (E) I, II, & III

13
Notes #1-4
Date:______
1.5 Infinite Limits (80)
Infinite Limit: a limit in which f(x) increases or decreases
without bound as x approaches c.
It shows that f(x) is
unbounded, so the 1
limit dne. The = sign The notation lim
x0
  does not mean that the limit exists!
is misleading.
x

Ex.1 Find the real number c that is not in the domain.

Determine whether f(x) approaches -∞ or ∞ as x
approaches c from the left and from the right.
3 1
÷ by 0 a) f ( x)  b) f ( x) 
x 4 2 x

c= c=

lim f ( x)  lim f ( x) 
xc xc

lim f ( x)  lim f ( x) 
xc xc

2 3
c) f ( x)  d) f ( x) 
 x 3 2  x  2 2
c= c=

lim f ( x)  lim f ( x) 
xc xc

lim f ( x)  lim f ( x) 
xc xc

Vertical Asymptote: x = c, if f(x) approaches -∞ or ∞ as x

approaches c from the left or the right.
14
Precalc notes Ch.2.6
Ex.2 Find the vertical asymptotes and removable
discontinuities of the functions:
3x 2 1 x 2  2 x 8
Degree
a) f ( x)  2 b) f ( x) 
A x 9 x2 4
N=D y=
B

N<D y=0

N>D no H.A.

Past AP Type Problems Covered by this Chapter:

The AP Calc test has
4 parts: x 2  x 6
Ex.3 Evaluate the limit: lim .
x 2
2 x
Multiple choice:
30 Qs in 60 minutes
no calculator. a) 5 b) 3 c) -3 d) -5 e) dne
15 Qs in 45 minutes –
some require a
calculator. x 5  2
Ex.4 Evaluate the limit, if it exists: lim .
Free response:
x9
x 9
2 Qs in 30 minutes
some parts of Qs may 1 1
require a calculator. a) b)  c) 1 d) 0 e) dne
4 4
4 Qs in 60 minutes
no calculator.
Ex.5 How many vertical asymptotes exist for
1
f ( x)  2
in (0, 2π)?
2sin x sin x 1

a) 0 b) 1 c) 2 d) 3 e) 4

15
IVT Ex.6 If p(x) is a continuous function on [1, 3] with
p(1) < K < p(3) and c is in the closed interval [1, 3],
then what must be true?

x 2  3x  4
Ex.7 Identify the vertical asymptote(s) for f ( x)  2
.
x  x2
a) x = -2, x = 1 b) x = -2 c) x = 1

d) y = -2, y = 1 e) y = -2

 x 1
GC Ex.8 Find the limit: lim
x0
x   e  x .
 
a) 0 b) 1 c) 2 d) dne e) none

Ex.9 Is the function continuous at x = 1? Why or why not?

 x
2
for x  1
f ( x)  
2  x for x  1

Ex.10 sin(2 x), x   what value of k will make

f ( x)   this function continuous?
 2x  k , x  
a) -2π b) -π c) 0 d) π e) 2π

16
 Free Response
Ex.10 Calculators may not be used. Use the graphs of f(x)
and g(x) given below.

f(x) g(x)

a) Is f [g(x)] continuous at x = 0? Explain.

b) Is g[f(x)] continuous at x = 0? Explain.

c) What is the lim

x1
f [ g ( x)] ? Explain.

 f ( x)  g ( x), 2  x  0
d) If h( x)   , what is k so
 k  g ( x ) f ( x ), x  0
that h(x) is continuous at x = 0?

Summary:

17
Notes #1-5
Date:______
3.5 Limits at Infinity (192)
Horizontal Asymptote: y = L if xlim
 
f ( x)  L or
End Behavior
(left & right) lim
x
f ( x)  L

Note: from this definition, the graph of a function of x can

have at most two horizontal asymptotes – one to the
right and one to the left.
 indeterminate form (  numerator & denominator by the
 highest power of x in the denominator).

Guidelines for Finding Limits at Infinity of Rational

n: degree of Functions
numerator
 If n < d: the limit is 0.
d: degree of
an
denominator  If n = d: limit (ratio of the leading coefficients).
bd

 If n > d: the limit does not exist, we may write

lim f ( x)    to show that f(x) increases or
x 
decreases without bound.

Ex.1 Find the limits: lim f ( x) and lim f ( x)

x   x 

x 1 2x2 6
a) f ( x)  3 b) g ( x)  2
x  3x 2 x 4

18
 Ex.2 Find the limits: lim g ( x) and lim g ( x)
x   x 

6 x 1 x2  x
a) h( x)  b) g ( x) 
3x 2 5 x 1

Ex.3 Sketch the graph of the equation. Look for intercepts,

symmetry, and asymptotes.
3x 2
g ( x)  2
x 16

(2 x  1)(3  x)
Ex.4 lim
x
is
( x  1)( x  3)

2008 #77
(A) -3 (B) -2 (C) 2 (D) 3 (E) dne

Ex.5 6  6  6  ...
Summary:

19
Notes #1-6
Date:______
2.1 The Derivative and the Tangent Line Problem (94)
Tangent lines to a Ex.1 Find the equation of a circle that
circle are a special
case, because the has (0, 0) as its center and passes
radius is perpendicular through (1, 2). Graph.
to the tangent line.

Ex.2 Find an equation of the tangent line to the circle that

Leave your answer in passes through (1, 2).
point-slope form!
Converting to slope-
intercept form just
creates more chances One way to find the tangent to a general curve is to use a
to make errors.
secant line to approximate the slope.
Ex.3 Approximate the slope of
Secant comes from y = x2 + 3 at (1, 4).
the Latin secare,
meaning to cut, and
is not a reference to
the trig function.

(c+x, f(c+x))

(c, f(c))
Calculus in Motion!
f(c)
x
c
Difference Quotient
The quotient of two y f ( c x )  f ( c) f ( c x )  f ( c) f (c x )  f (c)
differences. msec : = = mtan : lim
x ( c x )  c x x  0 x
The smaller x the
better. Ex.4 Find the slope of the tangent line to the graph of
f(x) = 3x + 1 at (3, 10).

Stuff cancels!
20
 Ex.5 Find the formula for the slope of f(x) = 2x2 and use
it to find the equation of the tangent line at (-2, 8).

The derivative of a function f with respect to x:

f ( x x)  f ( x)
limit definition f '( x)  lim provided the limit exists.
of the derivative! x  0 x

“f prime of x” f ' (x) is also a function of x.

Other notations (97): Dx[y] “the derivative of y with respect to x”

y "y prime"
derivative – slope of dy
tangent line "dy  dx"
dx
df
"the derivative of f with respect to x"
dx
d
f ( x) "d  dx of f at x " or "the derivative of f at x "
dx

AP Exam question Ex.6 Let f be a function that is differentiable for all real
numbers. The table below gives values of f for selected
points in the closed interval 2 < x < 13. Estimate f '(4) .
NOT regression!
x 2 3 5 8 13
Box before simplify! y 1 4 -2 3 6

1
Ex.7 Find the derivative of f (x) = by the limit process.
x

21
 Ex.8 Find the derivative of f (x) = x3 by the limit
conjugate
process. Find the equation of the tangent line if x = 1.

The converse is not If f is differentiable at x = c, then f is continuous at x = c.

always true.
f ( x)  f (c)
Alternative form of derivative: f '(c)  lim
(103) #61-70
x c
x c

Ex.9 Use the alternative form to find the derivative at x = c.

f(x) = x2, c = 3

Ex.10 Find the lim f ( x) .

x  3

Is f (x) = x3 continuous?

Find the left & right derivatives of f (x) at x = -3.

When is a function not differentiable at a point?

1) If it is not continuous at the point.
2) If the graph has a sharp turn at the point.
3) If there is a vertical tangent at the point.
x sin(3x ) 4x
Summary: Evolution:  
sin x x sin(5 x )

22
Notes #1-7
Date:
2.2 Basic Differentiation Rules (105)
Ex.1 Find the derivative of these constant functions:
a) f(x) = -3 b) s(t) = 0

The Constant Rule:

Ex.2 Find the derivative of these functions:

a) y = x b) f(x) = x2

1 c) f(x) = x3 d) y = x-1
1 1
1 2 1
1 3 3 1

The Power Rule:

23
 Ex.3 Find the derivative of the function (rewrite):
1 5
a) f(x) = x7 b) y = 3 c) g(x) = x3
x

Ex.4 Find the derivative of these functions using limits:

y = 3x2

The Constant Multiple Rule:

Ex.5 Prove the Constant Multiple Rule:

d
[c  f ( x)]  c  f '( x)
derivative
dx
slope of tangent line
rate of change

Ex.6 Find the slope of the graph of f(x) = 2x2 when x =

a) -2 b) 0

Ex.7 Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of

1
f(x) = x4 when x = -2.
2

24
 Ex.8 Using parentheses when differentiating:
Original Rewrite Differentiate Simplify
3
a) y 
7x2
5
b) f ( x) 
4 x 3
3
c) y 
2 4 x3

The Sum & Difference Rules: Derivative of Sin & Cos:

Memorize!!!

d d
[ f ( x)  g ( x)]  [sin x] 
dx dx
d d
[ f ( x)  g ( x)]  [cos x] 
dx dx

Ex.9 Find the derivative of the function:

7 x4 2x2
5 -2
a) y = x(3x – 2x ) b) f ( x) 
3x 2

3cos x
c) f ( x)  2 x d) y = -2x2 – 3sinx
4

If in doubt, take the Ex.10 Find the derivative of the quadratic function
derivative and = to 0. f(x) = ax2 + bx + c. Find the value of x that makes
f '(x) = 0. The corresponding point on the graph
y = f(x) is special. Why?

Summary:

25
Notes #1-8
Date:______
2.2 Day 2 Rates of Change (109)
Utah State
Math 1210 Ex.1 Prove the Difference Rule:
Calculus 1
Exam 2

cos(x+y) =
Ex.2 Prove the Derivative of cosx:

sin(x+y) =

cos(2x) =

An unusual cloud
might form as a plane
accelerates to just change in position s
Average velocity: or va 
break the sound change in time t
barrier ( 769 mph at
sea-level and 70° F in
normal atmospheric
conditions). A theory
is that a drop in air
pressure at the plane
occurs so that moist
air condenses there to
form water droplets.
Ex.3 What is the average velocity of a jet between 5pm and
5:12 pm if it travels 154 miles?

26
 Free-fall Constants on the Earth
Average velocity: slope
ft m
Acceleration due to gravity: g  32 or g  9.8
Instantaneous vel:
derivative
sec2 sec2
Position Function: s(t)
Velocity Function: v(t)=s′(t) Speed is the velocity .

The position of a free-falling object (neglecting air

1
resistance) can be represented by: s(t )  gt 2  v0t  s0
2

Ex.4 A gold coin is dropped from the top of the 1149 foot
Stratosphere. Indicate units of measure.
a) Determine the position and velocity functions.

b) Determine the average velocity on [3, 7].

c) Find the instantaneous velocities when t = 3 & 7.

d) How long does it take to hit the ground?

e) Find the velocity at impact.

27
Derivative Ex.5 Find the derivative of the area A of a circle with
1. formula-slope of
tangent line respect to its radius r.
2. rate of change
3. velocity A(r) = A'(r) =

Ex.6 Find the derivative of the volume of a sphere with

respect to its radius r.

AP Exam! Ex.7 Evaluate using derivatives:

( x  h)7  x 7 1     
a) lim b) lim  sin   h  sin   
h0 h h0h 6   6 

(114) #63 Ex.8 Find k such that the line y = 5x – 4 is tangent to the
graph of the function: f(x) = x2 – kx.

2008 #6 Ex.9 Which of the statements about f are true?

I. f has a limit at x = 2  x2  4
 if x  2
II. f is continuous at x = 2 f ( x)   x  2

III. f is differentiable at x = 2  1 if x  2

(A) I (B) II (C) I & II (D) I & III (E) I, II, & III

Summary: 28
Notes #1-9
Date:______
2.3 Product and Quotient Rules (117)
The algebra within d du dv
the calculus can be The Product Rule:
dx
 uv   v  u
dx dx
more challenging than
the calculus itself.
If y = uv, then y' = uv' + u'v.

Ex.1 Use the product rule to find f '(x) if f (x) = xx.

How could we answer this question a different way?

Ex.2 Find the derivative of:

a) k(x) = sinxcosx b) f(x) = x2cosx

The Product Rule can be used with more than two functions:
d
dx
 f ( x) g ( x)h( x) f '( x) g ( x)h( x)  f ( x) g '( x)h( x)  f ( x) g ( x)h '( x)

Ex.3 k(x) = xsinxcosx

29
 du dv
uv
low d high minus d u dx dx , v  0
high d low over low The Quotient Rule:   
squared dx  v  v2
u vu 'uv ' -1
If y = , then y' = or let y = uv .
v v2
Ex.4 Find k'(x):
9 x7
a) k ( x)  b) k ( x)  tan x
x 1

Ex.5 Find f '(x) without using the Quotient Rule:

You may be able 3x 5 2 2 x 4  7 x3
to rewrite to avoid a) f ( x)  2
b) f ( x) 
the Quotient Rule. 2x 5x 2

Ex.6 Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of f

at the indicated point:
x4  2
a) y  2 at  2,  
x 3  7

b) y = (x2 – 4x + 2)(4x – 1) when x = 1.

30
When in doubt, find Ex.7 Determine the point(s) at which the graphs of the
the derivative and set
it = 0! following functions have a horizontal tangent.
x 2 3 x 1
a) y  2 b) y  2
x 1 x 3

On AP Exam and a
lot of our tests! Ex.8 Use the information to find f '(3):
g(3) = 4 g '(3) = -2 h(3) = 3 h '(3) = π

1
a) f (x) = 4g(x) – h(x) + 1
2

b) f (x) = g(x)h(x)

g ( x)
c) f ( x) 
2h( x)

g ( x)  h( x)
d) f ( x) 
g ( x)

Summary:

31
Notes #1-10
Date:______
2.3 Day 2 Trigonometric & Higher-Order Derivatives (121)
Can we avoid the 2 x 5
Quotient Rule here?
Ex.1 Find k'(x) using the Quotient Rule k ( x)  .
3x

Ex.2 Use an identity & the Prod. or Quot. Rule to find

d
[sec x] .
dx

Tangent Function: Secant Function:

d d
tan x = sec2 x sec x =
dx dx
Notice that both
cofunctions have Cotangent Function: Cosecant Function:
negative derivatives. d d
cot x = -csc2 x csc x = -csc x cot x
dx dx

Ex.3 Find y':

sec x 1 sin x
a) y = b) y =
1 tan x cos x

32
 Ex.4 Find the equation of the tangent line at the point:
a) y = tan x, (π/4, 1) b) y = x·cos x, (π, - π)

c) y = secx – 2cosx, (π/3, 1)

dny
(123) Higher-Order Derivatives n
 f ( n ) ( x)
dx
y = 2x4 – 5x2 – 17 = f (x)
dy
y' = = f '(x) =
dx
d2y
y" = = f "(x) =
nth derivative: the dx 2
derivative taken n
times d3y
y'" = = f '" (x) =
dx3

(4) (4) d4y

y = =f (x) =
dx 4

Ex.5 Find y" for: y = x·cos x .

33
 4x
Ex.6 Find y" for: y =
x1

Ex.7 Find f (27)(x) for f (x) = cos x.

Position Function: s(t) Speed  v(t )

Velocity Function: s′(t) = v(t)
Throw pen up in the Acceleration Function: s"(t) = v′(t) = a(t)
air and discuss v(t) Speed increases when v(t) & a(t) have the same sign.
a(t). Speed decreases when v(t) & a(t) have the opposite sign.

Ex.8 Find the velocity and acceleration when t = 4 sec.

s(t) = t3 – 6t2 + 9t and s is in meters. Indicate units of measure.

Units!

Is the speed increasing or decreasing at t = 4 sec?

34
 Ex.9

2008 #82 Ex.10 A particle moves along a straight line with velocity
2
given by v(t) = 7 – 1.01t at time t > 0. What is the
acceleration of the particle at time t = 3?

(A) -0.914 (B) 0.055 (C) 5.486 (D) 6.486 (E) 18.087

Summary:

35
Notes #1-11
Date:______
2.4 Day 1 Chain Rule (127)
Ex.1 Find the derivative of C(x) = (x2 + 5)3.

Ex.2 Complete the table by decomposing the functions:

y = f(g(x)) u = g(x) y = f(u)
y= x 2 1
y = sin 6x
y = (3x + 2)5
y = tan2 x

THE CHAIN RULE (the derivative of a composite function):

If f is differentiable at the point u = g(x), and g is
differentiable at x, then the composite function
 f  g  ( x)  f ( g ( x)) is differentiable at x, and
 f  g   x  f  g  x   g ( x).
Or, if y = f(u) and u = g(x), then
dy dy du dy
 
dx du dx where du is evaluated at u = g(x)

Ex.3 Find C'(x) of C(x) = (x2 + 5)3 using the Chain Rule.

36
 “Outside-Inside” Differentiation:
Ex.4 Find y':
a) y = (3x2 + 1)2 b) y = sin(x2 + x)

Ex.5 Differentiate with respect to x:

5
1  2 x 1 
a) y  b) y   

(2 x 3) 3
 2 x 1 

Power Chain Rule:

d n du
u  nu n 1
dx dx

Ex.6 Differentiate with respect to x:

2
a) y  5 x 2  4 x 1 b) y 
4
6 x 1

Ex.7 f is differentiable at x = 2,  cx  d for x  2

2008 #25 f ( x)  
what is the value of c + d?  x 2  cx for x  2

(A) -4 (B) -2 (C) 0 (D) 2 (E) 4

37
 2003 AP Multiple Choice Questions

 
1. If y  x3 1 , then dy =
2
dx

(A) (3x2)2 (B) 2(x3 + 1) (C) 2(3x2 + 1)

(D) 3x2(x3 + 1) (E) 6x2(x3 + 1)

14. If y = x2 sin 2x, then dy =

dx
(A) 2x cos 2x (B) 4x cos 2x (C) 2x(sin 2x + cos 2x)

(D) 2x(sin 2x – xcos 2x)

(E) 2x(sin 2x + xcos 2x)

From now on ask yourself, “Do I need to use the chain rule?”

Do (a) & (b):

Summary:

38
Notes #1-12
Date:______
2.4 Day 2 Chain Rule (132)
Reminder:
Tangent Function: Secant Function:
d d
tan x = sec2 x sec x = sec x tan x
dx dx
Cotangent Function: Cosecant Function:
d d
cot x = -csc2 x csc x = -csc x cot x
dx dx
Ex.1 Differentiate with respect to x
a) sin(3x) b) tan x

c) csc(x2 + x)

Shrek Ex.2 Repeated use of the Chain Rule:

a) sin[1 + tan(2x)] b) cos2(3x)
sin(x + x)

sin(2x) = 2sinxcosx
Ex.3 Evaluate the derivative at the given point:
 1  1  2 
a) y = (2x + 1)-3, 1,  b) y =  sin x ,  , 1
 27  x 2  

39
Ex.4 Find an equation of the tangent line to the graph of f at
the given point or value:
a) y =  x 2  4 x 1 , (4, -1)

b) y = 2tan x + cos2 (2x), when x = π.

Ex.5 g(2) = -3, g'(2) = -6, h(2) = 3, h'(2) = -2, g'(3) = 4

Find the derivatives at x = 2.
a) [g(x)]3 b) f (x) = g(h(x))
3[g(2)]2 g'(2) g(h(x)) = g'(h(2))h'(2)
3(9)(-6) = g'(3) h'(2) = 4(-2) =
-162 -8
g ( x)
c) g(x)h(x) d)
h( x)

40
 Ex.6 Find the derivatives:
x x
a) y  b) y 
x 2 1 4 x 1

Ex.7 Find the derivative of y = sin3(2x).

2008 #8 Ex.8 If f ( x)  cos(3x) then f '  

9

3 3 3 3 3 3 3
(A) (B) (C)  (D)  (E) 
2 2 2 2 2

2008 #3 Ex.9 If f ( x)  ( x 1)( x2  2)3 then f '( x) 

(A) 6 x( x2  2)2 (B) 6 x( x 1)( x2  2)2

(C) ( x2  2)2 ( x2  3x 1) (D) ( x2  2)2 (7 x2  6 x  2)

(E) 3( x 1)( x2  2)2

Summary:

41
Notes #1-13
Date:______
2.5 Day 1 Implicit Differentiation (132)
W.1 Determine the derivative of y = (3 – x)4.

Ex. Conic Sections Implicitly-Defined Function: a function with multiple

variables that is not solved for one of the variables
For example: 4 x 1  y 2  25
2
Note: An explicitly-
defined function is one
that is written in Implicit Differentiation: differentiating a function that is
function form, y = f(x).
not written as an explicit formula.
Use the following steps:
1. Differentiate both sides of the equation with respect to x.
dy
2. Collect all terms with on one side of the equation.
dx
2
y=x dy dy
3. Factor out . 4. Solve for .
dx dx
dy dx
dx
 2x
dx
Note: When differentiating with respect to x, the derivative
dx dy
of x is = 1, and the derivative of y is .
dx dx

dy
Ex.1 Find by implicit differentiation x2 – xy + y2 = 7.
dx

42
Note: There are many ways
of writing the correct answer.
Watch for these on multiple
choice selections.
dy
Ex.2 Find by implicit differentiation & then evaluate the
dx
derivative at the indicated point. xy2 + 2y4 = x2y, (2, 1).

Ex.3 Calculate the derivative of y with respect to x of:

sin(x + y) = x + cos y

dy 1cos( x  y)

dx cos( x  y) sin y
dy
2008 #16 Ex.4 If sin(xy) = x, then =
dx

(A) 1 (B) 1
cos( xy) x cos( xy)

(C) 1 cos( xy) (D) 1 y cos( xy)

cos( xy) x cos( xy)

(E) y(1 cos( xy))

x

43
 Ex.5 x2 + 4y2 = 36
a) Find two explicit functions.

b) Sketch the graphs of the

equations and label the parts
given by the corresponding
explicit functions.

c) Differentiate the explicit functions.

d) Differentiate implicitly and show that the result is

equivalent to part c.

e) Find the points at which the graph of the equation

has a vertical or horizontal tangent line.

Summary:

44
Notes #1-14
Date:______
2.5 Day 2 Implicit Differentiation (132)
Opposite reciprocal slope
The normal line at a point is  to the tangent line at the point.
 
Ex.1 Find the tangent & normal line of 2xy + πsiny = 2π at  1,  .
 2

dy x2
Ex.2 Find if: y  . Hint: rewrite.
dx 2 x 3 y

Finding a Second Derivative

2
Ex.3 Find d 2y for 4 y3  9  5x2 .
dx

Differentiating again:

Now substitute dy   5x2 and simplify:

dx 6y

Eliminate the
complex fraction:

45
 2 6
Ex.4 Find d 2y if: y  .
dx x y

Using the Chain Rule with a Table of Values

Ex.5 Evaluate the derivatives using the table below.
x f(x) g(x) f  x  g  x 
2 2 3 1/3 −3
3 3 −4 2π 5
a) f(g(x)) at x = 2 b) g(f(x)) at x = 2

1
c) 2
at x = 3 d) f  x  at x = 2
 g  x  

Summary:

46
Notes #1-15
Date:______
2.6 Day 1 Related Rates (144)
Related Rates Equation: an equation that relates the
corresponding rates of two or more variables that are
differentiable functions of time t

Steps to Solving a Related Rates Problem

1. Make a sketch (if possible). Name the variables and constants.
2. Write down the known information and the variable we are to find.
3. Write an equation that relates the variables.
4. Differentiate implicitly with respect to t using the chain rule.
A common mistake is forgetting the chain rule. Be sure to use
dy notation for derivatives, NOT y .
dt
5. Answer the question that was asked with correct units.

Ex.1 A 13-ft ladder is leaning (flush) against a wall. Suppose that the
base of the ladder slides away from the wall at 3 ft/sec.
a) Find the rate at which the top of the ladder is moving down
the wall at t = 1 sec.

b) Find the rate at which the area of the triangle is

changing t = 1 sec.

47
 Ex.2 A balloon rises at 15 feet per second from a point on the ground
45 feet from an observer. Find the rate of change of the angle of
elevation when the balloon is 60 feet above the ground. Indicate
units of measure. Hint: you don’t need to find θ.

Ex.3 Water runs into a conical tank at 9 ft3/min. The tank stands
(146) #3 Sphere point down and has a height of 10 ft and a base radius of 5 ft.
How fast is the water level rising when the water is 6 ft deep?

Note: When determining the units for the answer, use the units from the
original problem. For example, if you are determining units for dh/dt, it
would be the units for h (ft) over the units for t (min).
48
 Ex.4 A particle is moving along the curve y  x . As the particle
passes through the point (4, 2), it’s x-coordinate increases at a
rate of 6 cm/s. How fast is the distance from the particle to the
origin changing at this instant?

Ex.5 The radius of a sphere is decreasing at a rate of 2 cm/sec. At

the instant when the radius of the sphere is 3 cm, what is the
rate of change, in sq cm per second, of the surface area of the
sphere?

(A) -108π (B) -72 π (C) -48π (D) -24π (E) -16π

Summary:

49
Notes #1-16
Date:______
2.6 Day 2 Related Rates (144)
Ex.1 A police cruiser, approaches a right-angled intersection from
the north, chasing a car that has turned the corner and is now
moving straight east. When the cruiser is 0.6 miles north of the
intersection and the car is 0.8 miles to the east, the distance
between them is increasing at 20 mph. If the cruiser is moving
at 60 mph at the instant of measurement, what is the speed of
the car?

Ex.2 A searchlight is positioned 10 meters from a sidewalk. A person

is walking along the sidewalk at a speed of 2 meters/sec. The
searchlight rotates so that it shines on the person. Find the rate
at which the searchlight rotates when the person is 25 meters
from the searchlight.

50
 Ex.3 A cylinder coffeepot has a radius of 5 inches. The
depth of the coffee in the pot is h inches, where h is a
function of time, in t seconds. The volume V of coffee
in the pot is changing at the rate of 5 h cubic inches
per second. Find dh/dt.

h in

Ex.4 A 5 ft tall woman walks at 4 ft/sec directly away from a

(151) #35-36
20 ft tall street light.
a) At what rate is the tip of her shadow moving?
Previous MC
AP Question

b) At what rate is the length of her shadow changing?

51
Summary:

52
Notes #2-1
Date:______
3.1 Extrema on an Interval (160)
Global/absolute Ex.1 Find the value of the derivative (if it exists) at the
Local/relative
extremum (use a graphing calculator to identify).

Hidden behavior
f(x) = x3 – 9x2 – 48x + 9

(where, what)

Critical number Critical Point: a point in the interior of the domain of a

function f at which f   c   0 or f is not
differentiable. Let f be defined at c.
* Extreme values only occur at critical points and endpoints.
* A critical point is not necessarily an extreme value. For
example, y  x3 has a critical point at (0, 0) because
f  0  0 . However, f(0)=0 is not an extreme value.

(160)
Extreme Value Th. If f is cont on [a,b], then f has both a
max and min value on the interval.

Always put:
Ex.2 Find all the critical numbers of
f  x   0 2x2 2
a) f  x   b) f(x) =  3x 1 3
x2

Ch.3 MC! f(c) not def

a) -4, -2, 0
b) -4, 0
c) -2, 0
d) -4, -2

53
Don’t forget to Ex.3-6 Find the absolute extrema of:
evaluate the
endpoints! Ex.3 f(x) = 2x3 – 3x2 – 12x + 5 on the interval [-2, 4]
“closed”

Ex.4 f(x) = 4x5/4 – 8x1/4 on the interval [0, 4]

Ex.5 f(x) = sinx cosx on the interval [0, 2π]

 x 2 x 1
Ex.6 f  x    on the interval [-1, 3].
3 x  2 x 1

Summary:

54
Notes #2-2
Date:______
3.2 Rolle’s & Mean Value Theorems (168)
Specific Rolle’s Th Let f be continuous on the closed interval [a, b]
and differentiable on the open interval (a, b). If f(a) = f(b)
then there is at least one number c in (a, b) such that f  c   0

a c b

Ex.1 Give two reasons why Rolle’s Theorem might not apply
to a function even though there exist a and b such that
f(a) = f(b).

Ex.2 Find the two x-intercepts of the function f and show that
f  x  0 at some point between them.
a) f  x   2 x x 3 b) f(x) = 60x2 – 130x – 80

55
 Ex.3 Determine whether Rolle’s Th can be applied to f on the
closed interval [0, 4]. If it can be, find all of the values
of c in the open interval (0, 4) such that f  c   0 .
x2 4x x2 4x
a) f  x   b) f  x  
x 2 x2

MVT Mean Value Theorem If f is continuous on the closed

interval [a, b] and differentiable on the open interval (a, b),
then there exists at least 1 number c in (a, b) such that
f (b)  f (a)
f  c   .
ba

a c b

Ex.4 Sketch a graph where the Mean Value Theorem would

not apply.

56
 Ex.5 Can the Mean Value Theorem be applied to f on the
interval [a, b]. If it can be, find all of the values of c in
the open interval (a, b) such that f  c   f (b)  f (a) .
ba
3 2
a) f(x) = x – x – x + 1, [0, 2]

b) f(x) = sin x, [-π , 0]

2003 #80 Ex.6 The function f is continuous for -2 < x < 1 and
differentiable for -2 < x < 1. If f(-2) = -5 and f(1) = 4,
which of the following statements could be false?
a) There exists c, where -2 < c < 1, such that f(c) = 0.
b) There exists c, where -2 < c < 1, such that f ´(c) = 0.
c) There exists c, where -2 < c < 1, such that f(c) = 3.
d) There exists c, where -2 < c < 1, such that f ´(c) = 3.
e) There exists c, where -2 < c < 1, such that f(c) > f(x)
for all x on the closed interval -2 < x < 1.

Summary:
57
Notes #2-3
Date:______
3.3 Increasing/Decreasing f(x)s and the 1st Derivative Test (174)

MUST USE CALCULUS!!! Must explain using f  x  .

Don’t use pronouns!
Be specific, no “it” or f  x  < 0 f(x) is decreasing.
“the derivative.”
f  x  = 0 f(x) is constant.
f  x  > 0 f(x) is increasing.
* Be careful to distinguish between graphs of functions
and graphs of derivatives!!!
y = x, y = x3, y = 2x * Strictly monotonic: increasing/decreasing on entire interval.
1st Derivative Test:
(176) f  x  changes from + to – at c then f(c) is a rel max
f  x  changes from – to + at c then f(c) is a rel min

Ex.1 What can we say about f(x) given the graph of f  x  ?

+ +
a) a b c d e – b) a b c d e –

Ex.2 Find the open intervals on which the function is

critical numbers &
values not in the increasing or decreasing and locate all extrema.
domain of f a) f(x) = 2x3 + 9x2 – 24x – 10

58
 b) f(x) = x5/3 – 3x2/3

c) f(x) = x + 2sinx over [0, 2π]

2017 #2 Customers remove bananas from a grocery store

display at a rate modeled by f(t) and store employees
add bananas to the display at a rate modeled by g(t).
 t3 
f (t )  10  (0.8t )sin   and g (t )  3  2.4ln(t 2  2t )
 100 

(b) Find f '(7) . Using the correct units, explain the meaning
of f '(7) in the context of the problem.

(c) Is the number of pounds of bananas on the display

increasing or decreasing at t = 5? Give a reason.

59
 R.1 A liquid is cleared of sediment by allowing it to drain through a
conical filter 16 cm high, with a radius of 4 cm at the top. The
liquid is forced out of the cone at a constant rate of 2 cm3 / min.
At what rate is the depth of the liquid changing at the instant
when the liquid in the cone is 8 cm deep? Indicate units of
measure.

2 h  2 x 3  1
R.2 a) lim b) lim
h0 h x4 x 4

Speed increases when v(t) & a(t) have the same sign.
Velocity increases when a(t) > 0.
Summary:
60
Notes #2-4
Date:______
3.4 Concavity and the 2nd Derivative Test (184)
Concavity: curving upward or downward

f(x)
Concave up Concave down down up
What happens to the derivative of a concave up function as
you move from left to right?
f ' is increasing when it's derivative ( f  ) is positive.

Test for Concavity: Let f be a function whose second

f ′(x)
derivative exists on an open interval I.

1. If f  x > 0 for all x in I, then the graph of f is concave up.
g(x) 2. If f  x  < 0 for all x in I, then the graph of f is concave
down
f ″(x) Points of Inflection:
points where concavity changes (graph crosses its tangent line)
Tangent line must exist at the point!
g ′(x) If (c, f(c)) is a point of inflection of the graph of f, then either

f  c = 0 or f is not differentiable at x = c.

Must be able to connect Note: it is possible for the second derivative to be 0 at a point that is
from one to another.
not a point of inflection. Be careful of asymptotes!

Ex.1 Determine the open intervals on which the graph is

concave upward or concave downward.
a) f(x) = 2x3 + 9x2 – 24x – 10

61
 2x
b) f ( x) 
x2 4

Ex.2 Find any points of inflection.

2x
a) f(x) = 2x3 + 9x2 – 24x – 10 b) f ( x) 
x2 4

Ex.3 The graph of f  x  :

+
a) Find all of the intervals on a b c d e –
which f is concave down.

b) Give all values of x for where f has points of inflection.

c) True or false: f  c   f''  c 

62
 The Second Derivative Test: Let f be a function such that
f  c  = 0 and f  exists on an open interval containing c.
concave up 1. 
If f  c > 0, then f(c) is a relative minimum.

concave down 2. If f  c  < 0, then f(c) is a relative maximum.


If f  c = 0, the test fails. Use the First Derivative Test.

Ex.4 Use the second derivative test.

a) f(x) = 2x3 + 9x2 – 24x – 10 b) f(x) = 3x5 – 5x3

Ex.5 Given the critical numbers: -4, -1/2 and 3 and

f " (x) = -6x2 – 6x + 23, use the Second Derivative Test
to Determine which critical numbers, if any, give a
relative maximum. Show work!

Summary:

63
Notes #2-5
Date:______
3.6 Summary of Curve Sketching (202)
W.1 Let f " (x) = 12x2 – 24x and let f(x) have critical numbers 0 & 3.
Use the Second Derivative Test to determine which of the
critical numbers, if any, gives a relative max.

a) 0 b) 3 c) 0 & 3 d) none e) not enough info

W.2

64
Hidden Behavior Ex.1 Analyze and sketch a graph of the function. Label any
intercepts, relative extrema, points of inflection and
asymptotes.
a) f(x) = x + 2sinx [0, 2π]

65
 x
b) f ( x) 
x2 4

66
 x 2 5 x  4
c) f ( x) 
x 2

R.1 Which table could represent values of f ( x) if f '( x) > 0

and f ( x) < 0.

a) x y b) x y c) x y d) x y
-1 7 -1 7 -1 1 -1 1
0 4 0 6 0 2 0 4
1 2 1 4 1 4 1 6
2 1 2 1 2 7 2 7

Summary:

67
Notes #2-6
Date:______
3.7 Optimization (211)
best Optimization (Max/Min) Problem: a problem in which a
quantity is to be maximized or minimized
Steps to Solving a Max/Min Problem
1. Assign symbols to all given quantities and quantities to be
determined. Make a sketch.
2. Write a PRIMARY EQUATION for the quantity being maximized
or minimized (use a capital letter).
Systems of eqations. 3. Reduce the primary equation to one having a single independent
variable.
4. Determine the maximum/minimum using critical values.
Don’t forget
the endpoints 5. Use the 1st (or 2nd) derivative test and choose the answer.
of the domain!
6. Answer the question asked. Include units with your answer.

Ex.1 Find two non-negative numbers whose sum is 16 and

whose product is as large as possible.

68
(217) #20-21 Ex.2 An open rectangular box is made from a 4ft by 5ft piece
of cardboard by cutting congruent squares from the
corners and folding up the sides. How long should the
sides of the square be to create the box of largest
volume? Leave your answer in simple radical form.

Ex.3 Find the point on the parabola

y = 9 – x2 closest to point (3, 9).

69
Ex.4 Oil is to be piped from an offshore oil well 5 km from a straight
shoreline. It needs to piped 8 km down shore. The cost is
$1,000,000/km under water and $500,000/km along the shore.
Where should the pipeline be built?

Ex.5 You want to build a fence around your house as shown. You
can afford 250 ft of fencing. What values for x & y will
maximize the area enclosed?

Length of fencing:

L=
50 ft
40 ft House

Area enclosed:

A=

70
 Ex.6 In an apple orchard there are 30 trees per acre and the average
yield is 400 apples per tree. For each additional tree planted
per acre, the average yield per tree is reduced by 10 apples.
How many trees per acre will maximize the crop?

Ex.7 A manufacturer wants to design an open box having a

square base and a surface area of 147 in2. What
dimensions will produce a box with maximum volume?

Summary:

71
Notes #2-7
Date:______
3.8 Newton’s Method (222)
Newton’s Method for Approximating the Zeros of a Function
Let f(c) = 0, where f is differentiable on an open interval
containing c.
1. Make an initial estimate x1 close to c. (Graph is helpful.)
f  xn 
2. Determine a new approximation xn  1  xn 
f  xn 
3. Repeat if necessary.
Iteration: each Ex.1 Calculate two iterations of
time you apply n xn
this process after Newton’s Method to approximate 1
the first a zero of f(x) = 2x4 – 4x. Use 2
x1 = 1.2 as the initial guess. 3

Ex.2 Use Newton’s Method to n xn

approximate the zeros of 1
f(x) = 3 x +2 – 5x. Continue 2
iterations until two successive 3
approximations differ by less
than 0.001.

Condition for
f ( x) f ( x)
convergence If < 1, Newton’s method yields convergence.
2
 f ( x) 
Top of (225)
72
 Ex.3 Apply Newton’s Method to n xn
1
f(x) = x using x1 = 0.1 as the
5 1
initial guess. 2
Explain why the method fails. 3

Ex.4 Apply Newton’s Method to approximate the x-value of

the point of intersection of the graphs of f(x) = 3x2 – 1
and g(x) = sin x that is closest to 1. Continue the
process until two successive approximations differ by
less than 0.001. [Hint: Let h(x) = f(x) – g(x).]
n xn
1
2
3
4

Smith (245) 3
Ex.5 Use Newton’s Method to approximate 7.
Ex.1.6

n xn
1
2
3
4

Summary:
73
Notes #2-8
Date:______
3.9 Differentials (228)
Linear Approximations
Write the equation of the tangent line at (c, f(c)) for a
function f that is differentiable at c.
Point-slope:
or
The equation of the tangent line can be used to find the local
linear approximation of the function close to c.

Ex.1 Find the equation of the tangent line T to the graph of

f(x) = x at (1 , 1). Use this linear approximation to
complete the table.
Home
2nd F1 is F6
2: New Problem
x 0.9 0.99 1 1.01 1.1
f(x)
T(x)

Differentials
Let y = f(x) represent a function that is differentiable in an
open interval containing x. The differential of x (denoted
dx) is any nonzero real number. The differential of y
(denoted dy) is dy = f ( x) dx.

Δy = f(c + Δx) – f(c)  f (c) Δx.

Ex.2 Use the information to evaluate and compare dy & Δy.
y = 3x2 – 5 x=2 Δx = dx = .1

74
 Error Propagation Measurement Propagated
error error

f(x + Δx) – f(x) = Δy f ( x) Δx

Exact Measured
value value

Test #2-4 & #2-5 Ex.3 Suppose that the side of a square is measured to be
1
10 inches with a measurement error of at most ± in.
32
Estimate the error in the computed area of the square.

Function Derivative Differential

dy
y = x3 = 3x2 dy = 3x2 dx
dx
Ex.4 Find the differential dy of the given functions.

a) y = xcosx

Leibniz notation
b) y = (1 + 2x)-17

1- x3
c) y =
2- x

Very important, on a Ex.5 The function f is twice differentiable with f(2) = 1,

bunch of tests.
f  2  = 4, and f " 2  = 3. What is the tangent line
approximation of f(1.9)? Is the estimate greater or less
Consider concavity. than the true value?
Contrast with
Reimann sum.

75
2017 #4 dH   1 ( H  27) , where H(t) is measured in degrees
dt 4
Celsius and H(0) = 91. H(t) > 27°C for all times t > 0.
(t, H)
(a) Write an equation for the line tangent to the graph of H at
t = 0. Use this to approximate the temperature at t = 3.

2
(b) Use d H to determine whether your answer in part (a) is
dt 2
an underestimate or overestimate of the temp at t = 3.

Summary:

76
Multiple Choice Questions: Circle the best answer.
1. If f  x   x  x 1 x  2  , then the graph of f has inflection points when x =
2

(A) 1 (B) 2 (C) −1 and 0 (D) −1 and 3 (E) −1, 0, and 2

2. If g is a differentiable function such that g  x   0 for all real numbers x, and

 
if f  x   x2  4 g  x  , which of the following is true?

(A) f has a relative maximum at x = -2 and a relative minimum at x = 2.

(B) f has a relative minimum at x = -2 and a relative maximum at x = 2.
(C) f has relative minima at x = -2 and at x = 2.
(D) f has relative maxima at x = -2 and at x = 2.
(E) It cannot be determined if f has any relative extrema.

3. The graph of the derivative of f is shown in the figure.

Which of the following could be the graph of f?

77
4. If the derivative of f is given by f  x   e x  3x2 , at which of the
following values of x does f have a relative maximum value?
(A) −0.46 (B) 0.20 (C) 0.91 (D) 0.95 (E) 3.73

5. Let f  x   x . If the rate of change of f at x = c is twice its rate of change

at x = 1, then c =
1 1 1
(A) (B) 1 (C) 4 (D) (E)
4 2 2 2

6. The graph of a function f is shown. Which of the following statements

about f is false? y
(A) f is continuous at x  a .
(B) f has a relative maximum at x  a .
(C) x  a is in the domain of f.
(D) lim f  x  is equal to lim f  x  .
xa  xa 

(E) lim f  x 
xa
exists.
a x

7. The graph of the function f is shown in the figure. Which of the following
could be the graph of the derivative of f?

78
4.1 Antiderivatives and Indefinite Integration (242) Notes #2-9
Date: ______
A process that is basically the “inverse” of differentiation.
We are going to undo derivatives.

F(x) f(x) A function F is an antiderivative of f on an

x3 interval I if F ( x)= f ( x) for all x in I.
x5 + 4
x5 – 7
5x4 Family of functions.
Antiderivatives Derivatives

Ex.1 General Solutions Differential Equations

a) y = y = -3
b) y = y  = 4 x3 Variable of
Integration
dy
What is y if = f(x)? Use y =  f ( x)dx = F(x) + C
dx
Integrand Constant of
Integration
n xn + 1
Basic Integration Rules: see (244).  x dx  + C, n  -1
n +1

Ex.2 Describe the antiderivatives of x4.

Rewriting Before Integrating (rewrite, integrate, simplify)

1
Ex.3 a)
 x5 dx
b)  3 xdx
c)  4 cos x dx
79
Integrating Polynomials

Ex.4 a)  0 dx

b)  (3x6 – 2x2 + 7x + 1) dx
c)  (x + x2) dx

More Rewriting Before Integrating

t 2 -2t 4
Ex.5
 t 4
dt

cosx
Ex.6
 sin 2 x dx

Ex.7-8 Finding a Particular Solution

Ex.7 Solve the differential equation using the initial condition.
 
2
a) f ( x) = x +1 , f(-2) = 8 b) f ( x) = sinx, f (0) = 2

80
Ex.8 f ( x) = 60 x3 , f (1) = 17, f (-1)  2

Vertical Motion (Use a(t) = -32 ft/sec2 for acceleration due to gravity)
Ex.9 A stone is thrown vertically upward from a position of 144 feet above the
ground with an initial velocity of 96 ft/sec.
a) Find the distance above the ground after t seconds.

b) How long does the stone rise?

c) When, and with what velocity, does it strike the ground? Speed?

81
Rectilinear Motion (a particle that can move either direction along a coordinate line)
Consider a particle moving along an s-axis where s(t) is the position of the
particle at time t, s(t ) is it’s velocity, and s(t ) is it’s acceleration.

Note: A particle moving in the negative direction ( v(t) < 0 ) is speeding up

if v(t) & a(t) have the same sign, slowing down when opposite signs
Ex.10 s(t) = t3 – 6t2, 0 < t < 8, where s is measured in meters and t in seconds.
a) Find the velocity and acceleration of the particle.

b) Find the open t-interval(s) on which the particle is moving in the

positive direction.

c) Find the velocity when the acceleration is 0.

d) Find the open t-interval(s) on which the particle is speeding up.

Ex.11 s(t) = 2t3 – 21t2 + 60t + 3, 0 < t, s is in meters and t in seconds.

a) Find the velocity and acceleration of the particle.

b) Find the open t-interval(s) on which the particle is moving in the

positive direction.

c) Find the velocity when the acceleration is 0.

d) Find the open t-interval(s) on which the particle is slowing down.

82
4.2 Area (242) Notes #2-10
Date: ______
Sigma Notation (Series: Summation)
n
The sum of n terms a1, a2, a3, …, an can be written as:  a = a1+a2+a3+…+an
i
i 1
i index of summation (j & k)
ai the ith term of the sum
n upper bound of summation (the lower bound doesn’t have to be 1)

Ex.1 Find the sum:

7 4
a)  (23i) b)  ( 1)k (2k )
i2 k 1

Ex.2 Use sigma notation to write the sum: 1+13  2+23    n + n3

Summation Formulas:
n n n(n 1) n 2 n( n 1)(2n 1) n 3 n2 ( n 1)2
 c  cn Powers:  i  , i  , i 
i 1 i 1 2 i 1 6 i 1 4

30
Ex.3 Evaluate the sum:  k ( k 1) =
k 1

Area: we can approximate the area under a curve using the definition of the
area of a rectangle A = bh.
83
Ex.4 Use upper and lower sums to approximate the area of the region
bounded by the graph of f(x) = x2 + 2, the x-axis, x = 0 and x = 2,
using 4 subintervals.

5 5

1 2 1 2
Overestimate or underestimate and why? Consider increasing/decreasing.

2-0
The right endpoints are given by i , where i = 1, 2, 3, 4.
4
Area =

4 F 1iI FG 1IJ =
We could use A   f
i 1 H 2 K H 2K

2-0
The left endpoints are given by (i -1) , where i = 1, 2, 3, 4.
4

We could repeat the process to find a lower approximation s(n).

s(n) < area of the region < S(n)

84
For large numbers of rectangles we need to generalize this result:
n F (b a )i I FG ba IJ
A  lim  f a 
n i  1 H n KH n K called a Riemann Sum
ci
Ex.5 Find a formula for the sum of n terms. Use the formula to find the
limit as n → ∞.

n 6i 1
lim  2
n i  1 n

Ex.6 Use the limit process to find the area of the region between the graph
of the function and the x-axis over the indicated interval.
a) f(x) = 9 – x2, [0, 3] b) f(x) = x2, [1, 4]

85
86
4.3 Riemann Sums and Definite Integrals (265) Notes #2-11
Date: ______
b n
Definite Integrals:  f ( x)dx  lim  f  xi x = Area
n  i  1
a
read “the integral from a to b of f of x dx.”

Note that the integral symbol resembles an S, because an integral is a sum   .

4
Ex.1 Evaluate the definite integral  2dx
1

Ex.2 Express the limit as a definite integral on the interval [2, 3], where ci is

 
n
2
any point in the ith subinterval: lim
 0
 ci  2ci xi
i 1

Ex.3 Set up a definite integral that yields the area of the region.

a) b) 30
3

6
12

Ex.4 Sketch the region whose area is given by the definite integral. Then use a
geometric formula to evaluate the integral.
4 0
a)  -2dx b)  9-x 2 dx
1 -3

87
Ex.5 Sketch the region to evaluate the integral.
2 x 8
(25- x 2 )
a)  dx b)  dx
x 5+x
-4 0

RULES FOR DEFINITE INTEGRALS

b a a

 f  x  dx   f  x  dx
  f  x  dx  0
a b a
b b b b b

 k  f  x  dx  k  f  x  dx , for any constant k

a a
  f  x   g  x   dx   f  x  dx   g  x  dx
a a a
b c c

 f  x  dx   f  x  dx   f  x  dx
a b a
b
Definite Integral: For any integrable function,  f  x  dx = (area above the x-axis) – (area below the x-axis).
a
Note: An integral can be negative, an area cannot!

Note: All continuous functions are integrable. A discontinuous function MAY be integrable.

Ex.6 Evaluate the integral using the given values. Properties (270).
5 2 2 2

 f  x  dx  6,  g  x  dx  2,  h  x  dx  3 ,  f  x  dx  8
2 1 1 1

2 2

a)   g  x   h  x   dx
1
b)  f  x  dx
5

2 5

c)  g  x   h  x  dx
1
d)  2  7 f  x  dx
1

e)  4 f  x   2 g  x  dx
1

88
2014

2015 (d) For after 4.4:

89
4.4 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (275) Notes #2-12
Date: ______
b b b
FTC:  f ( x)dx  F ( x) a =F (b)  F (a) F (b)  F (a)   f ( x)dx
a a

What about the + C?

F(b) + C – (F(a) + C) = F(b) + C – F(a) – C = F(b) – F(a)

Ex.1 Evaluate the definite integral

2 4
2  1 
a)  ( x  2 x)dx b)   x   dx
0 1 x2 

Ex.2 Find the area under the curve f(x) = sinx on the interval [0, π].

b
The Mean Value Theorem for Integrals:  f ( x)dx  f (c)(b - a)
a

Ex.3 Find the value(s) of c guaranteed by the Mean Value Theorem for
Integrals for the function over the indicated interval.

f(x) = 3x2, [0, 2]

Average Value of a Function on an Interval b

1
b-a a
(average value vs. average rate) f ( x)dx

90
Average rate vs. Average value - depends on what they give you:
x b – x  a  distance 1
b–a time b–a
time  v(t)dt distance

Ex.4 Find the average value of the function over the interval and all values of x
in the interval for which the function equals it’s average value.
f  x  x 2 1 on the interval [1, 4].

Ex.5 A store gets1300 cases of candy every 30 days. x days after the
shipment arrives, the inventory still on hand is I  x  1300 50 x . Find
the average daily inventory. Then find the average daily holding cost if
holding on to a case costs 3 cents a day.
Average Daily Inventory:

Average daily holding cost:

Ex.6 Water flows in and out of a storage tank. The net rate of change (rate
in minus rate out) of water is f(t) = 20(t2 – 1) gallons per minute.
a) For 0 < t < 3, determine when the water level is increasing.

b) If the tank has 200 gallons of water at time t = 0, determine how

many gallons are in the tank at time t = 3.

91
 x
Ex.7
  3t 
2
 1 dt
2

The Second Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (different variables)

x
If f is continuous on [a, b], and F  x    f  t  dt , then F ( x) = f(x), on [a, b].
a
x

 
d
Ex.8 Find F ( x) . 7t 2  1 dt
dx 2

Special Case #1: What if the upper limit of integration is a variable expression
other than x? We must use the chain rule.
x3
Ex: Find dy
dx
if y   
1  cos t 2 dt .
0

(283) #3 and 2007 FR #3c

Special Case #2: What if the variable is the lower limit of integration? We
must use the properties of integration to switch the limits of integration.
1
d 1
Ex: Find  dt .
dx x t

Special Case #3: What if there are variables in both the lower and upper limits
of integration? Use the properties of integration to split them into two.
3x
d 1
dx x tdt 

92
2017 #2 When a certain grocery store opens, it has 50 pounds of bananas on a display
table. Customers remove bananas at a rate modeled by
 t3 
f (t )  10  (0.8t )sin   for 0 < t < 12,
 100 
 

where f(t) is measured in pounds/hour and t is the number of hours after the
store opened. After the store has been open for 3 hours store employees add
bananas to the display at a rate modeled by

g (t )  3  2.4ln(t 2  2t ) for 0 < t < 12,

where g(t) is measured in pounds/hour and t is the number of hours after the
store opened.

(a) How many pounds of bananas are removed from the display table during
the first 2 hours the store is open?

(d) How many pounds of bananas are on the display table at time = 8?

2017 #3 f is differentialable on the closed interval [-6, 5] and f(-2) =7.

(a) Find the values of f(-6) and f(5).

(c) Find the absolute minimum value of f on the closed interval [-6, 5].
Justify your answer.

93
Slope Fields (Appendix pg. A6) Notes #2-13
Date: ______
Differential Equation (243): an equation containing a derivative, for
example, dy 2 ysin x
dx
Initial Value Problem: the problem of finding a function y of x when we are
given its derivative and its value at a particular point
Initial Condition: the value of f for one value of x

Ex.1 Find a particular solution to the differential equation dy  cos x  2 x ,

dx
for which f(0) = 1.

Drawing a Slope Field

 Evaluate the differential equation at various points, (x, y).
 At each of these points, (x, y), sketch a line segment with the slope
found by evaluating the differential equation.

Ex.2 Draw a slope field for the differential equation. dy  x  y

dx
Make a table and choose values for (x, y). y

Draw the line segments with

slopes found in the table.

94
Ex.3 Draw a slope field for dy  x 1 .
y

dx
This differential equation, is autonomous.
The slopes of the tangent lines in the field
only depend upon one variable.
x

Matching Slope Fields to Differential Equations

Ex.4 Match the slope fields with their differential equations.

1. dy  0.5x 1 2. dy  1 y
dx dx 2

3. dy   x 4. dy  x  y
dx y dx

dy
Slope Field (Direction Field): for the first order differential equation  f  x, y  , a plot of short line
dx
segments with slopes f(x, y) for lattice points (x, y) in the plane.

The solutions of the differential equations are certain functions. The differential equation defines the
slope at the point (x, y) of the certain curve of the function that passes through this point. For each point
(x, y), the differential equation defines a line segment with slope f(x, y). We say that the differential
equation defines the slope (or direction) field of the differential equation.

95
Sketching a Solution Curve in a Slope Field
Ex.5 Consider the slope fields below. Sketch at least 5 solution curves for
each differential equation. Possible solution curves:

Note that the solution curves thread their way through the fields much like a
leaf in a stream following the streamlines created by the current.

Ex.6 The slope field for a certain differential

equation is shown. Which of the
following could be a specific solution to
that differential equation?
(A) y  sin x (B) y  cos x

(C) y  x2 (D) y  1 x3
6

Ex.7 Draw a slope field for the differential

equation dy  2 x . Then sketch a solution
dx
curve with initial condition f(1) = -1.
x

96
4.5 Integration by Substitution (288) Notes #2-14
Date: ______
W.1 Differentiate these functions:
a) y = (3x + 2)5 + 7 b) y = sin 6x

c) y = x 2 1 d) y = tan2 x

d
 
 f ( g ( x))   f  g  x   g ( x)
dx   f  g  x    g ( x) dx  F ( g ( x))  C
Let u = g(x) and du = g(x) dx, then y = f(u) + C and y = f (u)∙u and
 f  u  du  F (u)  C .
Ex.1 Find:
2x
a)  15(3x  2)4 dx b) y =  dx
2
x 1

Ex.2 Find:
a)  6cos6 xdx b)  2tan x sec2 x dx

97
 
dx
Ex.3 Find:  cos 6 xdx Ex.4 Find:
 13 x 8
5

Less apparent substitutions

2
Ex.5 Find:  x x 1dx Ex.6 Find:  cos3  x dx

Change of Variables for Definite Integrals

Method 1: Convert the limits of integration to values in terms of u

Method 2: Leaving the limits of integration off and then convert back to a
function in terms of x

98
 
4
Ex.7 Evaluate the definite integral.  tan x sec2 xdx
0

1
Ex.8 Evaluate the definite integral.  3x2 x3 1dx
1

Integration of Even and Odd Functions

a a
If f is an even function, then  f ( x)dx = 2  f ( x)dx
a 0
a
If f is an odd function, then  f ( x)dx = 0
a

Ex.9 Evaluate:
3 17
a)  x2dx b)  x3dx
3 17

99
4.6 Numerical Integration (300) Notes #2-15
Date: ______
Ex.1 Use 4 trapezoids of equal heights to approximate the area under the
curve y = x2 on the interval [0, 2]. Then find the exact value. Draw the
graph and sketch the trapezoids. (Note: Trapezoid I is a “special”
trapezoid with one base equal to 0.)

1
1  2

Note: The bases of the trapezoids are the function values for each value of x.

Sum of the areas:

Note that all of the trapezoids have the same height. Also, trapezoids share a
common base. So instead of finding each area individually, we could put them
all together:

Exact value: Is the trapezoidal approximation larger

or smaller than the actual? Why?

Trapezoidal Rule:  f  x  dx  Tn  b  a  y0  2 y1  2 y2  ...  2 yn  1  yn  .

b

a
2n
Note: Be careful! This only works if the trapezoids have a common height.
100
Ex.2 The table was created by recording the temperature every hour from
noon until midnight. Use the trapezoidal rule to approximate the
average temperature for the 12-hour period.
(average value vs. average rate)

Time Noon 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Midnight

Temperature 76 78 80 79 85 86 82 80 78 70 68 65 63

Average Temperature =

b
Ex.3 Find the approximations of  f  x  dx . The function f is continuous on the
a
x 1 2 4 6 7
interval [1, 7] and has these values:
f(x) 10 30 20 40 30

a) trapezoidal b) midpoint

c) left Riemann d) right Riemann

101
11 perfect scores out of 104,600 in 2013.

102
5.1 The Natural Log Function: Differentiation (314) Notes #3-1
Date: ______
x
1
The natural logarithmic function is defined by ln x =  t dt , x > 0.
1
The domain is the set of all positive real numbers.
dy 1
Graph ln x using a slope field & the differential equation  . ln 1 = 0
dx x
Properties (If a & b are positive and n is rational):

ln(ab) = ln a + ln b
a
ln   = ln a – ln b
b
ln (an) = n ln a ln 1 = 0

Ex.1 Use the properties to expand:

 x 
a) ln x4 b) ln   c) ln (ex2)
 yz 

Use the properties to condense:

d) ln x + ln 4 e) ln x – 3ln (x + 1) f) 2ln x – ln (x + 1) – ln (x – 1)

Ex.2 Use the properties to approximate given ln 2  0.693 and ln 3  1.099.

a) ln 12 b) ln 27 c) ln 18

103
 e
1
The positive real number e  2.718281828459045…, such that ln e =  t dt = 1.
1
The Derivative of the Natural Logarithmic Function
d 1 1 du u
ln x   , x > 0 d
ln u    ,u>0
dx x dx u dx u

Ex.3 Find the derivative:

x
a) ln b) ln sin x
3

ln( x  2)  ln 3
Ex.4 Find the derivative: ln (x3 + 1) Ex.5 lim
x 1 x 1

x 2 1
Ex.6 Find the derivative of ln
(9 x  4) 2

104
Logarithmic Differentiation (319)
( x 1) 2 (2 x 2 3)
Ex.7 Find the derivative of f ( x) 
x 2 1

2011

105
5.2 The Natural Log Function: Integration (324) Notes #3-2
Date: ______
1
 x dx = ln x + C Properties of logarithms result in equivalent forms that may look different.

1 1
Ex.1  6x1dx Ex.2
x 2/ 3 1/3
( x 1)
dx

Ex.3 Find the area of the region: Ex.4 Find:

x 1 5 x 4 3
x = 1, x = e, y = 0, y 
x2
 x5 3x dx

Using Long Division Before Integrating (not likely on AP exam)

x 1 x3  2 x 2  4
Ex.5 
x 1
dx Ex.6  x 2 2
dx

106
Ex.7 Solve the differential equations:
dy 2 x dy 3
a)  b) 
dx x 2  9 dx 2 x ln( x 2 )

Integrals of Trigonometric Functions (329) 1: Memorized, 2: U-sub, or 3: Identity

x
Ex.8  tanxdx * Express 2 ways Ex.9  2 dx
sec

Find the average value of f(x) = 1+cot 2 xdx on   ,  .

 
Ex.10
 4 2 

107
Catalog “a”
Type “abs( ”
108
5.3 Inverse Functions (332) Notes #3-3
Date: ______
A function g is the inverse function [ f -1(x) read “f inverse”] of the function f if
f(g(x)) = x for each x in the domain of g and g(f(x)) = x for each x in the domain
of f.
f -1 is not f to the -1 power, it’s the symbol for inverse.
The domain of f -1(x) is equal to the range of f and the range of f -1(x) is equal to
the domain of f.
Inverse functions are reflections over the line y = x.

Ex.1 Show the f(x)s are inverses of each other analytically (composition) &
1 3
graphically. f(x) = 2x+3 and g(x) = x  .
2 2

Not every function has an inverse. Horizontal Line Test: a function has an
inverse if and only if every horizontal line intersects the graph at most once
(one-to-one, see P.3).
If a f(x) is strictly monotonic (always decreasing or always increasing, see
section 3.3) on its entire domain, then it’s one-to-one and so has an inverse.

Ex.2 Is the function one-to-one (so has an inverse)? Use HLT or f ( x) .

a) f(x) = 5 – 2x3 b) f(x) = 5 + 2x – 2x3

109
Steps for finding an inverse relation:
1. Switch the x & y in the relation.
2. Solve for the variable (y).

Ex.3 Find the inverse function of:

3x  1 2x
a) f ( x)  5 b) f ( x) 
x2 x3

Derivative of an Inverse Function:

x 2 3
f ( x)  = g ( x)  2 x  3 =
2

f ( x)  g ( x) 

(3, 6) on f  (6, 3) on g

f (3)  g (6) 

Note: The inverse of a function is the reflection over the line y = x, a change in
y becomes a change in x, and a change in x becomes a change in y. Thus
dy becomes dx , which is why we use the reciprocal.
dx dy

If g is the inverse of f then g ( x)  1 for (a, b) g (a)  1


f ( g ( x)) f (b)
110
Ex.4 Let f(x) = x5 + x + 1.
a) Use the derivative to determine whether the function is strictly
monotonic.

  
b) Find f 1 (a) for a = 1.

2007

111
5.4 Exponential f(x)s: Differentiation & Integration (341) Notes #3-4
Date: ______
3x = 7
e5 = y
log46 = x
lnx = 5

common log: log x means log10x ln e =

natural log: ln x means logex ln 1 =

ex has a slope of 1 at (0, 1).

f(x) = ex g(x) = ln x Techniques

y = ex y = ln x 1. Write in exp form
inverse x = ey inverse x = ln y 2. Get in same base
rewrite ln x = y rewrite y = ex 3. Take ln both sides

eln7 = n ln ex + 2 =

Ex.1 Solve
a) 2x = 5 b) eln2x = 12

Ex.2 Solve
a) ln(5x) = 8 b) ln(3x + 1)2 = 8

Derivatives of Exponential Functions

d  x x d  u  u du
e e e e
dx   dx   dx
112
 2 d  2/ x
Ex.3 a) Find f ( x) for f(x) = 3e x b) xe
dx  

x2  1 d  tan x 
c) Find y  if y  e d) e
dx  

Ex.4 Find the local extrema of f(x) = e x

2
/2.

Ex.5 Find any points of inflection (if any exist) of f(x) = xe x .

Integrating Exponential Functions

 e x dx  e x  C  eu du  eu  C

113
   1dx
2
Ex.6 xe3x

e3 / x dx
Ex.7  x2

4
1
Ex.8 a)  e2x dx
0

b) Suppose the downward velocity of a sky diver is given by

v(t) = 30(1 – e-t) ft/s for the first 5 seconds of a jump. Compute
the distance fallen.

e  e x
 x 
Ex.9 Find the derivative of f ( x)  
ln  .


 2 


114
5.5 Bases Other than e and Applications (351) Notes #3-5
Date: ______
log168 loga x = n
log 0.01 = x

23x = 50
ar = erlna

Ex.1 The half-life of carbon-14 is about 5730 years. Find two models that
yield the fraction (A/A0) of carbon-14 as a function of time and
determine that fraction at 8,585 years.

Ex.2 Solve
1
a) 2-2x = b) log4 (x + 3) + log4 x = 1
32

Derivatives of Exponential Functions (use change of base 1st)

d  x d  u du
a  (ln a)a x a  (ln a)au
dx   dx   dx
d 1 d 1 du
log a x   log a u  
dx (ln a) x dx (ln a)u dx

Ex.3 Find the derivative of:

2
a) y = 4w - 5log7w b) y = 2(3)x + 5ex c) f(x) = 32 x

115
Integrating Exponential Functions

1 x
 a x dx  a C  eu du  eu  C
ln a
2x e x
Ex.4 a)  2 x dx b)  x
dx c)  dx
2 1 x

Ex.5 Find the derivative: Logarithmic Differentiation

a) y = e5 b) y = xln x

Applications of Exponential Functions

Compound Interest:

F r I nt
A  P G1  J A = Pert
H nK
116
Ex.6 Calculate the balance when $3000 is invested for 10 years, at 6%
compounded:
a) quarterly b) weekly c) continuously

Ex.7 Estimate the maximum population for Dallas & for the year 2006
1,301,642
given the logistic function: P(t )  from 1900.
1 21.602e 0.05054t

Ex.8 Graph by hand: y = 2 x .

117
5.6 Differential Equations: Grow and Decay (361) Notes #3-6
Date: ______
Differential Equations (Separation of variables – 5.7)
1. Separate
2
Ex.1 Solve the differential equation y = -4xy , y(0) = 1. 2. Integrate
3. Evaluate - c

Exponential Growth & Decay Model

Law of Exponential Change: If y is a differentiable function of t that changes

 dy 
at a rate proportional to the amount present   ky  & y > 0, then y  Cekt .
 dt 
C is the initial value (y0) of y and k is the proportionality constant (rate
constant). k > 0 represents exponential growth & k < 0 represents decay.
Differentiate y  Cekt with respect to t and verify y = ky.

Ex.2 The rate of change of y is proportional to y. When t = 0, y = 3. When

t = 3, y = 5. What is the value of y when t = 4?

Ex.3 Carbon-14 is radioactive and decays at a rate proportional to the amount

present. Its half-life is 5730 years. If 10 grams were present originally,
how long will it take to decay to 7.851 grams?

118
Ex.4 The world population was approximately 5.9 billion in 1998 and 6.9
billion in 2011. Approximately how many people were there in 1990?

Ex.5 (364)

Newton’s Law of Cooling: The rate at which an object’s temperature is

changing at any given time is roughly proportional to the difference between its
temp & the ambient (environmental) temp. y(t) is the temp of the object at time
t, and Ta is the ambient temp: y (t )  k[ y (t ) Ta ] .

Ex.6 A hot potato at 100C is put in a pan under running 20C water to cool.
After 6 minutes, the potato’s temperature is found to be 40C. How much
longer will it take the potato to reach 25C?

Ex.7 A cup of coffee is 180F. After 2 minutes in a 70F room, the coffee has
cooled to 165F. How much longer it will take to cool to 120F?

119
5.7 Differential Eqs: Separation of Variables (369) Notes #3-7
Date: ______
The order of a differential equation is determined by the highest-order
derivative in the equation. ie y(3) = 4y is a third-order differential equation.
The general solution represents a family of curves - the solution curves.
General Solutions
Ex.1 Is the given function a solution of the differential equation y΄ – y = e2x?
a) y = e2x b) y = Cex + e2x

Separation of Varibales and Particular Solutions (Initial conditions)

1. Separate On almost every free response!
2. Integrate
3. Evaluate (for C)
dy
Ex.2 Find the particular solution of:  y 1 , y(0) = 1
dx

2
x 7 x 3
Ex.3 Find the particular solution of y   , given y(0) = -2.
y

120
Ex.4 Find the particular solution of: Some exercises end up implicit in our text (372).
dy 2 xy dy
a)  2 , y(2) = 10 b) (4 y  cos y)  3x2  0 , (0, 0)
dx x  1 dx

Ex.5 Find a curve in the xy-plane that passes through (0, 3) and whose tangent
line at point (x, y) has slope 2x/y2.

dy 1
Ex.6 Find the particular solution to  ( y  300) with y(0) = 1400.
dx 25

121
2011 1.6/2.7
2012 2.9/4.3

122
5.8 Inverse Trig Functions - Differentiation (380) Notes #3-8
Date: ______
Function Domain Range

y = arcsin x

y = arccos x

y = arctan x

y = arccot x

y = arcsec x

y = arccsc x

Ex.1 Evaluate:
2 2
a) arcsin b) arccos -
2 2

c) sin-1 (sin π/7) d) sin-1 3

e) 6tan-1 x = π f) sin-1 (sin x) = 6π/7

Ex.2 Solve: arcsin(2x – 1) = π/6

123
Ex.3 Use the triangle to answer the questions.
a) Find tan θ. x
θ
1
-1
b) Find tan x.

c) Find the hypotenuse as a function of x.

d) Find sin (tan-1 (x)) as a ratio involving no trig f(x)s.

e) Find sec (tan-1 (x)) as a ratio involving no trig f(x)s.

Remember: the inverse trig functions are angles! We don’t need θ to solve.
Always think of the restricted domain! For arctan it is (-π/2, π/2). 1/5 is + so it
is in QI.
Ex.4a cos (arctan 1/5)

θ
θ

Ex.4b Find an algebraic expression equivalent to: sin [arccos (4x)]

Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions (383)

d sin1u   u  d  cos1 u    u 
dx  
1u2 dx  
1 u 2
d  tan 1 u   u  d  cot 1 u    u
dx  
1 u 2 dx  
1 u 2
d sec1 u   u d  csc1 u    u
dx  
u u 2 1 dx  
u u 2 1
124
Ex.5 Differentiate:
a) y = arcsin x3 b) y = arcsec ex

Derivative of Arcsine
 
y  sin 1 x can be rewritten as sin y  x , and is differentiable on the open interval   y .
2 2
dy dy 1
Using implicit differentiation, we have cos y  1 , or  .
dx dx cos y
We need the derivative in terms of x, so we will use a Pythagorean identity to replace cos y .

sin 2 y  cos2 y  1  cos y  1  sin 2 y

 
Note: We need only use the positive square root because cos y is positive on the interval   y .
2 2
dy 1 d 1
Substituting, we have  , and since sin y  x , we have sin 1 x  
dx 1  sin y
2 dx 1  x2

Cofunctions of the Inverse Trigonometric Functions

1   
Recall: cos x   sin 1 x cot 1 x   tan 1 x csc 1 x   sec 1 x
2 2 2
Derivatives of the Cofunctions of Inverse Trigonometric Functions (differentiate the equations shown above)

d 1
cos 1 x   
dx 1  x2

d 1
cot 1 x   
dx 1  x2

d 1
csc 1 x   
dx  x x2  1

So, the derivatives of the cofunctions are the opposite of the derivatives
of their respective inverse trig functions.

125
5.9 Inverse Trig Functions - Integration (388) Notes #3-9
Date: ______
d sin1u   u  d  cos1 u    u 
dx  
1u2 dx  
1 u 2

Integrals Involving Trig Functions

u  du  sin 1 u  C
 a2 u 2 a

u  du  1 tan 1 u  C
 a2  u 2 a a

u u
du  1 sec1  C
 u u 2  a2 a a

Ex.1 Evaluate:
dx dx dx
a)

4 x2
b)
 2  9 x2
c)
 x 4 x2 9

dx
Ex.2 Find
 e2 x 1

126
 x2 dx
Ex.3 Find
 4 x2

Completing the Square

dx
Ex.4 Find

x 4 x 7
2

Ex.5 Find the area of the region bounded by the graph of f ( x)  1

3x  x2
3
the x-axis and the lines x = and x = 9 .
2 4

Text: “Simplify: 2i<6u”

127
7.7 Indeterminate Forms and L'Hopital's Rule (530) Notes #3-11
Date: ______
Objectives: Recognize limits that produce indeterminate forms. (61) & (194)
Apply L'Hopital's Rule to evaluate a limit.

0 
Limits that result in , , ∞ – ∞, 00, 1∞, ∞0 or 0∙∞ when we attempt direct
0 
substitution are called indeterminate forms. Sometimes we can use the
dividing out and rationalizing the numerator techniques to find these limits.

f ( x) f ( x)
L'Hopital's Rule: lim  lim for g ( x) ≠ 0 except possibly at c.
xc
g ( x) xc g ( x)
Warning: applying the rule to limits that are not indeterminate can
produce errors. Always check direct substitution first!
0 
Warning: only use for
& . Warning: not the quotient rule.
0 
Ex.1-3 Evaluate the limits (a) using techniques from Ch. 1 & 3 and
(b) using L'Hopital's Rule.
x2 4 sin 2 x
Ex.1 lim = Ex.2 lim =
x 2
x2 x0
x

x 1
Ex.3 lim =
x1
x 1

128
Ex.4 Evaluate the limit, using L'Hopital's Rule if necessary.
1sin x x2
a) xlim = b) lim =
 /2
cos x x2
x 6

1 cos x 1 1
c) lim = d) lim 
x0  2
 4  =
x 0
x2 x x 

x ln x
e) xlim

= f) lim =
ex x0 csc x

129
6.1 Area of Region Between Two Curves (412) Notes #3-10
Date: ______

a b a b a b

Ex.1 Find the area of the region bounded by the graphs of y = x + 6,

y = x2 + 4, x = 0 and x = 1.

Ex.2 Find the area of the region bounded by the graphs of f(x) = x + 6 and
g(x) = x2 + 4.

130
Ex.3 The sine and cosine curves intersect infinitely many times, bounding
regions of equal areas. Find the area of one of those regions.

Ex.4 Find the area of the region between the graphs of f(x) = x2 – 5x – 7
and g(x) = x – 12 over [-1, 5].

Ex.5 Find the area of the region bounded by the graphs of x = y2 and
x = y + 2. (Can be done two ways.)

Accumulation (417)
131
2017

132
6.2 Volume the Disk Method (421) Notes #3-12
Date: ______

Disk Method:

Volume of disk = (area of the disk)(width of the disk)

n 2
V = πR w 2
ΔV = πR Δx 2
   R xi   x
i 1

n 2 2 b
   R  x   dx
2
   R xi   x
n
lim    R  xi   x
 0  
i 1 i 1
a
n→∞

Note: we can also do in terms of y if we are revolving around a vertical line.

Ex.1 Find the volume of the solid formed by revolving the region bounded
by the graph of f ( x)  sin x and the x-axis [0, π] about the x-axis.
y=0

Ex.2 Find the volume of the solid formed by revolving the region bounded
by the graph of f(x) = 2 – x2 and g(x) = 1 about the line y = 1.

* symmetry
133
Washer Method V = πR2w – πr2w
V = π(R2 – r2)w

b
 2
    R  x    x 
2
 r  dx
  
a

Ex.3 Find the volume of the solid formed by revolving the region
bounded by the graphs of y = x2 and y = x about the x-axis. y=0

Ex.4 Find the volume of the solid formed by revolving the region bounded
by the graphs of y = x2 + 1, y = 0, x = 0 and x = 1 about the y-axis. x = 0

Ex.5 Find the volume of the solid formed by revolving the region bounded
by the graphs of y = x2 , x = 2 and y = 0 about the line y = -1.

134
Solids with Known Cross Sections (426)

 (Cross-sectional Area)dx
a

Square Semi-circle: varies! Equilateral Triangle

b b b
2  [radius]2 dx 3
[ f ( x)]2 dx
[ f ( x)] dx
2 4 
a a a

Ex.6-8 Find the volume of the solid.

Ex.6 The base is bounded by the circle x2 + y2 = 4. The cross sections are
SQUARES,  to the x-axis.

Ex.7 The base of a solid is the region between the x-axis and y = 4 – x2. The
vertical cross sections of the solid  to the y-axis are SEMI-CIRCLES.

x x
Ex.8 The base of a solid is bounded by f(x) = 1 – , g(x) = -1 + and x = 0.
2 2
The cross sections are EQUILATERAL Δs,  to the x-axis.

135
2017 #1. A tank has a height of 10 feet.

c) Based on the following model, find the volume of the tank. Indicate units
of measure. The area, in square feet, of the horizontal cross section at
50.3 .
height h ft is modeled by the function f given by f (h)  0.2
e h h

d) Water is pumped into the tank. When the height of the water is 5 feet, the
height is increasing at the rate of 0.26 foot per minute. Using the model
from part (c), find the rate at which the volume of water is changing with
respect to time when the height of the water is 5 feet. Indicate units of
measure.

136
6.3 Volume the Shell Method (432) Notes #3-13
Date: ______

Disk Method (rad  rot) Shell Method

Ex.1 Find the volume of the solid formed by revolving the region bounded
by the graphs of y  x , x = 1, x = 4 and the x-axis about the y-axis.
x=0

Ex.2 Find the volume of the solid formed by revolving the region bounded
2
by the graph of x  e y and the y-axis (0 < y < 1) about the x-axis.
y=0

Ex.3 Find the volume of the solid formed by revolving the region bounded
by the graphs of y = x2 + 1, x = 0, x = 1 and y = 0 about the y-axis.
x=0

137
Ex.4 Compute the volume of the solid obtained by rotating the area under
y = 9 – x2 over [0, 3] about the x -axis.

Ex.5 Find the volume of the solid formed by revolving the region bounded
by the graphs of y = x2 , x = 2 and y = 0 about the line y = -1.

138
See Ex.5 (436) for an example when the Shell Method is necessary.

Example: [1973 AP Calculus AB #35] The region in the first quadrant bounded by the graph of y = sec x, x =   and the axes is 
4
rotated about the x‐axis. What is the volume of the solid generated?  
 
2 8
A)       B) π − 1    C) π       D) 2π       E)  π  
4 3
 
 
 
 
 
Example: [1985 AP Calculus AB #45] The region enclosed by the graph of y = x2 the line x = 2, and the x‐axis is revolved about 
the y‐axis. The volume of the solid generated is  
 
32 16
A) 8π      B)  π     C)  π     D) 4π  
5 3
 
 
 
 
 
Example: [1985 AP Calculus BC #35] The region in the first quadrant between the x‐axis and the graph of y = 6x – x2 is rotated 
around the y‐axis. The volume of the resulting solid of revolution is given by  
 
6 6 6
  A)    (6 x  x 2 ) 2 dx   B)   2 x(6 x  x 2 )dx   C)    x(6 x  x 2 ) 2 dx    
0 0 0

   
6 2 9 2
  D)    3  9  y dy   E)    3  9  y dy  
0 0

 
 
 
 
 
 
Example: [1988 AP Calculus AB #30] A region in the first quadrant is enclosed by the graphs of  y = e2x, x = 1, and the 
coordinate axes. If the region is rotated about the y‐axis, the volume of the solid that is generated is represented by which of 
the following integrals?  
 
1 1 1
  A)  2  xe 2 x dx   B)  2  e 2 x dx   C)    e 4 x dx    
0 0 0

 
e  e
D)    y ln y dy  
4
  E)  ln 2 y dy  
0 0

 
 
139
Example: [1988 AP Calculus BC #36] Let R be the region between the graphs of y = 1 and y = sin x from x = 0 to x = π/2. The 
volume of the solid obtained by revolving R about the x‐axis is given by  
 
  
A)  2  2 x sin xdx   B)  2  2 x cos xdx   C)    2 1  sin x  dx    
2
 
0 0 0

 
 
  D)    2 sin 2 x dx   E)    2 1  sin 2 x dx  
0 0

 
 
 
 
 
 
Example: [1988 AP Calculus AB #43] The volume of the solid obtained by revolving the region enclosed by the ellipse  
x2 + 9y2 = 9 about the x‐axis is 
 
A) 2π       B) 4π       C) 6π       D) 9π       E) 12 π 
 
 
 
 
 
1
Example: [1993 AP Calculus AB #20] Let R be the region in the first quadrant enclosed by the graph of  y  ( x  1) 3  the line x 
= 7, the x‐axis, and the y‐axis. The volume of the solid generated when R is revolved about the y‐axis is given by  
 
2 1 2
7 7 2
  A)    ( x  1) dx  
3
B)  2  x( x  1) dx   3
C)    ( x  1) dx  
3
 
0 0 0

 
1
2
y  1 dy  
2 7
D)  2  x( x  1) dx   E)   
3 3
 
0 0

 
 
 
 
 
 
Example: [1993 AP Calculus BC #19] The shaded region R, shown in the figure below, is rotated about the y‐axis to form a 
solid with a volume of 10 cubic inches. Of the following, which best approximates k? 
 
  A) 1.51  
  B) 2.09  
  C) 2.49  
  D) 4.18  
E) 4.77

140