See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/349632305

Some Applications of Lagrange's Theorem in Group Theory Using Numerical

Examples

Article · February 2021

CITATIONS READS

0 961

3 authors:

Abraham Aidoo Kwasi Baah Gyamfi

Kwame Nkrumah University Of Science and Technology Kwame Nkrumah University Of Science and Technology
6 PUBLICATIONS   2 CITATIONS    14 PUBLICATIONS   37 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Emmanuel Akweittey
Presbyterian University College
12 PUBLICATIONS   17 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Examples of Projective Resolution of Lengths 3n/4n That Do Not Satisfy Homological Properties of Nakayama Algebra. View project

Dual of a Hilbert Space View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Abraham Aidoo on 26 February 2021.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 World Wide Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Development (Feb-2021)

WWJMRD 2021; 7(2): 32-34

www.wwjmrd.com
International Journal
Peer Reviewed Journal Some Applications of Lagrange’s Theorem in Group
Refereed Journal
Indexed Journal Theory Using Numerical Examples
Impact Factor SJIF 2017:
5.182 2018: 5.51 / ISI 2020-
2021: 1.361 Kwasi Baah Gyamfi, Abraham Aidoo, Emmanuel Akweittey
E-ISSN: 2454-6615
Abstract
Kwasi Baah Gyamfi
We present Lagrange’s theorem and its applications in group theory. We use Groups, Subgroups,
Department of Mathematics,
Kwame Nkrumah University
Cyclic group, and Subcyclic groups, Fermat’s Little theorem and the Wilson’s theorem to illustrate the
of Science and Technology, results.
Kumasi, Ghana.
Keywords: Group, Subgroup, Cyclic group, Subcyclic group
Abraham Aidoo
Department of Mathematics, Introduction
Kwame Nkrumah University Theorems are paramount because of how they can be applied in Mathematics. As such, a good
of Science and Technology,
theorem should contribute substantially to develop new ideas. We want to introduce the single
Kumasi, Ghana.
most important theorem in finite group theory, The Lagrange theorem. The Lagrange theorem
Emmanuel Akweittey states that the order of any subgroup of a finite group divides the order of the group itself and
Department of Mathematics, is equal to the number of cosets of the subgroup of the group. The Lagrange theorem is critical
Presbyterian University in analysing groups and other concepts in Mathematics and is very useful in connecting group
College Ghana.
theory and number theory because many theorems in elementary number theory and their
proofs require advanced algebraic know-how.
Mamidi Sai Akash [1], presented applications of Lagranges theorem in relation to the order of
the element in a finite group, the order of a group, the converse of Lagranges theorem, and the
Fermats little theorem. Domenico Cantone et al [3], reported on the computerized verification
of Lagranges theorem, carried out with the proof assistant /EtnaNova/Referee. The Lagrange
theorem has many applications, but these applications are not widely known in Mathematics
and hence make knowledge of the Lagrange theorem nominal and sometimes
underappreciated. This piece of work sees to give a methodological presentation on the various
applications of the Lagrange theorem and some numerical examples are presented.

Preliminaries
In this section we give some supporting theorems and their proofs.

Theorem
Let G be a group. A nonempty subset H of G is a subgroup of G if and only if either of
the following holds;
(1). For all a, b  H , ab  H and a −1  H .
−1
(2). For all a, b  H , ab  H .:

Proof:
If H is a subgroup, (1) and (2) are obviously true. Conversely, suppose H satisfies (1). Then
Correspondence: −1 −1
Kwasi Baah Gyamfi for any a  H , a  H . Hence, e = aa  H . Therefore, H is a subgroup. Next,
Department of Mathematics,
Kwame Nkrumah University
suppose that H satisfies (2). Let a, b  H . Then e = bb−1  H .
of Science and Technology,
Kumasi, Ghana.
Hence b −1 = eb −1  H . Therefore a (b −1 ) −1  H . Hence H subgroup of G .
~ 32 ~
World Wide Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Development

Theorem Proof: If p = 2 , then (2 − 1)! = 1  −1(mod 2) and if

Every cyclic group is Abelian.
p = 3 , then (3 − 1)! = 2  −1(mod 3) . Thus assume p
Proof is a prime greater than 3. Since ( p − 1)!  −1(mod p) , it
The elements of cyclic groups are of the form ai . suffices to show that ( p − 2)!  1(mod p) . By Lemma
Commutativity amounts to proving above, for each j such that 1  j  p − 1 there exists an
that ai a j = a j ai . ai a j = ai + j integer k such that j  k and 2  k  p − 2 and
= a j +i addition of integers is commutative 1
j i jk  1(mod p) . Since there are ( p − 3) such pairs,
= a a 3
multiplying them together yields ( p − 2)!  1(mod p)
Fundamental Theorem
Presentation on the various applications of the Lagrange Then ( p − 1)( p − 2)!  (−1)(1)(mod p) 
theorem and some numerical examples are presented. ( p − 1)!  −1(mod p) .
Lagrange’s Theorem
Every subgroup of a cyclic group is cyclic.
Let G be a finite group, and H any subgroup of G . The
order of G is a multiple of the order of H . Thus the order Proof: See [2] for proof.
of H divides the order of G .
Orbit-Stabilizer Theorem
Proof: If a group G acts on a set X , then the map;
Suppose that G has order n and that H has order m. We  : G / Stab( x) → Orb( x); gStab( x) g .x
prove that m divides n. Since the cosets of H partition G ,
is a bijection. When G a finite group, this shows that,
each element of G lies in exactly one coset. Let the number
| G |=| OrbG ( x) | . | StabG ( x) | , for each x  X .
of distinct cosets be k . Each coset has exactly m elements,
Proof: See [4] for details.
the same number as H . Thus, as each of the k cosets has
m elements, there are k m elements in all. Therefore, Main Result
n = k m , and m divides n . In this section we present some applications of Lagrange’s
theorem together with example to illustrate the results.
Theorem
If p is a prime and gcd(a, p) = 1 , then Groups and Subgroups
a p −1
 1(mod p ) . In the notation of modular arithmetic, Let G be a group, where G = Z8 = 0,1, 2,3, 4,5,6,7
this is expressed as, if a = 2 andp = 7 , 27 = 128 , and Then the order of G denoted | G |= 8 . Let H be a
128 − 2 = 7 18 is an integer multiple of 7 . subgroup of G where H = 0, 2, 4, 6 . Then the order of

Proof: H denoted | H |= 4 . Hence by Lagranges theorem | G | is

Let S = {a | a  a (mod p )} for p prime and a  N . a multiple of the | H | .
p

Then 0  S because 0 = 0 for all p so 0  0(mod p )

p p
Cyclic group and Sub-cyclic group
Now assume k  S and k  k (mod p ) . We want to G = Z15 = 1, 2, 4,7,8,11,13,14 be a cyclic group
p
Let
show that for k + 1 S , ( k + 1)  ( k + 1)(mod p ) . By
p
of order 8 with generator 7.
the Binomial theorem Let H = 1, 4,7,13 be a subcyclic group of the cyclic
group generated by  7  of order 4. The order of H
(k + 1) p = k p + 1p +  j =1 ( pj )k p − j  k + 1(mod p)
p −1

divides the order of G :

If gcd(a, p) = 1 ,then by cancellation a p  a (mod p ) On the other hand, let Z5 = 1, 2,3, 4 be a cyclic group of
Implies a p −1  1(mod p ) . If a is negative, then order 4 with generator 2.
a  r (mod p) for some r , where 0  r  p − 1 . Thus Let H = 2, 4 be a subcyclic group of the cyclic group
a p  r p  r  a (mod p ) . generated by  2  of order 2.
Then by lagrange’s theorem, the order of G is a multiple of
Theorem the order of H .
If p is prime, then ( p − 1)!  −1(mod p) . Fermats Little theorem In Relation to Lagrange’s
theorem.
Lemma Now we look at Fermats Little theorem in relation to
Let d = gcd(a, m) . If d | b , then ax  b(mod m) Lagrange theorem; by theorem 2.7 we know that
has exactly d solutions (mod m) . a p −1  1(mod p ) where p is a prime element.
~ 33 ~
World Wide Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Development

1  k  p − 1 such that jk  1(mod p) . If k = j , then i) OrbG ((1, 2)) = (1, 2),(2,3),(1,3) and
j 2  1(mod p ) so j = 1 or j = p − 1 . 2  j  p − 2 , | OrbG ((1, 2)) |= 3 . Also, StabG ((1, 2)) = e,(1, 2)
then there exists an integer k such
and | StabG ((1, 2)) |= 2 . Hence by Orbit-Stabilizer
Then 2 − 1 = (2  2  2  2  2  2) − 1 = 64 − 1 = 63 ,
6
theorem,
which is divisible by 7.
| G |=| OrbG ((1, 2)) | . | StabG ((1, 2)) |= 3  2 = 6 .
Let ( p − 1) be our group G with order | G | . Since Hence by Lagrange’s theorem, | G | is a multiple of both
p = 7  ( p − 1) = 6 which has the elements | OrbG ((1, 2)) | and | StabG ((1, 2)) | .
1, 2,3, 4,5, 6 . Let a be the subgroup with the order of ii) OrbG ((1, 2,3)) = (1, 2,3),(1,3, 2) and
H defined as | OrbG ((1, 2,3)) |= 2 .Also,
StabG ((1, 2,3)) = e1 ,(1, 2,3),(1,3, 2) and
a , a , a ,.., a  = 2 , 2 , 2 ,.., 2  = 1, 2, 4
0 1 2 p −1 0 1 2 6

| StabG ((1, 2,3)) |= 3 . Therefore by the theorem,

Hence | H |= 3 .
| G |=| OrbG ((1, 2,3)) | . | StabG (1, 2,3) |= 2  3 = 6
By Lagranges theorem, | H | divides | G | .
Hence by Lagrange’s theorem, both | OrbG ((1, 2,3)) | and
Wilsons Theorem | StabG ((1, 2,3)) | divide | G | .
Let us consider the Wilsons theorem which is a consequence
of Fermats little theorem. Using theorem 2.8, we illustrate
some examples; Conclusion
In this piece of work, we have been able to give a
Let p = 5 , where p is a prime. Consider the element
methodological representation on some applications of
Z5* = 1, 2,3, 4 where Z 5* is a subgroup H of order 4. Lagrange’s theorem whereas practical illustrations have
been exhibited using these applications which shows that the
Then by the theorem; order of a subgroup divides the order of a group.
( p − 1)!  −1(mod p) = p | ( p − 1)!+ 1 . ( p − 1)!+ 1
has 24 elements given by Z5* = 1, 2,3, 4,.., 24 . Reference
1. Mamidi Sai Akash (2015). Applications of Lagrange’s
Representing q by 25, q  p , where q is the group Theorem in Group Theory, Volume 3, PageNo.1150-
G of order 24 and H is a subgroup of G or order 4, 1153, ISSN: 2320-7167.
2. W. Keith Nicholson (2007). Introduction to abstract
hence the order of H divides the order of G . This algebra 3/E: A John Wiley and sons, Inc., Publication.
confirms the Lagrange’s theorem. 3. Domenico Cantone et al (2009). A certification of
Let p = 7 , where p is prime. We know that the elements Lagranges theorem with the proof assistant
Z 7* are six given by 1, 2,3, 4,5, 6 . Let H be a
tnaNova/Referee.
of 4. T. K Carne (2012). Geometry and Groups, PageNo. 5,
Z 6* .
subgroup representing https://www.dpmms.cam.ac.uk/tkc
/GeometryandGroups.pdf
By theorem 2.8, ( p − 1)!+ 1 has 721 elements. Hence
Z9* = Z 721
*
has 720 elements which represents the group G
.
Applying the Lagrange’s theorem, the order of G is a
multiple of the order of H .

Orbit-Stabilizer Theorem
We now look at the Orbit-Stabilizer Theorem in relation to
the Lagrange’s theorem. Using theorem 2.9, we show some
examples.
Consider a group
G = S3 = e1 ,(1, 2),(1,3),(2,3),(1, 2,3),(1,3, 2) and
let it act on itself by conjugation. By the theorem 2.9 we
know that | G |=| OrbG ( x) | . | StabG ( x) | , where G is the
group  a  0(mod p ) where p divides a p −1 − 1 .
p −1

Let p = 7 and a = 2 .
whereas OrbG ( x) and StabG ( x ) are the subgroups. It is
easy to see that.

~ 34 ~

View publication stats