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1. Reference
• Reference is an act by which a speaker (or
writer) uses language to enable a listener
Lecture 2: Pragmatics (Cont.) (or reader) to identify somebody or
something.

• Reference is the relationship that holds

between a word or expression and the
objects it refers to (called referent).

Main issues Reference vs. Referent

• A word or a phrase can have a range of
1. Reference and Inference
reference called referents.

2. Presupposition • E.g. my mother, my phone

• Reference is variable and utter-dependent.

3. Speech acts By means of reference, a speaker wants to
indicate a particular thing in a particular
situation, not things in general.

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Referent Anaphora - Anaphoric reference

• Two referring expressions which have the • Anaphora is the use of a word or a group of
words which refer back to another part of
same referent are said to be co-referential. In
the text. It can be defined as subsequent
the sentence John had his dog with him, for reference to an already introduced entity.
instance, the noun John and the pronoun him • The students were excited about their first
encounter with a class.
are co-referential, since they both refer to the
• We saw a funny video about a boy washing
same person (John).
a puppy in a small bath. The puppy started
• My mother, the teacher, her sister struggling and the boy got really wet.

Types of reference Anaphora - Anaphoric reference

• According to Halliday and Hassan (1976), there
• The second (or subsequent) referring
are two types of reference. expression is an example of anaphora
a. Endophora / /: textual (meaning referring back). The first mention
– A naphora (anaphoric reference): to preceding is called the antecedent.
text. • The connection between an antecedent and
– Ca taphora (cataphoric reference): to following
an anaphoric expression is created by the
use of a pronoun, or a phrase with “the”
text.
plus the antecedent noun, or another noun
b. Exophora /ɪkˈsɒfərə/(exophoric /ˌeksəˈfɒrɪk/ that is related to the antecedent in some
reference): situational. way (the little dog)
- It is very nice. (It = the room)

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Anaphora - Anaphoric reference Cataphora - Cataphoric reference

• Anaphoric reference can be intrasentential • My reasons are as follows. One, I am out
(within a sentence) or intersentential (across of money ...
sentences). E.g. • Here is the news. The Prime Minister has
- The President has set himself a difficult decided …
task.
• Anaphoric is more common that
- The bill, which Daniel said he drafted
cataphoric. This is usually because the
personally, ...
reader/listener has to be introduced to
- Monte Brooks died on Thursday. He lived
something before a reference can be made
at 45 Elizabeth Street.
to it.

Cataphora - Cataphoric reference Inference

• Cataphora is the use of a word or a phrase • An inference is additional information used
by the listener/hearer to create a connection
which refers forward to another word or between what is said and what must be
phrase which will be used later in a text or meant.
• The connection between antecedents and
conversation. anaphoric expressions is often based on
E.g. It is a truth universally acknowledged inference as in the following examples:
that a single man in possession of a good • We found a house to rent, but the kitchen
was very small.
fortune must be in want of a wife. • I caught a bus and asked the driver if it
went near the downtown area.

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Inference 2. Presupposition
• We must make an inference like: “If X is a • Mary beat her brother again.
house, then X has a kitchen” in order to • Mary beat her brother before.
interpret the connection between antecedent • I know that they have been cheating.
‘a house’ and anaphoric expression ‘the • They have been cheating.
kitchen’.
• John has started smoking again.
• We must make an inference like: “If X is a • John used to smoke, but he gave it up.
bus, then X has a driver” in order to make the
• When did you stop going out with Mary?
connection between ‘a bus’ and ‘the driver’.
• You stopped going out with Mary.
• Listeners/readers infer while speakers/writers
imply. • When the police arrived, the robber had left.
• The police arrived.

2. Presupposition 1. Presupposition
• What the speaker / writer assumes is true or • She pretended she didn’t see him.
known by the listener / reader before making • She saw him.
an utterance. • If I were you, I would not marry her.
- “When did you stop beating your wife?” • I am not you and I will not marry her.
presupposes: • After the coffee break, the speaker
continued speaking about his research
• You did beat your wife.
project.
• You stopped beating your wife. • The speaker was speaking about his R.P.
• You beat someone. • John regrets dumping Mary.
• You have a wife. 14 • John dumped Mary.

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2. Speech acts Direct and Indirect Speech Acts

• What is a speech act?

• Direct speech acts

Direct Indirect
• Indirect speech acts speech acts speech acts

Speech acts Sentence types and their functions

• We can describe a speech act as an action Sentence types Functions
performed by a speaker with an utterance such as: • Declarative • Statements
requesting, commanding, questioning, - You ate the pizza.
ordering, inviting, threatening, naming,
advising or informing… • Interrogative • Questions
- Did you eat the pizza?
• I’ll be there at 6.
• Imperative • Commands
• Would you like to have lunch with me?
- Eat the pizza!
• I’ll kill you if you touch my laptop again.
• Exclamatory • Exclamations
• If I were you, I would not tell her the truth. - How good the pizza is!
• I name this ship Titanic. - What a good pizza!

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DIRECT SPEECH ACTS INDIRECT SPEECH ACTS DIRECT SPEECH ACTS INDIRECT SPEECH ACTS

a direct relationship an indirect relationship - Imperatives are used to - 'can you', 'could you’
between a structure and a between a structure and a ,'will you', 'would you ‘are
make requests.
function function
used to make requests.
- Pass the salt!
- Could you pass the salt?
It's cold outside. It's cold outside.
- Open this! - Would you open this?
→ declarative → declarative
→ a statement → a command
- less
polite than indirect - more polite than direct
→ I hereby tell you about → I hereby request that speech acts speech acts
the weather. you close the door.

DIRECT SPEECH ACTS INDIRECT SPEECH ACTS

The speaker wants the - Do you have to stand in

hearer not to stand in front front of the TV?
of the TV. He says :
→ Interrogative
- Move out of the way!
→ Command
→ Imperative
- You're standing in front of
→ Command the TV.
→ Declarative

→ Command
→ Different
structures can be used to accomplish the
same basic functions.

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