AJB 30203:

RADAR PRINCIPLES

ASSOC. PROF. TS. DR. HARLISYA

HARUN
[email protected]
26 February 2020
 AIRCRAFT SYSTEM
1. Avionic Systems
i. Navigation System.
ii. Flight deck and cockpit systems.
iii.Communication System

2. Flight Control System

3. Aircraft Electrical System

Prepared By: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Harlisya Harun

 AVIONICS
• Avionics is actually a combination of
Aviation & Electronics.

• Represents the field of technology that

encompasses the electronic equipment and
systems that are used on aircraft and
aircraft components

Prepared By: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Harlisya Harun

 AVIONICS

• The primary goal of avionics is to help the

aircraft get from one location to another
location in almost any weather condition.

Prepared By: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Harlisya Harun

 Introduction

• RADAR represents RAdio Detection And Ranging.

• Basic principle of radar: detecting objects and

determine their distances (range) from the echoes
they reflect.
Prepared By: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Harlisya Harun
 Principles of Radar

• Radar systems use modulated waveforms and directive

antennas to transmit electromagnetic energy into a specific
volume in space to search for targets.
• Objects (targets) within a search volume will reflect portions of
this energy (radar returns or echoes) back to the radar.
• These echoes are then processed by the radar receiver to
extract target information such as range, velocity, angular
position, and other target identifying characteristics.
Prepared By: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Harlisya Harun
 Principles of Radar
• Electromagnetic energy (radio waves) propagate in air (or
space) at a constant speed, at approximately the speed of
light,
i. 300,000 kilometers per second (300 million metres per
second) or
ii. 186,000 statute miles per second or
iii. 162,000 nautical miles per second.

• This constant speed allows the determination of the distance

between the reflecting objects (airplanes, ships or cars) and
the radar site by measuring the running time of the
transmitted pulses.

Prepared By: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Harlisya Harun

 Principles of Radar
• The velocity of propagation, v, wavelength, , and
frequency, f, of a radio wave are related by the
equation:
v=f

• Example 1:
Determine the frequency of a radio signal that has a
wavelength of 15 m.

• Example 2:
Determine the wavelength of a radio signal that has a
frequency of 150 MHz.
Prepared By: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Harlisya Harun
 Principles of Radar
• The electromagnetic waves are reflected if they meet
an electrically leading surface. If these reflected
waves are received again at the place of their origin,
then that means an obstacle is in the propagation
direction.

• The electromagnetic waves normally travels through

space in a straight line, and will vary only slightly
because of atmospheric and weather conditions. By
using of special radar antennas this energy can be
focused into a desired direction. Thus the direction
(in azimuth and elevation) of the reflecting objects
can be measured.
Prepared By: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Harlisya Harun
Electromagnetic Spectrum

Prepared By: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Harlisya Harun

Radar Bands and Usage

Prepared By: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Harlisya Harun

 Principles of Radar
• Radio waves of the frequencies used by most
airborne radars travel essentially in straight lines.

• For a radar to receive echoes from a target, the

target must be within the line of sight.

Prepared By: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Harlisya Harun

 Q & A?
• What happen to the radar receiver when radar is in
the transmitting mode?

• To avoid problems of the transmitter interfering with

the reception. The receiver is turned off (“blanked”)
during transmission.
Prepared By: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Harlisya Harun
 Q & A?

• Radar usually transmits the radio waves in pulses and

listens for the echoes in between. This is to keep
transmission from interfering with reception.
Prepared By: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Harlisya Harun
 Distance-Determination?
• Since the waves travel to a target and back, the round-trip
time (RTT) is dividing by two in order to obtain the time the
wave took to reach the target. Therefore the following
formula arises for the slant range:

R = t/2 · c0
c0 = speed of light = 3·108 m/s
t = measured running time [s]
R = slant range antenna - aim [m]
The distances are expressed in kilometers, statute mile or
nautical miles (1 NM = 1.852 km).

Prepared By: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Harlisya Harun

 Distance-Determination?
Example 1:

• If radar received its echo after 10 micro seconds (μs) , what is

the distance of the target?.

R = t/2 · c0

Prepared By: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Harlisya Harun

Distance-Determination?

Prepared By: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Harlisya Harun

 How to determine the direction?
• The angular determination of the target is determined by the
directivity of the antenna.
• Directivity is the ability of the antenna to concentrate the
transmitted energy in a particular direction.
• An antenna with high directivity is also-called a directive
antenna.
• By measuring the direction in which the antenna is pointing
when the echo is received, both the azimuth and elevation
angles from the radar to the object or target can be
determined.
(Note: In most airborne radars, the antenna beam is positioned
by physically moving the antenna through the desired
azimuth and elevation angles)
• The accuracy of angular measurement is determined by the
directivity, which is a function of the size of the antenna.
How to determine the direction?
 How to determine the direction?
Elevation Angle
• is the angle between the horizontal plane and the
line of sight, measured in the vertical plane.
• The reference direction (i.e. an elevation angle of
zero degrees) is a horizontal line in the direction to
the horizon, starting from the antenna.
Azimuth & Elevation Angle?
 MEASUREMENT OF BEARING AND
ELEVATION ANGLES OF THE TARGET?
• The transmitting antenna focuses the radar waves and
radiates them in the shape of the beam.
• The beam is pointed directly at the target in free space. The
receiver antenna picks up the maximum signal when it is
pointed directly at the reflecting target.
• The received echo signal is maximum when both the
transmitting and receiving antennas are pointed directly at
the target.
• The position of the radar antenna corresponding to the
maximum received echo signal represent bearing and
elevation angles of the target which is in the path of the
beam.
MEASUREMENT OF BEARING AND ELEVATION ANGLES OF
THE TARGET?
 How to determine the direction?
• From common simplistic illustrations, it might be
supposed that a radar antenna concentrates all of
the transmitted energy into a narrow beam within
which the power is uniformly distributed.
• Most of the energy is concentrated in a more or less
conical region surrounding the central axis, or
boresight line, of the antenna. This region is called
the mainlobe.
beamwidth

Weaker lobes → sidelobes

 Directional Lobe
• The antennas of most radar systems are designed to
radiate energy in a one-directional lobe or beam that
can be moved in bearing simply by moving the
antenna.

• The shape of the beam is such that the echo signal

strength varies in amplitude as the antenna beam
moves across the target.
 Directional Lobe
• Radar units usually work with very high
frequencies because:
▪ High resolution (the smaller the wavelength, the
smaller the objects the radar is able to detect).
▪ Higher the frequency, smaller the antenna size at
the same gain.

Prepared By: Baha Rudin Abd Latif 26

 How to determine the direction?
• In actual practice, search radar antennas move
continuously; the point of maximum echo,
determined by the detection circuitry or visually by
the operator, is when the beam points direct at the
target.
• Weapons-control and guidance radar systems are
positioned to the point of maximum signal return
and maintained at that position either manually or
by automatic tracking circuits.
 How to determine the direction?
• Beamwidth is determined primarily by the size of the
antenna’s frontal area. This area is called the
aperture.
• Its dimensions—width, height, or diameter—are
gauged not in inches or centimeters, but in
wavelengths of the radiated energy
 Why Radar?
• A radar system is capable to measure the direction,
height, distance, course and speed of an objects.

• Radar frequency is unaffected by darkness and also

penetrates fog and clouds. This permits radar
systems to determine the position of airplanes, ships,
or other obstacles that are invisible to the naked eye
because of distance, darkness, or weather.

• Modern radar can extract widely more information

from a target's echo signal than its range.

Prepared By: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Harlisya Harun

 Why Radar?
• Radar can see the objects in
‐ day or night
‐ rain or shine
‐ land or air
‐ cloud or clutter
‐ fog or frost
‐ earth or planets
‐ stationary or moving, and
‐ good or bad weather.

• In brief, Radar can see the objects hidden anywhere in

the globe or planets except hidden behind good
conductors.
Prepared By: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Harlisya Harun
 Information given by the Radar?
• Radar gives the following information:
‐ The position of the object
‐ The distance of objects from the location of radar
‐ The size of the object
‐ Whether the object is stationary or moving
‐ Velocity of the object
‐ Distinguish friendly and enemy aircrafts
‐ The images of scenes at long range in good and
adverse weather conditions
‐ Target recognition
‐ Weather target is moving towards the radar or
moving away
‐ The direction of movement of targets
‐ Classification of materials
Prepared By: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Harlisya Harun
 Applications of Radar
• Radar was developed during World War II for military
purposes, for identification of unknown objects.

• The technology evolved since then. In particular,

radar is used:
‐ To indicate speed of the automobiles, cricket and
tennis balls etc.
‐ To control guided missiles and weapons
‐ To provide early warning of enemy
‐ To aircrafts, ships, submarines and spacecrafts for
defence purposes
‐ For weather forecast
‐ For remote sensing
Prepared By: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Harlisya Harun
 Applications of Radar
‐ For ground mapping
‐ For airport control
‐ For airport surveillance
‐ For precise measurement of distances for land
surveying
‐ To detect and measure objects under the earth
‐ For navigating aircrafts and ships and submarines
in all the weather conditions and night.
‐ To detect and locate ships, land features and sea
conditions to avoid collision
‐ To map the land and sea from aircrafts and
spacecrafts
‐ To study the nature of stars and planets
Prepared By: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Harlisya Harun
 Applications of Radar
‐ To measure altitude from the earth for aircrafts
and missile navigation etc.
‐ For searching of submarines, land masses etc.
‐ For waste level measurement.
https://www.digikey.my/en/videos/a/acconeer/accon
eer-radar-application--waste-level-measurement
‐ For automative Radar Application
‐ For space surveillance

Prepared By: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Harlisya Harun

 Other Systems?
• SONAR -- SOund Navigation And Ranging
- uses the echo principle by sending out sound waves
underwater or through the human body to locate
objects.

Prepared By: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Harlisya Harun

 LECTURE OUTLINE
• Radar Principles
• Weather Radar Systems.
• Air Traffic Control (ATC) system.
• Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance
Systems (TCAS).
• Distance Measuring Equipment (DME).
• Radio Altimeter (RAD ALT)
• Doppler Radar System
Prepared By: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Harlisya Harun
 MARKS DISTRIBUTION

• Assignments/Projects: 50%
• Quizzes: 10%
• Midterm exam: 10%
• Final Exam: 30%

Prepared By: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Harlisya Harun 37

 REFERENCES
• M. Tooley and D. Wyatt, “Aircraft
Communications and Navigation
System: 2nd Edition, Routledge, New
York, USA, 2018.
• G. W. Stimson, “Introduction to
Airborne Radar (Aerospace & Radar
Systems: 2nd Edition”, SciTech
Publishing Inc., USA, 1998.

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 END
OF
PRESENTATION

Prepared By: Mohd Ezwani Kadir 39