7th Topic

Matrices
Characteristic Equations, Eigen Values and
Eigen Vectors, Orthogonal vectors
Prepared by

Dr. Sunil
NIT Hamirpur (HP)

Characteristic matrix:
[ ]
Let A = a ij
n× n
be any square matrix of order n and λ be a scalar. Then the matrix

a11 − λ a12 .... a1n 

 a a 22 − λ .... a 2n 
A − λI = 
21
 .... .... .... .... 
 
 a n1 a n2 .... a nn − λ 
is called the characteristic matrix of A, where I is the unit matrix of the order n.
Characteristic polynomial:
The determinant ofcharacteristic matrixis called the characteristic polynomial.
or
The determinant
a11 − λ a12 .... a1n
a 21 a 22 − λ .... a 2n
A − λI = ,
.... .... .... ....
a n1 a n2 .... a nn − λ

which is an ordinary polynomial in λ of degree n, is called the characteristic polynomial of

A.
Matrices: Characteristic Equations, Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors, 2

Visit: https://www.sites.google.com/site/hub2education/

Characteristic equation:
The equation A − λI = 0 , is called the characteristic equation of A.

Characteristic roots:
The roots of characteristic equation, i.e. the roots of A − λI = 0 , are called the

characteristic roots or latent roots or characteristic values or eigen values or proper values
of the matrix A.
Spectrum:
The set of all eigen values of A is called the spectrum of A.
Remarks:
If λ is a characteristic root of the matrix A, then A − λI = 0

⇒ The matrix A − λI is singular.

Therefore, ∃ a non-zero vector X (i.e. X ≠ O),s.t.
(A − λI )X = O ⇒ AX = λX .
Characteristic vectors:
If λ is a characteristic root of an n × n matrix A, then a non-zero vector X (i.e. X ≠
O),s.t. AX = λX , is called a characteristic vector or eigen vector or latent vector of A
corresponding to the characteristic root λ .

Relation between
Characteristic roots and Characteristic vectors:
Theorem 1: Prove that, if λ is aneigenvalue of a matrix A if and only if there
exists a non-zero vector X such that AX = λX .
Proof:Suppose λ is aneigen value of the matrix A.
Then A − λI = 0 ⇒ The matrix A − λI is singular.

Therefore, the matrix equation (A − λI )X = O possesses a non-zero solution,

i.e., ∃ a non-zero vector X s.t. (A − λI )X = O ⇒ AX = λX .

Converse Part:
Conversely, suppose there exists anon-zero vector X such that AX = λX ,
i.e., (A − λI )X = O .
Matrices: Characteristic Equations, Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors, 3

Visit: https://www.sites.google.com/site/hub2education/

Since, the matrix equation (A − λI )X = O possesses a non-zero solution,

⇒ The coefficient matrix A − λI must be singular, i.e., A − λI = 0 .

Hence, λ is the eigenvalue of the matrix A.

This completes the proof.
Theorem 2.:Prove that, if X is aneigen vector of a matrix A, then X cannot
correspond to more than one eigen values of A.
Proof:Let X be aneigen vector of a matrix A corresponding to two eigenvalues λ1 and λ 2 .
Then
AX = λ1X and AX = λ 2X .
Therefore λ1X = λ 2X .

⇒ (λ1 − λ 2 )X = O ⇒ λ1 − λ 2 = 0 [∵ X ≠ O]
⇒ λ1 = λ 2 .
This completes the proof.
Properties of eigen values:
Property No.(1):Show that the sum of eigen values of a matrix is the sum of the elements of the
principal diagonal and the product of the eigen values of a matrix A is equal to
its determinant.

 a11 a12 a13 

Proof:Consider the square matrix A = a 21 a 22 a 23  of order 3.
a 31 a 32 a 33 

a11 − λ a12 a13

∴ A − λI = a 21 a 22 − λ a 23 = −λ3 + λ2 (a11 + a 22 + a 33 ) + λ(........) + (.........) . (i)
a 31 a 32 a 33 − λ

Also, if λ1 , λ 2 and λ3 be the eigen values of A, then

3
A − λI = ( λ1 − λ )( λ 2 − λ )( λ 3 − λ ) = ( −1) ( λ − λ1 )( λ − λ 2 )( λ − λ 3 )

= −λ3 + λ2 (λ1 + λ 2 + λ3 ) + λ(λ1λ 2 + λ 2λ3 + λ3λ1 ) + (λ1λ 2λ3 ) . (ii)

(i). Equating R. H. S. of (i) and (ii) and comparing the coefficients of λ2 , we get
λ1 + λ 2 + λ3 = a11 + a 22 + a 33 .
Matrices: Characteristic Equations, Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors, 4

Visit: https://www.sites.google.com/site/hub2education/

(ii). Putting λ = 0 in (ii), we get A = λ1λ 2λ3 . Hence, this proves the results.

Property No. (2):If λ is an eigen value of a matrix A,

1
then show that is the eigen value of A −1 .
λ
Proof:Let λ be an eigen value of A and X be corresponding eigen vector.
Then AX = λX .
−1
Pre-multiplying by A , we get

(
X = A −1(λX ) = λ A −1X ⇒ ) 1
λ
X = A −1X

1
⇒ A −1X = X [∵ A −1 exist ⇒ A is non-singular ⇒ λ ≠ 0 ]
λ
1
⇒ is an eigen value of A −1 and X is the corresponding eigen vector.
λ
Property No.(3):If λ is an eigen values of an orthogonal matrix ,
1
then show that is also its eigen value.
λ
Proof:Since we know that if λ is an eigen value of a matrix A, then
1
is an eigen value of A −1 .
λ
1
⇒ is an eigen value of A ' [∵ A is orthogonal matrix, i.e., AA' = I ⇒ A −1 = A' ]
λ
But the matrices A and A ' have same eigen values
[∵ the det. A − λI and A'−λI are the same]

1
Hence, is also an eigen value of A.
λ

Property No. (4):Show that if λ1, λ 2 ,.........., λ n are the latent roots of a matrix A, then A 2

has the latent roots λ21 , λ22 ,.........., λ2n .

Sol.: Let λ be a latent root of the matrix A

Then ∃ a non-zero vector X s.t. AX = λX . (i)
Pre-multiplying both sides by A, we get

⇒ A(AX) = A(λX ) ⇒ A 2X = λ(AX) ⇒ A 2X = λ(λX ) ⇒ A 2X = λ2 X

Matrices: Characteristic Equations, Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors, 5

Visit: https://www.sites.google.com/site/hub2education/

Since X is a non-zero vector, therefore λ2 is a latent root of the matrix A 2 .

∴ If λ1, λ 2 ,.........., λ n are the latent roots of a matrix A, then λ21 , λ22 ,.........., λ2n are the

latent roots of the A 2 .

Property No. (5):Show that if λ1, λ 2 ,.........., λ n are the latent roots of a matrix A, then A 3

has the latent roots λ31, λ32 ,.........., λ3n .

Proof:Let λ be a latent root of the matrix A then ∃ a non-zero vector X s.t.

AX = λX . (i)
Pre-multiplying both sides by A, we get

A(AX) = A(λX ) ⇒ A 2X = λ(AX) ⇒ A 2X = λ(λX ) ⇒ A 2X = λ2 X .

Again pre-multiplying both sides by A, we get

( ) ( )
A A 2X = A λ2X ⇒ A3X = λ2 (AX) = λ2 (λX ) = λ3X .

Since X is a non-zero vector, therefore λ3 is a latent root of the matrix A 3 .

∴ If λ1, λ 2 ,.........., λ n are the latent roots of a matrix A,

then λ31, λ32 ,.........., λ3n are the latent roots of the A 3 .
This completes the proof.

Property No. (6):If λ1, λ 2 ,..............,λ n are the eigen values of a matrix A,

then show that A m has the eigen values λm

m m
1 , λ 2 ,.........., λ n .

[m being positive integer]

Proof:Let λi be aneigen value of A and Xi be the corresponding eigen vector.

Then AXi = λi Xi .
Pre-multiplying both sides by A, we get

A 2Xi = A(λi Xi ) = λi(AXi ) = λi (λi Xi ) = λ2iXi .

Similarly, A3Xi = λ3iXi .

In general, A m Xi = λmi Xi .

Thus, λmi is an eigen value of A m .

Matrices: Characteristic Equations, Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors, 6

Visit: https://www.sites.google.com/site/hub2education/

Hence λm m m m
1 , λ 2 ,.........., λ n are eigen values of A .

Property No. (7): If λ be aneigen value of a non-singular matrix A.

A
Show that is an eigen value of matrix adj. A.
λ
Proof: Since λ be an eigen value of a non-singular matrix A ⇒ λ ≠ 0 .
Also λ is an eigen value of A then ∃ a non-zero vector X. s. t. AX = λX . (i)
Pre-multiplying both sides by Adj A, we get
(Adj A )(AX) = (Adj A )(λX ) ⇒ [(Adj A )A]X = λ[(Adj A )X]
 Adj A 
⇒ ( A I ) X = λ ( Adj A ) X ∵ A −1 = ⇒ Adj A.A = A I
 A 

A
⇒ A X = λ(Adj A )X ⇒ X = (Adj A )X . [∵ λ ≠ 0]
λ
A
⇒ (Adj A )X = X.
λ
A
Since X is a non-zero vector, therefore is an eigen value of the matrix adj A.
λ
Property No. (8):Show that the eigen values of a triangular matrix A are equal to the
elements of the principal diagonal of A.

a11 a12 .... a1n 

0 a .... a 2n 
Proof:Let A = 
22
be a triangular matrix of order n.
 .... .... .... .... 
 
0 0 .... a nn 

(a11 − λ ) a12 .... a1n

0 (a 22 − λ ) .... a 2n
Then A − λI = = (a11 − λ )(a 22 − λ )........(a nn − λ ) .
.... .... .... ....
0 0 .... (a nn − λ )
∴ The roots of the equation A − λI = 0 are λ = a11, a 22 ,.........., a nn .

Hence, the eigen valuesof A are a11, a 22 ,.........., a nn .

And as we define A,these are the diagonal elements of A.
This completes the proof.
Matrices: Characteristic Equations, Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors, 7

Visit: https://www.sites.google.com/site/hub2education/
Property No. (9).:Show that the eigen values of a unitary matrix have the absolute
value 1.
or
Show that the eigen values of a unitary matrix are of unit modulus.

Proof: Suppose A is a unitary matrix ⇒ A θ A = I .

Let λ be an eigen value of A and X be corresponding eigen vector then AX = λX . (i)
Taking conjugate transpose of both sides of (i), we get

(AX)θ = (λX )θ ⇒ XθAθ = λ Xθ . (ii)

From (i) and (ii), we have

( X A ) ( AX ) = ( λX ) ( λX )
θ θ θ

( ) ( )
⇒ XθAθ (AX) = λ λX θX ⇒ Xθ AθA X = λ λX θX ⇒ XθIX = λ λXθX

(
⇒ X θ X = λ λX θ X ⇒ X θ X λ λ − 1 = O . ) (iii)

Since X θX ≠ O , (since X ≠ O ),
2
∴ (iii) gives λ λ − 1 = 0 ⇒ λ λ = 1 ⇒ λ = 1 .

Thus λ = 1 ⇒ The eigen values of a unitary matrix have the absolute value 1.

This completes the proof.

Property No. (10):Show that the characteristic roots of Hermitian matrix are real.
Proof:Let λ be an eigen value of a Hermitian matrix A and X be the corresponding eigen
vector.
Then AX = λX . (i)

Pre-multiplying both sides of (i) by Xθ , we get

Xθ (AX) = Xθ (λX ) ⇒ X θAX = λX θX . (ii)

Taking transpose conjugate of both sides of (ii), we get

(X AX) = (λX X)
θ θ θ θ
⇒ XθA θ X θ( )θ
( )
= λX θ Xθ
θ

⇒ X θAX = λ X θX . (iii)

 ( )
∵ X θ θ
= X and A θ = A, A being Hermitian

From (ii) and (iii), we have
Matrices: Characteristic Equations, Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors, 8

Visit: https://www.sites.google.com/site/hub2education/

( )
λX θ X = λ X θ X ⇒ λ − λ X θ X = O .

But X is not a zero vector. ∴ X θX ≠ 0 .

Hence λ − λ = 0 ⇒ λ = λ ⇒ λ is real.
This completes the proof.
Property No. (11):Show that the characteristic roots of a Skew-Hermitian matrix are either
pure imaginary or zero.
Proof:Suppose A is a Skew-Hermitian matrix. Then iA is Hermitian.
Let λ be a characteristic root of A and X be corresponding eigen vector. Then
AX = λX .
Pre-multiplying both sides by i, we get (iA )X = (iλ )X

⇒ (iλ ) is a characteristic root of iA , which is Hermitian.

Hence (iλ ) is real.
Therefore, either λ must be zero or pure imaginary.

Now let us solve some more important results:

Result No.1.:Show that the matrices A and A ' have the same eigen values.
Sol.: We have (A − λI ) ' = A'−λI' = A'−λI .

∴ (A − λI ) ' = A'−λI

⇒ (A − λI ) = A'−λI [∵ B' = B ]

∴ (A − λI ) = 0 if and only if A'−λI = 0

i.e., λ is an eigen value of A if and only if λ is an eigen value of A ' .

This completes the proof.

Result No.2.:Show that the characteristic roots of A θ are the conjugates of the
characteristic roots of A.

Sol.: We have A θ − λ I = (A − λI )θ = A − λI [Note that Bθ = (B') = B' = B ]

∴ Aθ − λI = 0 iff A − λI = 0

⇒ Aθ − λ I = 0 iff A − λI = 0 [∵ if z is a complex number, then z = 0 iff z = 0 ]

Matrices: Characteristic Equations, Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors, 9

Visit: https://www.sites.google.com/site/hub2education/

⇒ λ is an eigen values of A θ if and only if λ is an eigen value of A.

Result No.3.:Show that 0 is a characteristic root of a matrix if and only if the
matrix is singular.

Sol.: We have given 0 is an eigen value of A ⇒ λ = 0 satisfies the equation A − λI = 0

⇒ A = 0 ⇒ A is singular.

Conversely, if A is singular ⇒ A = 0 ⇒ λ = 0 satisfy the equation A − λI = 0

⇒ 0 is an eigen value of A.
This completes the proof.

The process of finding the eigen values and eigen vectors of a

matrix:
[ ]
Let A = a ij
n× n
be a square matrix of order n.

First we should write the characteristic equation of the matrix A, i.e., the equation
A − λI = 0 . This equation will be of degree n in λ . So it will have n roots. These n roots will

give us the eigen values of the matrix A. If λ1 is an eigen value of A, then the
corresponding eigenvectors of A will be given by the non-zero vectors

X = [x1 , x 2 ,.............., x n ]′
satisfy the equation .
AX = λ1X ⇒ (A − λ1I )X = O .

Orthogonal Vectors:
Let X and Y be two real-n-vectors, then X is said to be orthogonal to Y if

X′Y = O .
Let X and Y be two complex-n-vectors, then X is said to be orthogonal to Y if

XθY = O .

Now let us solve some problems by using the properties of eigen values and eigen
vectors:
Matrices: Characteristic Equations, Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors, 10

Visit: https://www.sites.google.com/site/hub2education/

 2 3 − 2
Q.No.1.:Find the sum and product of the eigen values of − 2 1 1  .
 1 0 2 

Sol.: Since, we know that the sum of the eigen values of a matrix is the sum of the elements
of the principal diagonal and the product of the eigen values of a matrix is equal to its
determinant.
 2 3 − 2
Here A = − 2 1 1  .
 1 0 2 

If λ1, λ 2 , λ3 be its eigen values of A, then λ1 + λ 2 + λ3 = 2 + 1 + 2 = 5 . Ans.

2 3 −2
1 1 −2 1 − 2 1
and λ1 λ 2 λ3 = A = − 2 1 1 = 2 −3 + (− 1) 
0 2 1 2  1 0
1 0 2

= 2(2 − 0) − 3(− 4 − 1) + (− 2)(0 − 1) = 4 + 15 + 2 = 21 . Ans.

7 2 2
Q.No.2.:Find the product of the eigen values of − 6 − 1 2  .

 6 2 − 1

Sol.: Since, we know that the product of the eigen values of a matrix is equal to its
determinant.
7 2 2
Here A = − 6 − 1 2  .

 6 2 − 1

If λ1, λ 2 , λ3 be its eigen values of A, then

7 2 2
−1 2 −6 2 − 6 −1
λ1 λ 2 λ 3 = A = − 6 − 1 2 = 7 −2 +2
2 −1 6 −1 6 2
6 2 −1

= 7(1 − 4) − 2(6 − 12) + 2(− 12 + 6) = −21 + 12 − 12 = −21 . Ans.

Now let us solve some problems of evaluation of eigen values and eigen vectors:
Matrices: Characteristic Equations, Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors, 11

Visit: https://www.sites.google.com/site/hub2education/

5 4
Q.No.1.:Find the eigen values and eigen vectors of the matrix  .
1 2
5−λ 4
Sol.: The characteristic equation is of A is A − λI = 0 ⇒ = 0.
1 2−λ

⇒ λ2 − 7λ + 6 = 0 ⇒ (λ − 6)(λ − 1) = 0 ⇒ λ = 6, 1 .
Thus, the roots of this equation are λ1 = 6 , λ 2 = 1 .
Therefore, the eigen values are 6 and 1.
 x1 
The eigen vectors X1 =   of A corresponding to the eigen value 6 are given by the non-
x 2 
zero solution of the equation (A − 6I )X1 = O

5 − 6 4   x1  0 − 1 4   x1  0
⇒    = ⇒   =   .
 1 2 − 6   x 2  0   1 − 4   x 2  0 

− 1 4  x1  0
Operating R 2 → R 2 + R1 , we get    =   .
 0 0   x 2  0 
The coefficient matrix of these equations is of rank 1. Therefore, these equations have 2 − 1 ,
i.e., 1 linearly independent solution. These equations reduced to the single equation
− x1 + 4x 2 = 0 .
Obviously, x1 = 4 , and x 2 = 1 is a solution of this equation.

 4
Therefore, X1 =   is an eigen vector of A corresponding to the eigen values 6. The set of
1 
all eigen vectors of A corresponding to the eigen values 6 is given by c1X1 where c1 is any
non-zero scalar.
The eigen vectors X2 of A corresponding to the eigen value 1 is given by the non-zero
solutions of the equation
4 4  x1  0
(A − 1 I )X 2 = O ⇒     =   ⇒ 4x1 + 4x 2 = 0 , x1 + x 2 = 0 .
1 1   x 2  0 
From these x1 = − x 2 . Let us take x1 = 1 , x 2 = −1 .

1
Then X 2 =   is an eigen vector of A corresponding to the eigen value 1.
− 1
Matrices: Characteristic Equations, Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors, 12

Visit: https://www.sites.google.com/site/hub2education/

Every non-zero multiple of the vector X 2 is an eigen vector of A corresponding to the eigen
value 1.
Q.No.2.: Find the eigen values and eigen vectors of the matrices:
1 4  1 − 2
(a)   , (b)  .
3 2 − 5 4 
1 4 1− λ 4
Sol.: (a). Let A =   . The characteristic equation of A is A − λI = =0
3 2 3 2−λ

⇒ (1 − λ )(2 − λ ) − 12 = 0 ⇒ λ2 − 3λ − 10 = 0 ⇒ λ2 − 5λ + 2λ − 10 = 0
⇒ λ(λ − 5) + 2(λ − 5) = 0 ⇒ (λ − 5)(λ + 2) = 0 ⇒ λ = 5, − 2 .
If x, y, z be the components of eigen vector corresponding to eigenvalue λ .
1 − λ 4  x 
Then [A − λI][X ] = 0 ⇒  = 0.
 3 2 − λ   y 

− 4 4   x 
Put λ = 5 , we get     = 0.
 3 − 3  y 
Operating R 2 → 4R 2 − 3R1 , we get

 − 4 4   x  0 
 0 0   y  = 0  ⇒ − 4 x + 4 y = 0 ⇒ x − y = 0 ⇒ x = y = k .
    
When k = 1 , then x = y = 1 .
Now putting λ = −2 , we get
3 4  x 
3 4  y  = 0 ⇒ 3x + 4 y = 0 ⇒ 3x + 4 y = 0 .
  
Solving x = 4, y = −3 .

So eigen vectors are (1, 1) , (4, − 3) . Ans.

 1 − 2
(b). Let A =   . The characteristic equation A is A − λI = 0
− 5 4 
1− λ − 2
⇒ A − λI = = (1 − λ )(4 − λ ) − 10 = 0 ⇒ λ2 − 5λ − 6 = 0
−5 4−λ
⇒ λ = −1, 6 .
If x, y, be the components of eigen vector corresponding to eigen value λ .
Matrices: Characteristic Equations, Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors, 13

Visit: https://www.sites.google.com/site/hub2education/

1 − λ − 2   x 
Then [A − λI][X ] = 0 ⇒     = 0. (i)
 − 5 4 − λ  y
 2 − 2  x 
Putting λ = −1 in (i), we get     = 0.
− 5 5   y 
Operating R 2 → 2R 2 − 5R1 , we get

 2 − 2   x  0 
 0 0   y  = 0  ⇒ 2 x − 2 y = 0 ⇒ x = y = k .
    
When k = 1 , then x = y =1.
 − 5 − 2   x  0 
Now putting λ = 6 in (i), we get    =   .
 − 5 − 2   y  0 
Operating R 2 → R 2 − R1 , we get

 − 5 − 2   x  0 
0 = ⇒ −5 x − 2 y = 0 ⇒ 5 x + 2 y = 0 .
 0   y  0
Solving, we get x = 2, y = −5
Hence, the eigen vectors of A are (1, 1) and (2, − 5) . Ans.

 8 − 4
Q.No.3.: (i) Find the eigen values and eigen vectors of A =   .
2 2 
 8 2
(ii) Also find the eigen values and eigen vectors of A T =   .
 − 4 2
1  2 4
(iii) Find the eigen values and eigen vectors of A −1 = .
24 − 2 8
1
(iv) Find the eigen values and eigen vectors of B = kA where k = − .
2
 56 − 40 
(v) Find the eigen values and eigen vectors of A 2 =   .
 20 − 4 
(vi) Find the eigen values and eigen vectors of
 8 − 4  1 0 8 ± k − 4 
B = A ± kI =   ± k  =  .
 2 2  0 1  2 2 ± k 
1
(vii) Find the eigen values and eigen vectors of D = 2A 2 − A + 3I .
2
Matrices: Characteristic Equations, Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors, 14

Visit: https://www.sites.google.com/site/hub2education/

(viii) Find the sum and product of eigen values of A.

 8 − 4
Sol.: 1st Part: Find the eigen values and eigen vectors of A =   .
2 2 
The eigen values are the roots of the characteristic equation
8−λ −4
= 0 ⇒ (8 − λ )(2 − λ ) + 8 = 0 ⇒ λ2 − 10λ + 24 = 0 ⇒ (λ − 4)(λ − 6) = 0 .
2 2−λ
The two distinct eigen values are λ = 4, 6.
Eigen vector corresponding to eigen value λ = 4
18 − 4 − 4  x1   4 − 4  x1 
(A − λI )X = 0 ⇒    =    = 0
 2 2 − 4  x 2   2 − 2  x 2 

4x1 − 4 x 2 = 0
2x1 − 2 x 2 = 0

1
∴ x1 = x 2 X1 =   .
1
 8 − 6 − 4  x1   2 − 4  x1 
X2corresponding λ = 6 :    =    = 0
 2 2 − 6 x
 2   2 − 4  x 2 
1 
2x1 − 4 x 2 = 0 ∴ x1 = 2x 2 . X 2 =   .
 2
 8 2
2nd Part: Find the eigen values and eigen vectors of A T =   .
 − 4 2
8−λ 2
Characteristic equation =0
−4 2−λ

Characteristic equation is λ2 − 10λ + 24 = 0 same as the characteristic equation of A. Thus,

the eigen values of A and AT are same. However, the eigen vectors are not the same.
 8 − 4 − 2  x1 
For λ = 4 : (A − λI )X = 0 ⇒    = 0
 − 4 2 − 4  x 2 
4x1 − +2x 2 = 0 . ∴ x 2 = −2x1 .

 − 2
X1 =   .
1 
Matrices: Characteristic Equations, Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors, 15

Visit: https://www.sites.google.com/site/hub2education/

8 − 6 2  x1 
X2corresponding λ = 6 :    = 0
 − 4 2 − 6  x 2 
2x1 + 2x 2 = 0

1 
X2 =   .
− 1
1  2 4
3rd Part: Find the eigen values and eigen vectors of A −1 = .
24 − 2 8

Characteristic equation is A −1 − λI = 0

1 1
−λ
12 6 1  1  1 1
=  − λ  − λ  + . = 0
1 1
− − λ  12  3  12 6
12 3
 1  1
24λ2 − 10λ + 1 = 0 ,  λ −  λ −  = 0 .
 4  6
1 1
The eigen values of A −1 are , which are the reciprocal of 4, 6 of A.
4 6

Also the given vectors of A −1 and A are same

1 1 1 
 − 
1
For λ = :  12 4 6  x 1  = 0
4  − 1 1 1  x 2 
 − 
 12 3 4
1
− 2x1 + x 2 = 0 ∴ x1 = x 2 . X1 =   .
1
1 1 1 
 − 
1
For λ = :  12 6 6  x1  = 0
6  − 1 1 1  x 2 
 − 
 12 3 6
1 
− x1 + 2x 2 = 0 ∴ x1 = 2x 2 . X2 =   .
 2
1
4th Part: Find the eigen values and eigen vectors of B = kA where k = − .
2
Matrices: Characteristic Equations, Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors, 16

Visit: https://www.sites.google.com/site/hub2education/

1  − 4 + 2
B = − A =   .
2  −1 −1
−4−λ 2
Characteristic equation of B is B − λI = =0
−1 −1− λ

(4 + λ )(1 + λ ) + 2 = 0 ⇒ λ2 + 5λ + 6 = 0
1
So the eigen values of B are − 2, − 3 , which are − times of eigen values 4, 6 of A. Also
2
the eigen vectors of B and A are same.
− 4 + 2 2   x1  1
For λ = −2 :  = 0. ∴ x1 = x 2 . X1 = C1   .
 −1 − 1 + 2  x 2  1

− 4 + 3 2   x1  1 
For λ = −3 :     = 0 . − x1 + 2x 2 = 0 . X 2 = C 2   .
 −1 − 1 + 3  x 2   2
 56 − 40 
5th Part: Find the eigen values and eigen vectors of A 2 =   .
 20 − 4 
56 − λ − 40
Characteristic equation of A2 is =0
20 −4−λ

⇒ λ2 − 52λ + 576 = (λ − 16)(λ − 36) = 0

So eigen values of A2 are 16, 36 which are square of the eigen values 4, 6 of A. Also the
eigen vectors of A and A2 are same.
56 − 16 − 40   x1  1
For λ = 16 :     = 0 . ∴ x1 = x 2 . X1 = C1   .
 20 − 4 − 16  x 2  1

56 − 36 − 40   x1  1 
For λ = 36 :  = 0. x1 − 2x 2 = 0 ∴ x1 = 2x 2 . X 2 = C 2   .
 20 − 4 − 36  x 2   2
6th Part: Find the eigen values and eigen vectors of
 8 − 4  1 0 8 ± k − 4 
B = A ± kI =   ± k  =  .
 2 2  0 1  2 2 ± k 

Characteristic equation of B is B − λI = 0

8±k −λ −4
= 0 ⇒ (8 ± k − λ )(2 ± k − λ ) + 8 = 0
2 2±k−λ
Matrices: Characteristic Equations, Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors, 17

Visit: https://www.sites.google.com/site/hub2education/

(
⇒ λ2 − (10 ± 2k )λ + k 2 ± 10k + 24 = 0 )
10 + 2
Roots are ±k. i.e., 4 ± k and 6 ± k which are 4, 6 of A with ± k .
2
Eigen vectors of B and A are same
8 ± k − (4 ± k ) −4   x1 
For λ = 4 ± k :  =0
 2 2 ± k − (4 ± k )  x 2 

4x1 − 4 x 2 = 0 ⇒ x1 = x 2 etc.
1
7th Part: Find the eigen values and eigen vectors of D = 2A 2 − A + 3I .
2
 56 − 40  1  8 − 4   1 0  111 − 78 
D = 2  −   + 3  =  
 20 − 4  2  2 2   0 1   39 − 6 
111 − λ − 78 
Characteristic equation of D is  =0
 39 − 6 − λ 

⇒ λ2 − 105λ + 2376 = (λ − 33)(λ − 72) = 0 .

Thus, the eigen values of D are 33, 72.
1 1 1
Note that 33 = 2.16 − .4 + 3 and 72 = 2.36 − .6 + 3 i.e., eigen value of D is 2λ2 − λ + 3
2 2 2
where λ is the eigen value of A.
The eigen vectors of A and D are same.
111 − 33 − 78   x1 
For λ = 33 :  = 0 ⇒ 78x 1 − 78x 2 = 0 ⇒ x1 = x 2 etc.
 39 − 6 − 33  x 2 

8th Part: Find the sum and product of eigen values of A.

Sum of eigen values of A = 4 + 6 = 10 = trace of A = a 11 + a 22 = 8 + 10 .

Product of eigen values of A = 4.6 = 24 = A = 16 + 8 = 24 .

Q.No.4.: Find the characteristic roots and characteristic vectors of the matrices:
 8 −6 2  2 0 1
(a) − 6 7 − 4 , (b) 0 2 0 .
 
 2 − 4 3  1 0 2

Sol.: (a). The characteristic equation of the matrix A is A − λI = 0

Matrices: Characteristic Equations, Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors, 18

Visit: https://www.sites.google.com/site/hub2education/

8−λ −6 2
⇒ −6 7−λ −4 = 0
2 −4 3−λ

⇒ (8 − λ ){(7 − λ )(3 − λ ) − 16} + 6{− 6(3 − λ ) + 8} + 2{24 − 2(7 − λ )} = 0

⇒ λ3 − 18λ2 + 45λ = 0 ⇒ λ(λ − 3)(λ − 15) = 0

Hence, the characteristic roots of A are 0, 3 and 15.

The eigen vectors X = [x 1 , x 2 , x 3 ]′ of A corresponding to the eigen value 0 are given by the

non-zero solutions of the equation (A − 0I )X = O

 8 − 6 2   x1  0  8 −4 3   x1  0
     
⇒ − 6 7 − 4  x 2  = 0 ⇒ − 6 − 5 5   x 2  = 0 ( by R1 → R 3 )

 2 − 4 3   x 3  0  2 10 − 10  x 3  0

2 − 4 3   x1  0
⇒ 0 − 5 5   x 2  = 0 (by R 2 → +3R1, R 3 → R 3 − 4R1 )
0 10 − 10  x 3  0

2 − 4 3  x1  0
⇒ 0 − 5 5  x 2  = 0 (by R 3 → R 3 + 2R 2 )
0 0 0  x 3  0

The coefficient matrix of these equations is of rank 2. Therefore these equations have
3 − 2 = 1 linearly independent solution. Thus, there is only one linearly independent eigen
vector corresponding to the eigen value 0. These equations can be written as
2x1 − 4x 2 + 3x 3 = 0 , − 5x 2 + 5x 3 = 0 .

From the last equation, we get x 2 = x 3 .

1
Let us take x 2 = 1 , x 3 = 1 . Then, the first equation gives x1 = .
2
′
1 
Therefore X1 =  1 1 is an eigen vector of A corresponding to the eigen vector 0.
2 
If c1 is any non-zero scalar, then e1X1 is also an eigen vector of A corresponding to the
eigen value 0.
Matrices: Characteristic Equations, Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors, 19

Visit: https://www.sites.google.com/site/hub2education/

The eigen vector of A corresponding to the eigen value 3 are given by the non-zero
solution of the equation
 5 − 6 2   x1  0
(A − 3 I )X = O ⇒ − 6 4 − 4 x 2  = 0
 2 − 4 0   x 3  0

 − 1 − 2 − 2  x1  0
⇒ − 6 4 − 4  x 2  = 0 , (by R1 → R1 + R 3 )
 2 − 4 0   x 3  0

− 1 − 2 − 2  x1  0
⇒  0 16 8   x 2  = 0 , (by R 2 → R 2 − 6R1, R 3 → R 3 + 2R1 )
 0 − 8 − 4  x 3  0

− 1 − 2 − 2  x1  0
⇒  0 16 8   x 2  = 0 , (by R 2 → R 3 + R 2 )
1
2
 0 0 0   x 3  0

The coefficient matrix of these equations is of rank 2.

Therefore, these equations have 3 − 2 = 1 linearly independent solution.
These equations can be written as
− x1 − 2x 2 − 2x 3 = 0 , 16x 2 + 8x 3 = 0 .

1
From the second equation we get x 2 = − x 3 .
2
Let us take x 3 = 4 , x 2 − 2 , then the first equation gives x1 = −4 .

Therefore, X 2 = [− 4 − 2 4]′ is an eigen vector of A corresponding to eigen value 3. Every

non-zero multiple of X 2 is an eigen vector of A corresponding to the eigen value 3.

The eigen vectors of A corresponding to the eigen value 15 are given by the non-zero
solutions of the equation A − 15 I = O .
8 − 15 − 6 − 2   x1  0 − 7 − 6 − 2   x1  0
⇒  − 6 7 − 15 − 4   x 2  = 0 ⇒  − 6 − 8 − 4   x 2  = 0
     
 2 − 4 3 − 15  x 3  0  2 − 4 − 12  x 3  0
Matrices: Characteristic Equations, Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors, 20

Visit: https://www.sites.google.com/site/hub2education/

−1 2 6   x1  0
⇒ − 6 − 8 − 4   x 2  = 0 , (by R1 → R1 − R 2 )

 2 − 4 − 12  x 3  0

− 1 2 6   x1  0
⇒  0 − 20 − 40  x 2  = 0 , (by R 2 → R 2 − 6R1 , R 3 → R 3 + 2R1 )

 0 0 0   x 3  0

The coefficient matrix of these equations is of rank 2.

Therefore, these equations have 3 − 2 = 1 linearly independent solution.
These equations can be written as
− x1 + 2x 2 + 6x 3 = 0 , 20 x 2 − 40 x 3 = 0 .

The last equation gives x 2 = −2x 3 .

Let us take x 3 = 1 , x 2 = −2 , then the first equation gives x1 = 2 .

Therefore X 3 = [2 − 2 1]′ is an eigen vector of A corresponding to the eigen value 15, if

k is any non-zero scalar, then kX 3 is also an eigen vector of A corresponding to the eigen
value 15.
2 0 1
(b). A = 0 2 0 .
1 0 2

Let λ be the eigen value of A, then characteristic equation is A − λI = 0 .

2−λ 0 1
⇒ A − λI = 0 2−λ 0 = 0 ⇒ (2 − λ )(2 − λ )(2 − λ ) − 1(2 − λ ) = 0
1 0 2−λ

⇒ −λ3 + 6λ2 − 11λ + 6 = 0 ⇒ λ = 1, 2, 3

1 0 1  x  0
When λ = 1, we get (A − λI )X = 0 1 0  y  = 0
1 0 1  z  0

x + z = 0 , y = 0, x + z = 0
By solving these equations, we get x = 1, y = 0, z = −1 .
Matrices: Characteristic Equations, Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors, 21

Visit: https://www.sites.google.com/site/hub2education/

0 0 1   x  0 
When λ = 2 , we get (A − λI )X = 0 ⇒ 0 0 0  y  = 0
1 0 0  z  0

⇒ x = 0 , y = k, z = 0 .
By solving these equations, we get x = 0, y = 1, z = 0 .
 − 1 0 0   x  0 
When λ = 3 , we get (A − λI )X = 0 ⇒  0 − 1 0   y  = 0
 1 0 − 1  z  0

⇒ −x + z = 0 , y = 0.
By solving these equations, we get x = 1, y = 0, z = 1 .
Hence, eigen vectors are (1, 0, − 1), (0, 1, 0) , (1, 0, 1).
Q.No.5.: Find the characteristic roots and characteristic vectors of the matrices:
 − 2 2 − 3  6 −2 2 
(a)  2 1 − 6 , (b) − 2 3 − 1 .
 
 − 1 − 2 0   2 − 1 3 

 − 2 2 − 3
(a). Let A =  2 1 − 6 .
 − 1 − 2 0 

The characteristic equation of A is A − λI = 0

−2−λ 2 −3
⇒ 2 ( )
1 − λ − 6 = (2 − λ ) − λ + λ2 − 12 = 0 ⇒ λ3 + λ2 − 14λ − 24 = 0
−1 −2 0−λ

⇒ λ = 5, − 3, − 3 .
If x, y, z be the components of eigen vector corresponding to the eigen value λ . Then
− 2 − λ 2 − 3   x  0 
(A − λI )X =  2 1 − λ − 6   y = 0

 − 1 − 2 − λ   z  0

− 7 2 − 3  x  0
When λ = 5 , we get  2 − 4 − 1  y  = 0
 − 1 − 2 − 5  z  0
Matrices: Characteristic Equations, Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors, 22

Visit: https://www.sites.google.com/site/hub2education/

⇒ −7 x + 2 y − 32 = 0 ⇒ 2 x − 4 y − 2 = 0 ⇒ − x − 2 y = 52 = 0
∴ x = 1, y = 2, z = −1

1 2 − 3   x  0 

When λ = −3 , we get  9 4 − 6  y  = 0
− 1 − 2 3   z  0

⇒ x + 2 y − 32 = 0 ,
9 x + 4 y − 62 = 0 ,
− x − 2 y + 32 = 0 .
Solving these equations, we get x = −2, y = −1, z = 0

Hence, the vectors are (− 2, − 1, 0) and (1, 2, − 1) .

 6 −2 2 
(b). A = − 2 3 − 1 .
 2 − 1 3 

6 − λ − 2 2  0 
The characteristic equation of A is A − λI = 0 ⇒  − 2 3 − λ − 1  = 0 .

 2 − 1 3 − λ  0

Operating C3 → C3 + C2 , we get

6 − λ − 2 0  0  6 − λ − 2 2  0 
 − 2 3 − λ 2 − λ  = 0 ⇒ (2 − λ ) − 2 3 − λ 1 = 0 .
       
 2 − 1 2 − λ  0  2 − 1 1 0

Operating R 2 → R 2 − R 3 , we get

6 − λ − 2 0  0 
(2 − λ ) − 4 4 − λ 0 = 0 ⇒ (2 − λ )[(6 − λ )(4 − λ ) − 8] = 0
 2 − 1 1 0

( )
⇒ (2 − λ ) λ2 − 10λ + 16 = 0 ⇒ (2 − λ )(λ − 2)(λ − 8) = 0
Therefore, the characteristic roots of A are given by λ = 2, 2, 8 .
The characteristic vectors of A corresponding to the characteristic root 8 are given by the
non-zero solutions of the equation (A − 8I )X = O
Matrices: Characteristic Equations, Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors, 23

Visit: https://www.sites.google.com/site/hub2education/

6 − 8 − 2 2   x1  0 − 2 − 2 2   x1  0
⇒  − 2 3 − 8 − 1   x 2  = 0 ⇒ − 2 − 5 − 1  x 2  = 0 .
     
 2 − 1 3 − 8  x 3  0  2 − 1 − 5  x 3  0

− 2 − 2 2   x1  0
Operating R 2 → R 2 − R1 , R 3 → R 3 + R1 , we get  0 − 3 − 3  x 2  = 0 .
 0 − 3 − 3  x 3  0

− 2 − 2 2   x1  0
Operating R 3 → R 3 − R 2 , we get  0 − 3 − 3  x 2  = 0 .
 0 0 0   x 3  0

The coefficient matrix of these equations is of rank 2. Therefore, these equations possess
3 − 2 = 1 linearly independent solution.
These equations can be written as
− 2x1 − 2x 2 + 2x 3 = 0 , − 3x 2 − 3x 3 = 0 .

From the last equation, we get x 2 = − x 3 . Let us take x 3 = 1 , x 2 = −1 . Then the first

equation gives x1 = 2 .

2
Therefore, X1 = − 1 is an eigen vector of A corresponding to the eigen value 8.
 1 

Every non-zero multiple of X1 is also an eigen vector of A corresponding to the eigen value
8.
The eigen vectors of A corresponding to the eigen value 2 are given by the non-zero
solution of the equation
 4 − 2 2   x1  0
(A − 32 I )X = O ⇒ − 2 1 − 1 x 2  = 0 .
 2 − 1 1   x 3  0

− 2 1 − 1  x1  0
Operating R1 ↔ R 2 , we get  4 − 2 2   x 2  = 0 .
 2 − 1 1   x 3  0
Matrices: Characteristic Equations, Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors, 24

Visit: https://www.sites.google.com/site/hub2education/

− 2 1 − 1  x1  0
Operating R 2 → R 2 + 2R1 , R 3 → R 3 + R1 , we get  0 0 0   x 2  = 0 .
 0 0 0   x 3  0

The coefficient matrix of these equations is of rank 1. Therefore, these equations possess
3 − 1 = 2 linearly independent solution. We see that these equations reduce to the single
equation
2x1 − x 2 − x 3 = 0 .

− 1 1 
Obviously X 2 =  0  , X3 = 2 are two linearly independent solutions of this equation.
 2  0

Therefore, X 2 and X 3 are two linearly independent eigen vectors of A corresponding to the
eigen value 2.
If c1, c 2 are scalars not both equal to zero, then c1X 2 + c 2 X3 gives all the eigen vectors of A
corresponding to the eigen value 2.
1 1 3
Q.No.6.:Find the eigen values and eigen vectors of the matrix 1 5 1 .
3 1 1

1− λ 1 3
Sol.: The characteristic equation is A − λI = 0 = 1 5−λ 1 =0
3 1 1− λ

⇒ λ3 − 7λ2 + 36 = 0 .
Since λ = −2 satisfies it, we can write this equation as

(λ + 2)(λ2 − 9λ + 18) = 0 ⇒ (λ + 2)(λ − 3)(λ − 6) = 0 .

Thus, the roots of this equation are λ1 = 2 , λ 2 = 3 , λ3 = 6 .

Therefore, the eigen values of A are λ = −2, 3, 6 .

If x, y, z be the components of an eigen vector corresponding to the eigenvalue λ , we have
1 − λ 1 3  x 
[A − λI]X =  1 5 − λ 1   y = 0 .
 (i)
 3 1 1 − λ   z 
Matrices: Characteristic Equations, Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors, 25

Visit: https://www.sites.google.com/site/hub2education/

Putting λ = −2 , we have 3x + y + 3z = 0 , x + 7 y + z = 0 , 3x + y + 3z = 0 .
The first and third equations being the same, we have from first two
x y z x y z
= = ⇒ = = .
− 20 0 20 −1 0 1
Hence, the eigen vectors are (− 1, 0, 1) . Also every non-zero multiple of this vector is an
eigen vector corresponding to λ = −2 .
Similarly, the eigen vectors corresponding to λ = 3 and λ = 6 are the arbitrary non-zero
multiples of the vectors (1, − 1, 1) and (1, 2, 1) which are obtained from (i).

Hence, the three eigen vectors may be taken as (− 1, 0, 1) , (1, − 1, 1) , (1, 2, 1) .

 3 1 4
 
Q.No.7.:Find the eigen values and eigen vectors of A =  0 2 6  .
0 0 5
 
Sol.: For upper triangular, lower triangular and diagonal matrices, the eigen values are given
by the diagonal elements.
3−λ 1 4
Characteristic equation is A − λI = 0 2−λ 6 =0
0 0 5−λ

⇒ (3 − λ )(2 − λ )(5 − λ ) = 0 .
So eigen values of A are 3, 2, 5 which are the diagonal elements of A.
0 1 4   x 1 
Eigen vector X1for λ = 3 : 0 − 1 6  x 2  = 0
0 0 2  x 3 

⇒ x 2 + 4 x 3 = 0 , − x 2 + 6x 3 = 0 , 2x 3 = 0

1 
⇒ x2 = 0, x3 = 0, x1 = arbitrary. X1 = 0 .
0

Eigen vector X2for λ = 2 : x1 + x 2 + 4x 3 = 0 , 6x 3 = 0 , 3x 3 = 0

1 
⇒ x3 = 0, x1 = − x 2 . X 2 = − 1 .
0 
Matrices: Characteristic Equations, Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors, 26

Visit: https://www.sites.google.com/site/hub2education/

Eigen vector X3for λ = 5 : − 2x1 + x 2 + 4 x 3 = 0 , − 3x 2 + 6x 3 = 0 ,

3 
⇒ x1 = 3x 3 , x 2 = 2 x 3 . X 3 = 2 .
1 

1 0 − 1
Q.No.8.:Find the eigen values and eigen vectors of A = 1 2 1  .
2 2 3 

Determine whether the eigen vectors are orthogonal.

1− λ 0 −1
Sol.: Characteristic equation is 1 2−λ 1 =0
2 2 3−λ

⇒ λ3 − 6λ2 + 11λ − 6 = 0 ⇒ (λ − 1)(λ − 2)(λ − 3) = 0

So λ = 1, 2, 3 are three distinct eigen values of A
 0 0 −1  x1  0 
For λ = 1 : 1 1 1   x 2  = 0  , x 3 = 0 , x1 + x 2 + x 3 = 0 ⇒ x1 + x 2 = 0 ⇒ x 2 = − x1 .
 2 2 2   x 3  0 

1 
Let x1 = 1 ⇒ x 2 = −1 . Also x 3 = 0 . Thus X1 = − 1 .
0 

 −1 0 −1  x1  0 
For λ = 2 :  1 0 1   x 2  = 0  ,
 2 2 1   x 3  0 

1
x1 + x 3 = 0 ⇒ x 3 = − x1 . And 2x1 + 2x 2 + x 3 = 0 ⇒ x 2 = x3 .
2
2 
Let x1 = 2 ⇒ x 3 = −2 and x 2 = −1 . Thus X 2 = − 1  .
− 2

 −2 0 −1  x1  0 
For λ = 3 :  1 −1 1   x 2  = 0  ,
1
x1 = − x 2 , x1 − x 2 + x 3 = 0 ⇒ x1 = − x 3 .
2
 2 2 0   x 3  0 
Matrices: Characteristic Equations, Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors, 27

Visit: https://www.sites.google.com/site/hub2education/

1 
Let x1 = 1 ⇒ x 2 = −1 . Also x 3 = −2 . Thus X 3 =  −1  .
 −2 

Thus, there are three linearly independent eigen vectors X1, X2, X3 corresponding to the
three distinct eigen values.
Since X1T X 2 = 3 ≠ O , X T2 X 3 = 5 ≠ O , X 3T X1 = 2 ≠ O .
Therefore, no pair of eigen vectors are orthogonal.
 1 2 2
Q.No.9.:Find the eigen values and eigen vectors of A =  0 2 1 .
− 1 2 2

Determine the algebraic and geometric multiplicity.

1− λ 2 2
Sol.: Characteristic equation is 0 2−λ 1 =0
−1 2 2−λ

⇒ λ3 − 5λ2 + 8λ − 4 = (λ − 1)(λ − 2)2 = 0 .

So λ = 1, 2, 2 are eigen values with λ = 2 repeated twice (double root) of multiplicity 2.
The algebraic multiplicity of the eigen values λ = 2 is 2.
 0 2 2 1 
For λ = 1 :  0 1 1 , x 2 = − x 3 x1 = − x 3 . X1 = 1  .
 
− 1 2 1 − 1

− 1 2 2  2
For λ = 2 :  0 0 1 , x 3 = 0 , x1 = 2x 2 . X 2 = 1  .
− 1 2 0 0

Thus, only one eigen vector X2 corresponds to the repeated eigenvalue λ = 2 .

The geometric multiplicity of eigen value λ = 2 is one.
0 1 0 
Q.No.10.:Find the eigen values and eigen vectors of A = 0 0 1 .
1 − 3 3

Determine the algebraic and geometric multiplicity.

Sol.: Characteristic equation is λ3 − 3λ2 + 3λ − 1 = (λ − 1)3 = 0 .

Matrices: Characteristic Equations, Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors, 28

Visit: https://www.sites.google.com/site/hub2education/

λ = 1, 1, 1 is an eigen value of algebraic multiplicity 3.

For λ = 1 :
− x1 + x 2 = 0 , ∴ x1 = x 2
− x 2 + x3 = 0 , x2 = x3

x 1 − 3x 2 + 2 x 3 = 0

1
X = 1 .
1

Thus, only one eigen value X Corresponds to the thrice repeated eigenvalues λ = 1 , so
geometric multiplicity is one.
2 1 1
Q.No.11.:Find the eigen values and eigen vectors of A = 1 2 1 .
0 0 1

Determine the algebraic and geometric multiplicity.

2−λ 1 1
Sol.: Characteristic equation is 1 2−λ 1 = (1 − λ )(λ − 1)(λ − 3) = 0 .
0 0 1− λ

Thus λ = 1, 1, 3 is an eigen values of A.

So the algebraic multiplicity of eigenvalue λ = 1 . Is two.
− 1 1 1  1 
For λ = 3 :  1 − 1 1  ~ x 3 = 0 , x1 = x2 . X1 = 1  .
 0 0 − 2 0

1 1 1 1 1 1
For λ = 1 : 1 1 1 ~ 0 0 0 , n = 3, r = 1
0 0 0 0 0 0

n − r = 3 − 1 = 2 = arbitrary
x1 + x 2 + x 3 = 0 ⇒ x1 = − x 2 − x 3
where x2 and x3 are arbitrary.
For a choice x2 = 0, x3 = arbitrary.
Matrices: Characteristic Equations, Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors, 29

Visit: https://www.sites.google.com/site/hub2education/

1 
X 2 = 1  .
− 1

For a choice of x 2 ≠ 0 , x3 = 0

1 
X 3 = − 1 .
0 

Thus, for the repeated eigenvalue λ = 1 , there corresponds two linearly independent eigen
vectors X2 and X3. So the geometric multiplicity of eigen value λ = 1 is 2.
1 2 2
Q.No.12.:Find the eigen values of orthogonal matrix B = 2 1 − 2 .
1
3
2 − 2 1 

1 2 2
Sol.: Characteristic equation of A = 2 1 − 2 is

2 − 2 1 

1− λ 2 2
2 1 − λ − 2 = λ3 − 3λ2 − 9λ + 27 = 0 ⇒ (λ − 3)2 (λ + 3) = 0 .
2 − 2 1− λ

1
The eigen values of A are 3, 3, − 3 , so the eigen values of B = A are 1, 1, − 1 .
3
1 1
Note that λ = 1 is an eigen value of B then its reciprocal = = 1 is also an eigen values of
λ 1
B.
 2 3 + 4i 
Q.No13.:Show that A =  is Hermitian.
3 − 4i 2 
Find its eigen values and eigen vectors.
 2 3 + 4i 
Sol.: Since here A =  .
3 − 4i 2 

 2 3 − 4i   2 3 + 4i 
Therefore A =   , AT =  = A.
3 + 4i 2  3 − 4i 2 
Thus A is Hermitian. (Note that the diagonal elements of A are real).
Matrices: Characteristic Equations, Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors, 30

Visit: https://www.sites.google.com/site/hub2education/

2 − λ 3 + 4i
The characteristic equation for A is A − λI = =0
3 − 4i 2 − λ

⇒ (2 − λ )2 − (3 + 4i )(3 − 4i ) = 4 + λ2 − 4λ − [9 + 16] = 0

⇒ λ4 − 4λ − 21 = (λ + 3)(λ − 7 ) = 0 .
Eigen values of A, Hermitian matrix are real − 3, 7 .

 5 3 + 4i   x1 
For λ = −3 :  = 0.
3 − 4i 5   x 2 

 3 + 4i 
x 1 = − x 2 .
 5 
− 3 − 4i 
The eigen vector corresponding to λ = −3 is X1 =  .
 5 
 − 5 3 + 4i   x1 
For λ = 7 :    = 0 .
3 − 4i − 5   x 2 

 3 + 4i 
x1 =  x 2 .
 5 
3 + 4i 
The eigen vector corresponding to λ = 7 is X1 =  .
 5 
 i 0 0
Q.No.14.:Show that A = 0 0 i  is Skew-Hermitian and also unitary. Find the eigen
0 i 0

values and eigen vectors.

− i 0 0  − i 0 0 
Sol.: A =  0 0 − i  , A =  0 0 − i  = −A .
  T

 0 − i 0   0 − i 0 

Thus, A is Skew-Hermitian.
 i 0 0   − i 0 0  1 0 0 
Consider AA = 0 0 i   0 0 − i  = 0 1 0 = I .
T

0 i 0  0 − i 0  0 0 ! 

Thus A T = A −1 ,
i.e., A is unitary matrix also.
Matrices: Characteristic Equations, Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors, 31

Visit: https://www.sites.google.com/site/hub2education/

i−λ 0 0
The characteristic equation of A is A − λI = 0 0−λ i =0
0 i 0−λ

( )
⇒ (i − λ ) λ2 + 1 = λ3 − iλ2 + λ − i = 0 ⇒ (λ + i )(λ − i )2 = 0 .
The eigen values of A are λ = −i, i, i which are purely imaginary (for Skew-Hermitian) and

are of absolute value unity (i.e. − i = i = 1 )

2i 0 0  x1 
For λ = −i :  0 i i   x 2  = 0 .
 0 i i   x 3 

Solving x1 = 0, x 2 = − x 3 .

0
Thus the eigen vector corresponding to λ = −i is X1 =  1  .
− 1

0 0 0   x 1 
For λ = i : 0 − i i   x 2  = 0 .
0 i − i   x 3 

Solving x1 = arbitrary, x 2 = x 3 .
Choose x1, so that two linearly independent eigen vectors are obtained (with x1 = 0,
x2 = 1 and x1 = 1, x2 =0)
0  1
X 2 = 1 and X 3 = 0 .
 
1 0

Q.No.15.: Find the Hermitian form H for

0 i 0  i 
A = − i 1 − 2i  with X =  1  .
 
 0 2i 2  − i 

0 i 0  i 
Sol.: Since H = X AX = [− i 1 i]− i 1 − 2i   1 
T 
 0 2i 2  − i 
Matrices: Characteristic Equations, Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors, 32

Visit: https://www.sites.google.com/site/hub2education/

i 
= [− i 1 + 1 − 2 0] 1  = 1 , real.
− i 

Q.No.16.: Determine the Skew-Hermitian form S for

 2i 3i   4i 
A =   with X =   .
 3i 0  − 5
2i 3i   4i 
Sol.: Since S = X T AX = [− 4i − 5]  
3i 0  − 5
 4i 
= (8 − 15i 12)  = 32i + 60 − 60 = 32i , purely imaginary.
 − 5
Orthogonal Vectors:
Let X and Y be two real-n-vectors, then X is said to be orthogonal to Y if
X′Y = O .
Let X and Y be two complex-n-vectors, then X is said to be orthogonal to Y
if

XθY = O .

Q.No.1.: For a symmetrical square matrix, show that the eigen vectors corresponding
to two unequal eigen values are orthogonal.
Proof: Let X1 and X2 be two eigen vectors corresponding to two unequal eigen values λ1 and

λ 2 of a symmetrical square matrix A. Then, by definition

AX1 = λ1X1 (i)

and AX 2 = λ 2 X 2 (ii)
Since A is symmetrical square matrix therefore A ′ = A .
Also λ1 ≠ λ 2 .

To show: X1 and X2 are orthogonal vectors, i.e., X ′2 X1 = O .

Now λ1X ′2 X1 = X ′2 (λ1X1 ) = X ′2 (AX1 ) = (X ′2 A )X1 = (X ′2 A ′)X1

′ ′
= ( AX 2 ) X1 = ( λ 2 X 2 ) X1 = λ 2 X′2 X1

⇒ λ1X ′2 X1 = λ 2 X ′2 X1 ⇒ (λ1 − λ 2 )X ′2 X1 = O .
Matrices: Characteristic Equations, Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors, 33

Visit: https://www.sites.google.com/site/hub2education/

But λ1 ≠ λ 2 ⇒ (λ1 − λ 2 ) ≠ 0 .

Thus X′2 X1 = O .
Hence X1 and X2 are orthogonal vectors.
Q.No.2.: Show that any eigen vectors corresponding to two distinct eigen values of a
Hermitian matrix are orthogonal.
or
Show that the eigen vectors Xi, Xj corresponding to two distinct eigen values

λ i , λ j of a Hermitian matrix H are orthogonal, i.e. X iT X j = 0 .

Proof: Let X1 and X2 be two eigen vectors corresponding to two distinct eigen values λ1 and

λ 2 of a Hermitian matrix A. Then by definition

AX1 = λ1X1 (i)

and AX 2 = λ 2 X 2 . (ii)

Since A is Hermitian matrix, then both the eigen values are real ⇒ λ1 , λ 2 are real.

Also A θ = A .

To show: X1 and X2 are orthogonal vectors, i.e., X θ2 X1 = O .

( ) (
Now λ1X θ2 X1 = X θ2 (λ1X1 ) = X θ2 (AX1 ) = X θ2 A X1 = X θ2 A θ X1 )
= (AX 2 )θ X1 = (λ 2 X 2 )θ X1 = λ 2 X θ2 X1 = λ 2 X θ2 X1 [∵ λ 2 is real]

⇒ λ1X θ2 X1 = λ 2 X θ2 X1 ⇒ (λ1 − λ 2 )X θ2 X1 = O .
But λ1 ≠ λ 2 ⇒ (λ1 − λ 2 ) ≠ 0 .

Thus X θ2 X1 = O .
Hence, X1 and X2 are orthogonal vectors.
Q.No.3.: Show that any eigen vectors corresponding to two distinct eigen values of a
unitary matrix are orthogonal.
Proof: Let X1 and X2 be two eigen vectors corresponding to two distinct eigen values λ1 and

λ 2 of a unitary matrix A. Then by definition

AX1 = λ1X1 (i)
Matrices: Characteristic Equations, Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors, 34

Visit: https://www.sites.google.com/site/hub2education/

and AX 2 = λ 2 X 2 . (ii)
Since A is unitary matrix, then the eigen values have the absolute value 1.
2 1
i.e.∴ λ1 = 1 ⇒ λ1 = 1 ⇒ λ1λ1 = 1 ⇒ λ1 =
λ1

2 1
λ 2 = 1 ⇒ λ 2 = 1 ⇒ λ 2λ 2 = 1 ⇒ λ 2 =
λ2

Also AA θ = I .

To show: X1 and X2 are orthogonal vectors, i.e., X θ2 X1 = O .

Taking conjugate transpose of (ii), we get

(AX 2 )θ = (λ 2 X 2 )θ ⇒ X 2 θ A θ = λ 2 X 2 θ . (iii)
From (i) and (iii), we get

(X 2
θ
) ( )
A θ (AX1 ) = λ 2 X 2 θ (λ1X1 )

⇒ X2θ (A A)X = λ λ X
θ
1 2 1 2
θ
X1

⇒ (1 − λ 2 λ1 )X 2 θ X1 = O . (iv)
1
Also λ 2 = . (iv)
λ2
Thus, from (iv), we get
 λ1  θ  λ − λ1  θ
1 − X 2 X1 = O ⇒  2 X 2 X1 = O .
 λ 2  λ 2 
But λ 2 ≠ λ1 ⇒ λ 2 − λ1 ≠ 0 .

Thus X θ2 X1 = O .
Hence, X1 and X2 are orthogonal vectors.
Matrices: Characteristic Equations, Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors, 35

Visit: https://www.sites.google.com/site/hub2education/

Home Assignments:
Use of properties:
Q.No.1.:Show that, if λ is a characteristic root of the matrix A, then λ + k is a characteristic
root of the A + kI .
Q.No.2.:If λ1 , λ 2 ,.......λ n are eigen values of a matrix A, then Am has the eigen

values λ1m , λ 2 m ,.......λ n m (m being a positive integer).

Q.No.3.: Find the sum and product of the eigen value of
 2 3 − 2
A = − 2 1 1  .
 1 0 2 

Ans.: Sum = trace = 2 +1 +2 = 5, Product = A = 21 .

Find the eigen values and eigen vectors of 2 × 2 matrices:

1 2
Q.No.1.:Find the eigen values and eigen vectors of the matrix:  .
 2 4
Ans.: 5,−2 , (1, 1), 4,−3 .

− 5 2 
Q.No.2.:Find the eigen value and eigen vector of  .
 2 − 2
1  2
Ans.: λ2 + 7λ + 6 = 0 , λ = −1, − 6,  , − 1 .
 2  
6 8 
Q.No.3.:Find the eigen value and eigen vector of  .
8 − 6
 2 1
Ans.: 10, − 10,  ,  − 2 .
1   
1 2
Q.No.4.:Find the eigen value and eigen vector of  .
1 0
 2 1
Ans.: 2, − 1,  , − 1 .
1   
Matrices: Characteristic Equations, Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors, 36

Visit: https://www.sites.google.com/site/hub2education/

1 2
Q.No.5.:Find the eigen value and eigen vector of  .
3 2
 2  1 
Ans.: 4, − 1,  ,   .
3 − 1
Find the eigen values and eigen vectors of 3× 3 matrices:
Q.No.1.: Find the eigen values and eigen vectors of the matrices:
2 1 1 3 1 4
(i). 1 2 1 (ii). 0 2 0 .
0 0 1 0 0 5

Ans.: (i). 1, 1, 3; (1, − 2, 1), (1, − 1, 0), (1, 1, 0) (ii). 2, 3, 5; (1, − 1, 0), (1, 0, 0), (2, 0, 1) .

 − 2 2 − 3
Q.No.2.:Find the eigen value and eigen vector of  2 1 − 6 .
 − 1 − 2 0 

1  − 2  3
Ans.: 5, − 3, − 3 ,  2 ,  1 ,
 
0  .
 
− 1  0  1

1 1 3
Q.No.3.:Find the eigen value and eigen vector of 1 5 1 .
3 1 1

− 1 1 1 
Ans.: λ − 7λ + 36 = 0, λ = −2, 3, 6 ,  0 ,
3 2 − 1,
 
 2 .
 
 1   1  1

 − 3 − 7 − 5
Q.No.4.:Find the eigen value and eigen vector of  2 4 3  .
 1 2 2 

− 3
Ans.: (λ − 1) = 0, λ = 1, 1, 1 ,  1  .
3

 1 
Matrices: Characteristic Equations, Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors, 37

Visit: https://www.sites.google.com/site/hub2education/

 8 −6 2 
Q.No.5.:Find the eigen value and eigen vector of − 6 7 − 4 .
 2 − 4 3 

1  2 2
Ans.: λ − 18λ + 45λ = 0, λ = 0, 3, 15 , 2,
3 2  1 ,
 
 − 2 .
 
2 − 2  1 

2 2 1
Q.No.6.:Find the eigen value and eigen vector of 1 3 1 .
1 2 2

1 1 2

Ans.: λ − 7λ + 11λ − 5 = 0, λ = 5, 1, 1 , 1,
3 2  0 ,
 
− 1 .
 
1 − 1  0 

 3 10 5 
Q.No.7.:Find the eigen value and eigen vector of − 2 − 3 − 4
 3 5 7 

5 1 
Ans.: λ − 7λ + 16λ − 12 = 0, λ = 2, 2, 3 , For λ = 2,  2  , For λ = 3,
3 2  1 .
 
− 3 − 2

 6 −2 2 
Q.No.8.:Find the eigen value and eigen vector of − 2 3 − 1 .
 2 − 1 3 

− 1 1  2
Ans.: λ − 12λ + 36λ − 32 = 0, λ = 2, 2, 8 ,  0 ,
3 2 2 , For λ = 8,
 
− 1 .
 
 2  0  1 

2 1 0
Q.No.9.:Find the eigen value and eigen vector of 0 2 1 .
0 0 2

1 
Ans.: (λ − 2)3
= 0, λ = 2, 2, 2 , 0 .
0
Matrices: Characteristic Equations, Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors, 38

Visit: https://www.sites.google.com/site/hub2education/

2 − 2 2 
Q.No.10.:Find the eigen value and eigen vector of 1 1 1  .
1 3 − 1

Ans.: λ3 − 2λ2 − 4λ + 8 = 0, λ = 2, 2, − 2, For λ = 2 , [0 1 1]T

For λ = −2 , [− 4 − 1 7]T .

 3 − 2 − 5
Q.No.11.:Find the eigen value and eigen vector of  4 − 1 − 5 .
− 2 − 1 − 3

Ans.: (λ + 5)(λ − 2)2 = 0, λ = 5, 2, 2, For λ = 5 , X1 = [3 2 4]T

For λ = 2 , X 2 = [1 3 − 1]T .

2 2 1
Q.No.12.:Two eigen values of the matrix A = 1 3 1 are = 1 each.
1 2 2

Find the eigen values of A −1 .

1
Ans.: 1, 1, .
5
Find the eigen values and eigen vectors of 4 × 4 matrices:
 1 − 4 − 1 − 4
2 0 5 − 4
Q.No.1.:Find the eigen value and eigen vector of  .
− 1 1 − 2 3 
 
− 1 4 − 1 6 
2 3
3 6
Ans.: λ − 5λ + 9λ − 7λ + 2 = 0, λ = 2, 1, 1, 1 , For λ = 2,   , For λ = 1,
4 3 2  .
 − 2 − 4
   
 − 3  − 5
Find the eigen values and eigen vectors of SPECIAL matrices:
Q.No.1.: Show that eigen values of the skew-symmetric matrix
0 9 − 12

A = − 9 0 20  are purely imaginary or zero.
 12 − 20 0 
Matrices: Characteristic Equations, Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors, 39

Visit: https://www.sites.google.com/site/hub2education/

Ans.: Eigen values are 0, − 25i, 25i .

 4 1 − 3i 
Q.No.2.:Prove that A =  is Hermitian matrix. Find its eigen values.
1 + 3i 7 

Ans.: Characteristic equation: λ2 − 11λ + 18 = 0 , eigen values 9, 2.

 a b + ic 
Q.No.3.:Find the eigen vectors of the Hermitian matrix A =   .
 b − ic k 

Ans.: λ1.2 =
[(a + k ) ± (a − k ) + 4(b
2 2
+ c2 )]
2

Eigen vectors: 
(
 − b2 + c2 )
1
T
.
 (a − λ )(b − ic )  at λ =λ1λ 2

 3 2 − i 1 + i
Q.No.4.:Find the Hermitian form of A =   with X =  .
 2 + i 4   2 i 
Ans.: 34.
 0 i 1
Q.No.5.: Find the Hermitian form of A =   , X =   .
 − i 0 i
Ans.: − 2 .
 3i 2 + i
Q.No.6.:Show that B =   is Skew-Hermitian. Find its eigen values.
− 2 + i − i 

Ans.: Characteristic equation: λ2 − 2iλ + 8 = 0 , eigen values 4i, − 2i .

2i 3i 
Q.No.7.: Find the eigen vectors of the Skew Hermitian matrix A =  .
3i 0 
T
 10 − 1 
Ans.: λ1.2 ( )
= 1 ± 10 i , eigen vectors: 1 ±
3 
 .

Q.No.8.: Find the Skew-Hermitian form for
i 0  1
(a) A =   with X =   ,
0 − i i

 2i 4  x 
(b). A =   with X =  1  .
 − 4 0 x2 
Matrices: Characteristic Equations, Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors, 40

Visit: https://www.sites.google.com/site/hub2education/
2
Ans.: (a). 0, (b). 2i x 1 + 8i Im (x 1x 2 ) .

 −i 1 2 + i 0

Q.No.9.:Find the Skew- Hermitian form for A =  − 1 0 3i  with X = 1 .

− 2 + i 3i i  2

Ans.: 16i.
 i 3
 
Q.No.10.: C =  2 2  is unitary matrix.Find its eigen values.
 3 i 
 2 2 

Ans.: λ2 − iλ − 1 = 0 , λ = ( ) ( )
3 + i / 2 , − 3 + i / 2.
Q.No.11.:Show that the column (and also row) vectors of the unitary matrix
1 1 + i − 1 + i
A= form an orthogonal system.
2 1 + i 1 − i 

11 i 
Q.No.12.:Determine the eigen values and eigen vectors of the unitary matrix .
2 − i − 1


[
Ans.: Eigen values 1, − 1 , eigen vectors 1i ± i 2 . ]T
*** *** *** *** ***
*** *** ***
***