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Nam, K. A. (2015). High-context and low-context communication. In J. M. Bennett

(ed.), The SAGE Encyclopedia of Intercultural Competence. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
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High-Context and Low-Context Communication 377

This work mirrored the increased attention to inter- mirrors of reality. In many respects, Hall mod-
cultural communication due to the rapid globaliza- eled what would come to be called intercultural
tion of business and its consequent influence, as a communication competence.
context for both research and application, on the
intercultural communication field itself. Under- John Condon
standing Cultural Differences is the study of intercul-
See also Body Language (Haptics); Eye Contact
tural communication among German, French, and (Oculesics); Facial Expressions/Universal; High-
U.S. American businesspeople. What is particularly Context and Low-Context Communication;
notable, and a source of some pride for the authors, Intercultural Nonverbal Communication; Intercultural
was that they wrote (in English) three different ver- Verbal Communication Styles; Space (Proxemics);
sions of the book, one for readers in the United States Time (Chronemics)
and separate versions for German and French read-
ers, the latter two books to be translated into German
and French. This treatment of material appears to be Further Readings
unique, as well as consistent with Hall’s outlook on Condon, J. (in press). It goes without saying:
intercultural communication. Communication, culture, and the radical vision of
E. T. Hall.
Hall’s Impact on Intercultural Hall, E. T. (1959). The silent language. New York, NY:
Communication Anchor Books.
Hall, E. T. (1962). The hidden dimension. New York, NY:
Among the greatest contributions of Hall’s work is Anchor Books.
his introduction of new terms—many of which Hall, E. T. (1976). Beyond culture. Garden City, NY:
have been mentioned in this entry—that have Anchor Books.
become part of the vocabulary of those who write Hall, E. T. (1984). The dance of life. New York, NY:
or speak of intercultural communication, including Anchor Books.
many who have never heard of E. T. Hall. Just as Hall, E. T. (1992). An anthropology of everyday life.
few people know the name William Graham New York, NY: Doubleday.
Sumner but readily use his coinages, including Leeds-Hurwitz, W. L. (1990). Notes in the history of
ingroup, outgroup, and ethnocentrism, Hall’s intercultural communication: The Foreign Service
vocabulary and the concepts represented in those Institute and the Mandate for Intercultural Training.
terms may endure longer and be diffused more Quarterly Journal of Speech, 76, 262–281.
widely than any of his many publications.
Hall was a prolific writer, and his writings
included specialized work within the field of HIGH-CONTEXT AND LOW-CONTEXT
anthropology meant primarily for his fellow
anthropologists. In The Hidden Dimension, he COMMUNICATION
initiated an empirical study that he imagined
might be pursued through continued close exami- The ways individuals communicate with one
nation of proxemic behavior that could follow another reflect their own cultural background and
the systemic model of linguistics, an approach he context. In some cultures, people tend to convey
did not pursue in his other work. In all of his messages explicitly and directly; verbal and written
writing, and teaching, he sought to share his words are the primary way to deliver a message. In
insights not only with academic specialists but these cultures, it is the speaker’s responsibility to
also with the general public. This is reflected in deliver a clear message to the listener. In other cul-
his writing style, in the choice of words, including tures, including many in Asia, Africa, Latin America,
his original lexicon, and sometimes in the use of and the Middle East, messages are delivered
abbreviations (e.g., m-time for monochronic). His through more indirect and nonverbal means. Key
sources, too, are broad, far beyond the confines of information is conveyed via context. It is the
a single academic discipline, as he viewed such listener’s responsibility to understand the meaning
distinctions as cultural constructions and not as by reading between the lines.
 Copyright © 2015 SAGE Publications. Not for sale, reproduction, or distribution.

378 High-Context and Low-Context Communication

The terms low-context communication (LCC) Eujin: Really? I hate to trouble you. . . . You
and high-context communication (HCC) come have church on Sunday. . . . [I am so glad
from the anthropologist E. T. Hall, who used Suo is offering to help.]
them to describe the way in which human com- Suo: No worries. It ends at noon, so I can
munication styles differ. According to Hall, in come afterward.
LCC, meaning is expressed through explicit ver- Eujin: Oh . . . are you sure? If you insist. . . .
bal messages, both written and oral. In HCC, on Thanks so much!
the other hand, intention or meaning can best be Suo: My pleasure!
conveyed through implicit contexts, including
gestures, social customs, silence, nuance, or tone If Klaus and Bob’s direct and get-to-the point
of voice. In low-context cultures, what (content) communication style is preferred, one would
is said is of primary importance, whereas in high- most likely feel more comfortable with LCC. In
context cultures, how the message is delivered contrast, people who normally practice HCC
often matters more. feel more comfortable with Eujin and Suo’s indi-
This entry provides an introduction to LCC rect communication style. In HCC, people com-
versus HCC styles and how they affect the interac- municate meaning in a more circular manner so
tions and understanding between people. as not to sound overly demanding and expect
the listener to understand the message that is
being communicated so they don’t have to be
Core Elements specific. If Eujin (from the second example
above) were communicating with Bob (from the
How would an individual approach a friend to get
first example), Bob might not necessarily catch
the friend’s help in moving house? The two conver-
the hidden request from Eujin. Instead, Bob
sations below demonstrate how people from low-
would expect a straightforward request from her
context and high-context cultures communicate
if she needed help. In HCC, Eujin’s preferred
differently.
communication style, the request or refusal is
implied through context. If Bob did not recog-
Low-Context Example nize Eujin’s intention and therefore did not offer
help, Eujin would likely ask someone else rather
Klaus: Hey, I’m finally moving to my new
than overtly state her request. Her intention
apartment. I need to start packing.
would be to preserve a harmonious interaction
Bob: Wonderful! When are you moving?
and to save Bob’s face in case he is not available
Klaus: This Sunday. I have so many things to to help.
move. Could you come and help? Patterns of direct verbal assertiveness, linear
Bob: Sure! My church service ends around logic, straightforwardness, and transparent mes-
noon, so I would be happy to help sages are characteristic of LCC. Often generated
afterward. from individualistic cultures, in which shared
Klaus: Thanks! assumptions are not taken for granted, LCC
values saying what you mean and meaning what
you say.
High-Context Example
HCC, more common in collectivistic cultures,
Eujin: Well, I am finally moving to my new relies on communication patterns of indirect non-
apartment. You will be invited to the verbal cues, spiral logic, a self-humbling tone,
housewarming party! and silence. HCC emphasizes the cultural norm
Suo: How wonderful! When are you moving? “Don’t say anything that may result in losing face
Eujin: This Sunday. I need to start packing. or hurting the other’s feelings.” The speaker’s
[I hope Suo can help me.] intentions, wants, and needs are expressed in a
Suo: Do you need help? I would be happy to diplomatic and softer tone to maintain harmony
help! [I know Eujin needs help, but she in the relationship. Very little is explicit in the
will not ask me unless I offer.] transmitted part of the message; instead, the
 Copyright © 2015 SAGE Publications. Not for sale, reproduction, or distribution.

High-Context and Low-Context Communication 379

receiver is expected to read between the lines and Nunchi, the ability to read someone’s mind or read
infer meaning from the nonverbal subtleties between the lines, is one of the most important
accompanying the verbal message. competencies to communicate effectively in Korean
Nonverbal communication involves the use of society, because you are expected to understand
nonlinguistic cues (eye contact, smiles, touch, others’ unspoken agendas and real intentions
silence) and paralinguistic cues (tone of voice, through nonverbal cues.
pitch, volume) expressed through communica-
tion channels such as facial expressions, body
Key Characteristics
movements, hand gestures, and spatial relation-
ships. “Hear one and understand ten” is a com- Table 1 illustrates the key characteristics of LCC
mon proverb in Japan and Korea, reflecting the and HCC.
high-context cultural values in those societies. A When discussing high- and low-context cul-
specific word that refers to a form of HCC even tures, it is important not to oversimplify and to
exists in the Korean language: 눈치 (Nunchi). keep the relative nature of cultural context in

Table 1 Low-Context/High-Context Communication

Low-Context Communication High-Context Communication

Most of the information is in the verbal message Less information is in the verbal message and more in
(spoken words, written notes, memos, legal documents, the context; nonverbal communication (eye contact,
etc.) and less in the context facial expressions, gestures, tone of voice, color of the
envelope, etc.) matters more
Direct message: Important to read between the lines and consider the
“Get to the point” rank, age, gender, and class of the communicator
“I mean what I say, and I say what I mean” “Hear one and understand ten”
“Don’t beat around the bush” “Silence is golden”
“Cut to the chase”
“Give me the bottom line”
What (content) is said is more important; how is How the message is delivered is more important; what
secondary (content) is secondary
“Yes” means yes; “no” means no “Yes” could mean yes, maybe, or no; words can mean
different things depending on the context
It is okay to say “No” Saying “No” is often avoided to preserve harmony and
save face; instead, apologetic expressions or an indirect
signal are given:
“It will be difficult” (meaning “no”)
“We will get back to you”
“Let me think about it”
Silence
Linear writing style; topic sentence and key message Circular writing style; topic sentence and key message
often come at the beginning of the paragraph often come at the end of the paragraph
Task oriented Building relationships is primary
Conflicts can be resolved relatively quickly Conflict avoidance; frequent use of third parties to
resolve problems; therefore, conflict resolution takes
more time
 Copyright © 2015 SAGE Publications. Not for sale, reproduction, or distribution.

380 High-Context and Low-Context Communication

mind. There are considerable variations within be a little difficult,” or “We will do our best,” or
lower- and higher context cultures. One could simply responding with silence.
use a direct, LCC style when discussing one mat-
ter (e.g., business) but prefer an indirect, HCC
Use of Silence
style when discussing other matters (e.g., social
relationships). Furthermore, individual differ- Whereas silence is an important communication
ences and contextual situations should be consid- device in many high-context cultures, people from
ered. For example, while northern European low-context cultures often feel uncomfortable with
cultures are usually considered lower context silence. In HCC, knowing when not to talk in a par-
than Arab or Latin American cultures, it does not ticular cultural situation can be even more important
mean that every person in that culture adheres to than knowing when to talk. Silence is sometimes
that norm. For instance, one cannot assume that used as a way of indicating no, sometimes as a signal
a Swedish person will necessarily use a lower of listening attentively and showing respect, and
context communication style than a Mexican sometimes as a way of expressing agreement.
person. In a recent joint venture, the U.S. American meet-
ing coordinator was frustrated because he did not
hear back from any of his Korean team members
LCC and HCC in Day-to-Day Practice confirming their attendance for a conference call.
He thought they weren’t available to attend and
Business Agreements
informed his U.S. team that the meeting would be
LCC and HCC play a key role in cross-cultural rescheduled. The next day, all the Korean team
business relationships. While written contracts and members attended and were surprised that none of
signed agreements are considered essential in LCC, the U.S. team was present. When the U.S. coordina-
less legal paperwork is conducted in traditional tor asked them what had happened, they replied,
HCC because people are expected to honor verbal “We would have responded if we couldn’t attend.
agreements. Requesting a written contract with a We didn’t say anything because we, of course, were
signature could even be perceived as a sign of dis- planning to attend the meeting.” This kind of e-mail
respect in HCC and, therefore, may damage the silence often causes misunderstandings between
relationship. people accustomed to LCC and those used to HCC.

Yes and No Writing-Style Differences

Between LCC and HCC
One of the most challenging and confusing
experiences for individuals from LCC cultures Even written communication can be different
when working with HCC counterparts is under- between individuals using LCC and those using
standing the meaning of yes and the various ways HCC. When students from high(er)-context cul-
of saying no. For example, when a person’s tures study abroad in low(er)-context cultures,
Japanese counterpart keeps nodding and saying they are often perplexed by the feedback they
“Yes” in response to a statement, it may not be a receive about their writing. For example, they are
sign of agreement but a sign of acknowledgment. often told, “You need to move the last sentence of
In this context, yes means “Yes, I am listening,” not the paragraph to the beginning.” This makes little
“Yes, I agree.” sense to students from high-context cultures, who
An even greater challenge is in understanding think, “How could I dare to put the topic sentence
the subtle ways of saying no. While it is okay to first and state my point without providing detailed
say no in LCC, direct confrontation is avoided in background beforehand?”
HCC. Loss of face in HCC means disrupting In high-context cultures, good writing starts with
group harmony and bringing shame. It is a serious an extensive background on the subject matter,
infraction. Therefore, an indirect refusal is used, often using storytelling or metaphor. It is the reader’s
such as saying “We will think about it,” “It might job to connect all the circular and subtle signals
 Copyright © 2015 SAGE Publications. Not for sale, reproduction, or distribution.

Higher Education Intercultural Campus 381

from this background to the topic sentence, which increasingly interconnected world, people are more
often comes at the end of the last paragraph. In interdependent than ever before, while simultaneously
low-context cultures, however, the topic sentence engaging across difference more frequently and in
generally comes first in the paragraph, followed by deeper, more complex ways. These forces cause people
supporting arguments in linear order. This logic to share resources for a common good while respect-
also applies to the structure of presentations and fully engaging difference in order to be effective. This
the way people write e-mail messages. global transformation requires that campuses create a
When people rely on their own internalized cul- new, more inclusive learning space. In response, cam-
tural scripts and fail to take contextual differences puses across the United States have adopted mission
into account, miscommunication is inevitable. statements stating that their graduates are global
Understanding the differences between LCC and ready or global citizens. With these types of visions
HCC and being able to flexibly shift between them and goals in place, campus leaders are called to culti-
are fundamental building blocks in the development vate the intercultural campus and initiate the process
of intercultural competence. of integrating its culture throughout the campus expe-
rience. The mission statement is often issued before
Kyoung-Ah Nam the campus has fully launched and integrated a plan
for an intercultural campus. The launch of such an
See also Hall, E. T.; Intercultural Nonverbal Communication;
Intercultural Verbal Communication Styles
initiative could start in many divisions of the campus,
and the following section elaborates on how higher
education professionals can locate or cultivate the
Further Readings intercultural campus in their institution.
Hall, E. T. (1976). Beyond culture. New York, NY:
Focusing on the campus vision and mission
Anchor Press/Doubleday. statements, diversity professionals have learned
Martin, J., & Nakayama, T. (2010). Intercultural that their work can become marginalized if it is
communication in contexts. New York, NY: McGraw deemed to be an add-on or something to be
Hill. addressed only after the central work of the orga-
Ting-Toomey, S., & Chung, L. (2012). Understanding nization has been accomplished. By ensuring that
intercultural communication. New York, NY: Oxford addressing culture is seen as essential to the overall
University Press. vision and mission of the campus, the foundation
of a truly intercultural campus is laid. The overall
concept is often referred to as from the margins to
the middle, and it brings the intercultural vision to
HIGHER EDUCATION INTERCULTURAL the center of the educational enterprise.
CAMPUS
Access and Success
The intercultural campus is a setting where people
from diverse backgrounds are encouraged to learn, A focus on access and success helps to ensure that
teach, and serve so as to create an environment in all participants can engage fully in the campus’s
which all can live, work, and grow to their highest educational endeavors. Sometimes, a campus prefers
potential. The overall concept seems deceptively to focus on the perspective of either the students or
simple, but in practice it is complex. In the sections the faculty. Most campuses, however, recognize that
that follow, this entry describes an intercultural it is essential to include all constituencies in the com-
campus in terms of five key structural elements. munity, including not only faculty and students but
also administrators, staff, and the board of trustees.
The Center: The Mission and the Vision
The Learners
At the center of the campus are its vision (also referred
to as its mission or goal) and overall learning objec- The learners often are the impetus of the inter-
tives (campuswide as well as programmatic). In this cultural campus. Campuses have several competing

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