• Discovery of Electron—Discharge Tube Experiment

In 1879, William Crooks studied the conduction of electricity through

gases at low pressure. He performed the experiment in a discharge tube
which is a cylindrical hard glass tube about 60 cm in length. It is sealed
at both the ends and fitted with two metal electrodes as shown in Fig.
2.1.

The electrical discharge through the

gases could be observed only at very low
pressures and at very high voltages.
The pressure of different gases could be
adjusted by evacuation. When
sufficiently high voltage is applied across the electrodes, current starts
flowing through a stream of particles moving in the tube from the
negative electrode (cathode) to the positive electrode (anode). These
were called cathode rays or cathode ray particles.
• Properties of Cathode Rays
(i) Cathode rays travel in straight line.
(ii) Cathode rays start from cathode and move towards the anode.
(iii) These rays themselves are not visible but their behaviour can be
observed with the help of certain kind of materials (fluorescent or
phosphorescent) which glow when hit by them.
(iv) Cathode rays consist of negatively charged particles. When electric
field is applied on the cathode rays with the help of a pair of metal
plates, these are found to be deflected towards the positive plate
indicating the presence of negative charge.
(v) The characteristics of cathode rays do not depend upon the material
of electrodes and the nature of gas present in the cathode ray’tube.
• Determination of Charge/Mass (elm) Ratio for Electrons
J. J. Thomson for the first time experimentally determined charge/mass
ratio called elm ratio for the electrons. For this, he subjected the beam
of electrons released in the discharge tube as cathode rays to influence
the electric and magnetic fields. These were acting perpendicular to one
another as well as to the path followed by electrons.
According to Thomson, the amount of deviation of the particles from
their path in presence of electrical and magnetic field depends upon
following factors:
(i) Greater the magnitude of the charge on the particle, greater is the
interaction with the electric or magnetic field and thus greater is the
deflection.
(ii) The mass of the particle — lighter the particle, greater the
deflection.
(iii) The deflection of electrons from their original path increases with
the increase in the voltage across the electrodes or strength of the
magnetic field.
By carrying out accurate measurements on the amount of deflections
observed by the electrons on the electric field strength or magnetic
field strength, Thomson was able to determine the value of
e/me = 1.758820 x 1011 C kg-1 where me = Mass of the electron in kg
e = magnitude of charge on the electron in coulomb (C).
• Charge on the Electron
R.A. Millikan devised a method known as oil drop experiment to
determine the charge on the electrons.

• Discovery of Proton—Anode
Rays
In 1886, Goldstein modified
the discharge tube by using a
perforated cathode. On reducing the pressure, he observed a new type
of luminous rays passing through the holes or perforations of the
cathode and moving in a direction opposite to the cathode rays. These
rays were named as positive rays or anode rays or as canal rays. Anode
rays are not emitted from the anode but from a space between anode
and cathode.
• Properties of Anode Rays
(i) The value of positive charge (e) on the particles constituting anode
rays depends upon the nature of the gas in the discharge tube.
(ii) The charge to mass ratio of the particles is found to depend on the
gas from which these originate.
(iii) Some of the positively charged particles carry a multiple of the
fundamental unit of electrical charge.
(iv) The behaviour of these particles in the magnetic or electric field is
opposite to that observed for electron or cathode rays.
• Proton
The smallest and lightest positive ion was obtained from hydrogen and
was called proton. Mass of proton = 1.676 x 10-27 kg
Charge on a proton = (+) 1.602 x 10-19 C
• Neutron
It is a neutral particle. It was discovered by Chadwick (1932).
By the bombardment of thin sheets of beryllium with fast moving a-
particles he observed • that highly penetrating rays consist of neutral
particles which were named neutrons.
• Thomson Model of Atom

(i) J. J. Thomson proposed that an

atom may be regarded as a sphere of
approximate radius 1CT8 cm carrying
positive charge due to protons and in
which negatively charged electrons
are embedded.
(ii) In this model, the atom is visualized as a pudding or cake of positive
charge with electrons embedded into it.
(iii) The mass of atom is considered to be evenly spread over the atom
according to this model.
Drawback of Thomson Model of Atom
This model was able to explain the overall neutrality of the atom, it
could not satisfactorily, explain the results of scattering experiments
carried out by Rutherford in 1911.
• Rutherford’s a-particle Scattering Experiment
Rutherford in 1911, performed some scattering experiments in which he
bombarded thin foils of metals like gold, silver, platinum or copper with
a beam of fast moving a-particles. The thin gold foil had a circular
fluorescent zinc sulphide screen around it. Whenever a-particles struck
the screen, a tiny flash of light was produced at that point.
From these experiments, he made the following observations:
–
(i) Most of the a-particles
passed through the foil without
undergoing any deflection,
(ii) A few a-particles underwent
deflection through small angles.
(iii) Very few mere deflected
back i.e., through an angle of
nearly 180°.
From these observations, Rutherford drew the following conclusions:
(i) Since most of the a-particles passed through the foil without
undergoing any deflection, there must be sufficient empty space within
the atom.
(ii) A small fraction of a-particles was deflected by small angles. The
positive charge has to be concentrated in a very small volume that
repelled and deflected a few positively charged a-particles. This very
small portion of the atom was called nucleus.
(iii) The volume of nucleus is very small as compared to total volume of
atom.
• Rutherford’s Nuclear Model of an Atom
(i) The positive charge and most of the mass of the atom was densely
concentrated in an extremely small region. This very small portion of the
atom was called nucleus by Rutherford.
(ii) The nucleus is surrounded by electrons that move around the nucleus
with a very high speed in circular paths called orbits.
(iii) Electrons and nucleus are held together by electrostatic forces of
attraction.
• Atomic Number
The number of protons present in the nucleus is equal to the atomic
number (z). For example, the number of protons in the hydrogen nucleus
is 1, in sodium atom it is 11, therefore, their atomic numbers are 1 and
11. In order to keep the electrical neutrality, the number of electrons
in an atom is equal to the number of protons (atomic number, z). For
example, number of electrons in hydrogen atom and sodium atom are 1
and 11 respectively.
Atomic Number (z) = Number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.
= Number of electrons in a neutral atom.
• Mass Number
Number of protons and neutrons present in the nucleus are collectively
known as nucleons. The total number of nucleons is termed as mass
number (A) of the atom.
Mass Number (A) = Number of protons (p) + Number of neutrons (n).
• Isotopes
Atoms with identical atomic number but different atomic mass number
are known as Isotopes.
Isotopes of Hydrogen:

These three isotopes are

shown in the figure below:

Characteristics of Isotopes
(i) Since the isotopes of an
element have the same
atomic number, but different
mass number, the nuclei of
isotopes contain the same
number of protons, but
different number of
neutrons.
(ii) Since, the isotopes
differ in their atomic
masses, all the properties of
the isotopes depending upon the mass are different.
(iii) Since, the chemical properties are mainly determined by the number
of protons in the nucleus, and the number of electrons in the atom, the
different isotopes of an element exhibit similar chemical properties. For
example, all the isotopes of carbon on burning give carbon dioxide.
• Isobars

• Drawbacks of Rutherford Model

(i) When a body is moving in an orbit, it achieves acceleration. Thus, an
electron moving around nucleus in an orbit is under acceleration.
According to Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory, charged particles when
accelerated must emit electromagnetic radiations. Therefore, an
electron in an orbit will emit radiations, the energy carried by radiation
comes from electronic motion. Its path will become closer to nucleus and
ultimately should spiral into nucleus within . 10-8 s. But actually this
does not happen.
Thus, Rutherford’s model cannot explain the stability of atom if the
motion of electrons is described on the basis of classical mechanics and
electromagnetic theory.
(ii) Rutherford’s model does not give any idea about distribution of
electrons around the nucleus and about their energies.
• Developments Leading to the Bohr’s Model of Atom
Two developments played a major role in the formulation of Bohr’s model
of atom. These were:
(i) Dual character of the electromagnetic radiation which means that
radiations possess both wave like and particle like properties.
(ii) Experimental results regarding atomic spectra which can be explained
only by assuming quantized electronic energy levels in atoms.
• Nature of Electromagnetic Radiation (Electromagnetic Wave Theory)
This theory was put forward by James Clark Maxwell in 1864. The main
points of this theory are as follows:
(i) The energy is emitted from any source (like the heated rod or the
filament of a bulb through which electric current is passed) continuously
in the form of radiations and is called the radiant energy.
(ii) The radiations consist of electric and magnetic fields oscillating
perpendicular to each other and both perpendicular to the direction of
propagation of the radiation.
(iii) The radiations possess wave character and travel with the velocity
of light 3 x 108 m/sec.
(iv) These waves do not require any material medium for propagation.
For example, rays from the sun reach us through space which is a non-
material medium.
• Characteristics of a Wave
Wavelength: It is defined as the distance between any two consecutive
crests or troughs. It is represented by X and its S.I. unit is metre.

Frequency: Frequency of a wave is defined as the number of waves

passing through a point in one second. It is represented by v (nu) and is
expressed in Hertz (Hz).
1 Hz = 1 cycle/sec.
Velocity: Velocity of a wave is defined as the linear distance travelled
by the wave in one second.
It is represented by c and is expressed in cm/sec or m/sec.
Amplitude: Amplitude of a wave is the height of the crest or the depth
of the through. It is represented by V and is expressed in the units of
length.
Wave Number: It is defined as the number of waves present in 1 metre
length. Evidently it will be equal to the reciprocal of the wavelength. It
is represented by bar v (read as nu bar).

Electromagnetic Spectrum: When electromagnetic radiations are

arranged in order of their increasing wavelengths or decreasing
frequencies, the complete spectrum obtained is called electromagnetic
spectrum.

• Limitations of Electromagnetic Wave

Theory
Electromagnetic wave theory was
successful in explaining properties of
light such as interference, diffraction
etc; but it could not explain the following:
(i) The phenomenon of black body radiation.
(ii) The photoelectric effect.
(iii) The variation of heat capacity of solids as a function of
temperature.
(iv) The line spectra of atoms with reference to hydrogen.
• Black Body Radiation
The ideal body, which emits and absorbs all frequencies is called a black
body and the radiation emitted by such a body is called black body
radiation. The. exact frequency distribution of the emitted radiation
from a black body depends only on its temperature.

At a given temperature, intensity of

radiation emitted increases with decrease
of wavelength, reaches a maximum value at
a given wavelength and then starts
decreasing with further decrease of
wavelength as shown in Fig 2.6.
• Planck’s Quantum Theory
To explain the phenomenon of ‘Black body
radiation’ and photoelectric effect, Max
Planck in 1900, put forward a theory known as Planck’s Quantum Theory.
This theory was further extended by Einstein in 1905. The main points
of this theory was as follows: ,
(i) The radiant energy emitted or absorbed in the form of small packets
of energy. Each such packets of energy is called a quantum.
(ii) The energy of each quantum is directly proportional to the frequency
of the radiation

where h is a proportionality constant, called Planck’s constant. Its value

is equal to 6.626 x 10-34 Jsec.
• Photoelectric Effect
Hertz, in 1887, discovered that when a beam of light of certain
frequency strikes the surface of some metals, electrons are emitted or
ejected from the metal surface. The phenomenon is called photoelectric
effect.
 Observations in Photoelectric
Effect
(i) Only photons of light of
certain minimum frequency
called threshold frequency (v0)
can cause the photoelectric
effect. The value of v0 is
different for different metals.
(ii) The kinetic energy of the electrons which are emitted is directly
proportional to the frequency of the striking photons and is quite
independent of their intensity.
(iii) The number of electrons that are ejected per second from the
metal surface depends upon the intensity of the striking photons or
radiations and not upon their frequency.
Explanation of Photoelectric Effect
Einstein in (1905) was able to give an explanation of the different points
of the photoelectric effect using Planck’s quantum theory as under:
(i) Photoelectrons are ejected only when the incident light has a certain
minimum frequency (threshold frequency v0)
(ii) If the frequency of the incident light (v) is more than the threshold
frequency (v0), the excess energy (hv – hv0) is imparted to the electron
as kinetic energy.
K.E. of the ejected electron

energy of the emitted

electron.
(iii) On increasing the
intensity of light, more
electrons are ejected but
the energies of the
electrons are not
altered.
• Dual Behaviour of Electromagnetic Radiation
From the study of behaviour of light, scientists came to the conclusion
that light and other electromagnetic radiations have dual nature. These
are wave nature as well as particle nature. Whenever radiation interacts
with matter, it displays particle like properties in contrast to the
wavelike properties (interference and diffraction) which it exhibits when
it propagates. Some microscopic particles, like electrons, also exhibit
this wave-particle duality.
• Spectrum
When a ray of white light is passed through a prism the wave with
shorter wavelength bends more than the one with a longer wavelength.
Since ordinary white light consists of waves with all the wavelengths in
the visible range, array of white light is spread out into a series of
coloured bands called spectrum. The light of red colour which has
longest wavelength is deviated the least while the violet light, which has
shortest wavelength is deviated the most.
Continuous Spectrum
When a ray of white light is analysed by passing through a prism it is
observed that it splits up into seven different wide bands of colours
from violet to red (like rainbow). These colours are so continuous that
each of them merges into the next. Hence, the spectrum is called
continuous spectrum.
Emission Spectra
Emission Spectra is noticed when the radiations emitted from a source
are passed through a prism and then received on the photographic plate.
Radiations can be emitted in a number of ways such as:
(i) from sun or glowing electric bulb.
(ii) by passing electric discharge through a gas at low pressure.
(iii) by heating a substance to high temperature.
Line Spectra
When the vapours of some volatile substance are allowed to fall on the
flame of a Bunsen burner and then analysed with the help of a
spectroscope. Some specific coloured lines appear on the photographic
plate which are different for different substances. For example, sodium
or its salts emit yellow light while potassium or its salts give out violet
light.
Absorption Spectra
When white light is passed through the vapours of a substance and the
transmitted light is then allowed to strike a prism, dark lines appear in
the otherwise continuous spectrum. The dark lines indicate that the
radiations corresponding to them were absorbed by the substance from
the white light. This spectrum is called absorption spectrum.
Dark lines appear exactly at the same positions where the lines in the
emission spectra appear.
• Line Spectrum of Hydrogen
When electric discharge is passed through hydrogen gas enclosed in
discharge tube under low pressure and the emitted light is analysed by a
spectroscope, the spectrum consists of a large number of lines which are
grouped into different series. The complete spectrum is known as
hydrogen spectrum.
On the basis of experimental observations, Johannes Rydberg noted that
all series of lines in the hydrogen spectrum could be described by the
following expression:

Rydberg in 1890, and has given

a simple theoretical equation for
the calculation of wavelengths
and wave numbers of the
spectral lines in different series
of hydrogen spectrum. The equation is known as Rydberg formula (or
equation).

This relation is valid for hydrogen atom only. For other species,

where Z is the atomic number of the species.

Here RH = constant, called Rydberg constant for hydrogen and n1 , n2
are integers (n2 > n1)
For any particular series, the value of n1 is constant while that of n2
changes. For example,
For Lyman series, n1= 1, n2= 2, 3, 4, 5………..
For Balmer series, n1 = 2, n2 = 3, 4, 5, 6………..
For Paschen series, n1= 3, n2 = 4, 5, 6, 7………..
For Brackett series,n1 = 4, n2 = 5, 6, 7, 8………..
For Pjund series, n1 =5, n2 = 6, 7, 8, 9………..
Thus, by substituting the values of n1 and n2 in the above equation,
wavelengths and wave number of different spectral lines can be
calculated. When n1 = 2, the expression given above is called Balmer’s
formula.
• Bohr’s Model of Atom
Niels Bohr in 1913, proposed a new model of atom on the basis of
Planck’s Quantum Theory. The main points of this model are as follows:
(i) In an atom, the electrons revolve around the nucleus in certain
definite circular paths called orbits.
(ii) Each orbit is associated with definite energy and therefore these are
known as energy
levels or energy shells. These are numbered as 1, 2, 3, 4……….. or K, L,
M, N………..
(iii) Only those energy orbits are permitted for the electron in which
angular momentum of the electron is a whole number multiple of h/2π
Angular momentum of electron (mvr) = nh/2π (n = 1, 2, 3, 4 etc).
m = mass of the electron.
v = tangential velocity of the revolving electron.
r = radius of the orbit.
h = Planck’s constant.
n is an integer.
(iv) As long as electron is present in a particular orbit, it neither
absorbs nor loses energy and its energy, therefore, remains constant.
(v) When energy is supplied to an electron, it absorbs energy only in
fixed amounts as quanta and jumps to higher energy state away from
the nucleus known as excited state. The excited state is unstable, the
electron may jump back to the lower energy state and in doing so, it
emits the same amount of energy. (∆E = E2 – E1).
• Achievements of Bohr’s Theory
1. Bohr’s theory has explained the stability of an atom.
2. Bohr’s theory has helped in calculating the energy of electron in
hydrogen atom and one electron species. The mathematical expression
for the energy in the nth orbit is,
 3. Bohr’s theory has explained the
atomic spectrum of hydrogen atom.
• Limitations of Bohr’s Model
(i) The theory could not explain the
atomic spectra of the atoms
containing more than one electron
or multielectron atoms.
(ii) Bohr7s theory failed to explain
the fine structure of the spectral
lines.
(iii) Bohr’s theory could not offer
any satisfactory explanation of Zeeman effect and Stark effect.
(iv) Bohr’s theory failed to explain the ability of atoms to form molecule
formed by chemical bonds.
(v) It was not in accordance with the Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.
• Dual Behaviour of Matter (de Broglie Equation)
de Broglie in 1924, proposed that matter, like radiation, should also
exhibit dual behaviour i.e., both particle like and wave like properties.
This means that like photons, electrons also have momentum as well as
wavelength.
From this analogy, de Broglie gave the following relation between
wavelength (λ) and momentum (p) of a material particle.

• Heisenberg’s Uncertainty
Principle
It states that, “It is
impossible to determine simultaneously, the exact position and exact
momentum (or velocity) of an electron”.

• Significance of
Uncertainty
Principle
(i) It rules out
existence of
definite paths or
trajectories of electrons and other similar particles.
(ii) The effect of Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle is significant only
for microscopic objects and is negligible for macroscopic objects.
• Reasons for the Failure of Bohr Model
(i) The wave character of the electron is not considered in Bohr Model.
(ii) According to Bohr Model an orbit is a clearly defined path and this
path can completely be defined only if both the position and the velocity
of the electron are known exactly at the same time. This is not possible
according to the Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.
• Quantum Mechanical Model of Atom
Quantum mechanics: Quantum mechanics is a theoretical science that
deals with the study of the motions of the microscopic objects that have
both observable wave like and particle like properties.
Important Features of Quantum Mechanical Model of Atom
(i) The energy of electrons in atom is quantized i.e., can only have
certain values.
(ii) The existence of quantized electronic energy level is a direct result
of the wave like properties of electrons.
(iii) Both the exact position and exact velocity of an electron in an atom
cannot be determined simultaneously.
(iv) An atomic orbital has wave function φ. There are many orbitals in an
atom. Electron occupy an atomic orbital which has definite energy. An
orbital cannot have more than two electrons. The orbitals are filled in
increasing order of energy. All the information about the electron in an
atom is stored in orbital wave function φ.
(v) The probability of finding electron at a point within an atom is
proportional to square of orbital wave function i.e., |φ2|at that point. It
is known as probability density and is always positive.
From the value of φ2 at different points within atom, it is possible to
predict the region around the nucleus where electron most probably will
be found.
• Quantum Numbers
Atomic orbitals can be specified by giving their corresponding energies
and angular momentums which are quantized (i.e., they have specific
values). The quantized values can be expressed in terms of quantum
number. These are used to get complete information about electron i.e.,
its location, energy, spin etc.
Principal Quantum Number (n)
It is the most important quantum number since it tells the principal
energy level or shell to which the electron belongs. It is denoted by the
letter V and can have any integral value except zero, i.e., n = 1, 2, 3,
4……….. etc.
The various principal energy shells are also designated by the letters, K,
L, M, N, O, P ….. etc. Starting from the nucleus.
The principal quantum number gives us the following information:
(i) It gives the average distance of the electron from the nucleus.
(ii) It completely determines the energy of the electron in hydrogen
atom and hydrogen like particles.
(iii) The maximum number of electrons present in any principal shell is
given by 2n2 where n is the number of the principal shell.
Azimuthal or Subsidiary or Orbital Angular Quantum Number (l)
It is found that the spectra of the elements contain not only the main
lines but there are many fine lines also present. This number helps to
explain the fine lines of the spectrum.
The azimuthal quantum number gives the following information:
(i) The number of subshells present in the main shell.
(ii) The angular momentum of the electron present in any subshell.
(in) The relative energies of various subshells.
(iv) The shapes of the various subshells present within the same principal
shell.
This quantum number is denoted by the letter T. For a given value of n,
it can have any value ranging from 0 to n – 1. For example,
For the 1st shell (k), n = 1, l can have only one value i.e., l = 0 For n =
2, the possible value of l can be 0 and 1.
Subshells corresponding to different values of l are represented by the
following symbols:
value of l 0 1 2 3 4 5 ……………..
Notation for subshell s p d f g h ………………..
Magnetic Orbital Quantum Number (m or m1)
The magnetic orbital quantum number determines the number of
preferred orientations of the electrons present in a subshell. Since each
orientation corresponds to an orbital, therefore, the magnetic orbital
quantum number determines the number of orbitals present in any
subshell.
The magnetic quantum number is denoted by letter m or ml and for a
given value of l, it can have all the values ranging from – l to + l
including zero.
Thus, for energy value of l, m has 2l + 1 values.
For example,
For l = 0 (s-subshell), ml can have only one value i.e., m1 = 0.
This means that s-subshell has only one orientation in space. In other
words, s-subshell has only one orbital called s-orbital.
Spin Quantum Number (S or ms)
This quantum number helps to explain the magnetic properties of the
substances. A spinning electron behaves like a micromagnet with a
definite magnetic moment. If an orbital contains two electrons, the two
magnetic moments oppose and cancel each other.
• Shapes of s-orbitals
s-orbital is present in the s-subshell. For this subshell, l = 0 and ml =
0. Thus, s-orbital with only one orientation has a spherical shape with
uniform electron density along all the three axes.
The probability of Is electron is found to be maximum near the nucleus
and decreases with the increase in the distance from the nucleus. In 2s
electron, the probability is also maximum near the nucleus and decreases
to zero probability. The spherical empty shell for 2s electron is called
nodal surface or simply node.

• Shapes of p-orbitals
p-orbitals are present in the p-subshell for
which l = 1 and m1 can have three possible
orientations – 1, 0, + 1.
Thus, there are three orbitals in the p-
subshell which are designated as px, py and
pz orbitals depending upon the axis along
which they are directed. The general shape of a p-orbital is dumb-bell
consisting of two portions known as lobes. Moreover, there is a plane
passing through the nucleus along which finding of the electron density is
almost nil. This is known as nodal plane as shown in the fig.
 From the dumb-bell
pictures, it is quite
obvious that unlike s-
orbital, a p-orbital is
directional in nature and
hence it influences the shapes of the molecules in the formation of which
it participates.
• Shapes of d-orbitals
d-orbitals are present in d-subshell for which l = 2 and m[ = -2, -1, 0,
+1 and +2. This means that there are five orientations leading to five
different orbitals.

• Aufbau Principle
The principle states: In the ground state of the atoms, the orbitals are
filled in order of their increasing energies.
In other words, electrons first occupy the lowest energy orbital
available to them and enter into higher energy orbitals only after the
lower energy orbitals are filled.
The order in which the energies of the orbitals increase and hence the
order in which the orbitals are filled is as follows:
Is, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, id, 5p, 6s, if, 3d, 6p, 7s, 5f 6d, 7p
The order may be remembered by using the method
given in fig. 2.11.

• Pauli Exclusion Principle

According to this principle, no two electrons in an
atom can have the same set of four quantum
numbers.
Pauli exclusion principle can also be stated as: Only
two electrons may exist in the same orbital and these electrons must
have opposite spins.
• Hund’s Rule of Maximum Multiplicity
It states that: pairing of electrons in the orbitals belonging to the same
subshell (p, d or f) does not take place until each orbital belonging to
that subshell has got one electron each i.e., it is singly occupied.
• Electronic Configuration of Atoms
The distribution of electrons into orbitals of an atom is called its
electronic configuration. The electronic configuration of different atoms
can be represented in two ways.
For example:

• Causes of Stability of
Completely Filled and Half Filled
Subshells
The completely filled and half filled subshells are stable due to the
following reasons:

1. Symmetrical distribution of
electrons: The completely filled
or half filled subshells have
symmetrical distribution of
electrons in them and are
therefore more stable.
2. The stabilizing effect arises whenever two or more electrons with
same spin are present in the degenrate orbitals of a subshell. These
electrons tend to exchange their positions
and the energy released due to their exchange is called exchange
energy. The number of exchanges that can takes place is maximum when
the subshell is either half filled or completely filled.
-As a result the exchange energy is maximum and so is the stability.
 Reflection Of Concepts
(1) What Information Does The Electronic Configuration Of An
Atom Provide?

(Ans) The electronic configuration is used to describe the orbitals of

an atom in its ground state, but it can be used to represent an atom
that has ionized into a cation or anion by compensating with the loss or
gain of electrons in their subsequent orbitals.

(2) Rainbow is an example for continues Spectrum – explain?

(Ans) Rainbow is an example for continuous spectrum because a

rainbow is a natural spectrum appearing in the sky just after a rain
shower.It is caused bydispersion of sunlight by tiny water droplets
present in atmosphere.In rainbow there are no sharp boundaries in
between colours.

(3) How Orbitals is different from Bohr’s Orbit ?

(Ans) maximum is called orbital. Whereas orbit is the path of the

electron around the nucleus.

(4) Explain the significance of Three Quantum Numbers in

predicting the positions of an electron in an atom ?

(Ans) Each electron in an atom is described by a set of three quantum

numbers – n, l, m. These numbers indicate the probability of finding the
electron in the space around nucleus. The Principal Quantum number is
related to size and energy of the main shell.

(5) How we are using the nlx method in writing electronic

Configuration?
(Ans) nlx is a method for notation of electronic configuration. It helps
us to determine the four quantum values of a particular electron. 'n'
indicates the principal quantum number, 'l' determines the sublevel and
'x' represents the number of electrons present in that sublevel.

(6) Which Electronic shell is a higher energy level K or L?

(Ans) L shell has higher energy because according to Bohr's theory the
shell which is closer to nucleus has lower energy and the shell which is
away from the nucleus has higher energy. K is closer to nucleus. So it
has lower energy than L-shell.

Application Of Concepts
(1) Answer the following questions.

(i) How many maximum number of electrons can be accommodated in

a principle energy level?

(ii) How many maximum number of electrons can be accommodated

in a sub-shell?

(iii) How many maximum munber of electrons can be accommodated

in an Orbital?

(iv) How many sub-shell are present in a principle energy level?

(v) How many spin orientations are possible for an electron in an

orbital?

(Ans)(i) Each principal energy level can contain up to 2n2 electrons,

where n is the number of the level. Thus, the first level can contain up
to 2 electrons, 2(12) = 2; the second up to 8 electrons, 2(22) = 8; the
third up to 18, 2(32) = 18; and so on.

(ii) 2 This exclusion limits the number of electrons in atomic shells and
subshells. Each value of n corresponds to a shell, and each value of l
corresponds to a subshell. The maximum number of electrons that can
be in a subshell is 2(2l + 1).

(iii) 2 electrons in any orbital is maximum 2.

(iv) The 2nd shell is made up of 2 subshells, s and p. It can therefore

contain 2+6=8 electrons.
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Shell Subshell Total Number of Electrons in Shell

1st Shell 1s 2

2nd Shell 2s, 2p 2+6=8

3rd Shell 3s, 3p, 3d 2 + 6 + 10 = 18

4th Shell 4s, 4p, 4d, 4f 2 + 6 + 10 + 14 = 32

(v) 2 possible spin orientations

an electron in an orbital there are 2 possible spin orientations.

(2) In an atom the number electrons in M-Shell is equal to the

number of electrons in the K and L shell. Answer the following
questions.

a. which is the outer most shell?

b. How many electrons are there in its outermost shell?

c. what is the atomic number of element?

d. write the electronic configuration of the element.

(Ans) a. N-Shell is the outermost shell.

 b. 2 Electrons are there in outermost shell.

c. The Atomic Number of element is 22.

d. The Element is Ti (Titanium). Its Electronic Configuration is

{1s22s22p63s23p64s23d2}.

(3) Following Orbital diagram shows the electron configuration of

nitrogen atom. Which rule does not support this? {N(Z=7)}

1s2 2s2 2p3

(Ans) This electron configuration does not support Hund’s Rule.

According to Hund’s rule, the orbitals of equal energy are

occupied with one electron each before pairing of electrons starts.

Hence the correct electron configuration is as follows .

1s2 2s2 2p3

(4) (i) An electron in an atom has the following set of four quantum
numbers. Which orbital does it belong to ?

n l ml ms

3 0 0 +1/2
(ii) Write the four quantum numbers for 1s1 electron.

(ANS)(i) Given n=2 & l=0 represent s-orbital so the orbital is 2s and
s=+1/2 so by nlx method it is 2s1.

(ii) The four quantum numbers for 1s1 electron is

 n l ml ms

1 0 0 +1/2

(5) The wavelength of a radio wave is 1.0m. Find the frequency .

(ANS) c= 3 108 ; λ =1m ; c = νλ

ν = c/λ = 3 108/1 = 3 108 Hz.