Chapter 9

Integral Calculus

9.1 Integrating ax n = f(x)

Integration is the reverse process of differentiation. In Chapter 5, we

saw that if y = f(x) = ax n , then
dy
= f 0(x) = anx n−1,
dx
and that for any constant c, if y = f(x) = ax n + c, then
dy
= f 0(x) = anx n−1.
dx
Since integration is the reverse process of differentiation, we seek to
dy dy
find y = f(x), given dx = f 0(x). That is; if dx = f 0(x) = kx n , then

kx n+1
y = f(x) = + c, n 6= −1
n+1
and c is called a constant of integration.

Example 9.1.1. Find y for each of the following:

dy
1. dx = 3x 4
dy
2. dx = 2x −5
dy
= 6x + 2x −3 − 3x 2
1
3. dx

Solutions
 1.
dy
= 3x 4
dx
3x 4+1
y= +c
4+1
3
= x 5 + c.
5

2.
dy
= 2x −5
dx
2x −5+1
y= +c
−5 + 1
= − x −4 + c.
1
2

3.
dy
= 6x + 2x −3 − 3x 2
1

dx
y = 3x 2 − x −2 − 2x 2 + c
3

9.2 Using the integral symbol

n
x n dx and the formula we have been
R
The integral of x is denoted by
using is:
kx n+1
Z
n
kx dx = + c, n 6= −1.
n+1
Example 9.2.1. Find:
R 1
1. (x 2 + 2x 3 ) dx
R −3
2. (x 2 + 2) dx

Solution

1.
Z
1 2 3 1
(x 2 + 2x 3 ) dx = x 2 + x 4 + c.
3 2
 2.
Z
−1
(x − 2 + 2) dx = −2x
3
2 + 2x + c.

9.2.2 Simplifying expression before integrating:

Here we will first simplify the expression into terms of the form x n , n ∈
R before integrating.
Example 9.2.3. Find:
R √
1. ( x23 − 3 x) dx
R
2. x(x 2 + x2 ) dx
√
R 5+ x
3. ((2x ) + x 2 ) dx
2

Solution
1.
√
Z Z
(2x −3 − 3x 2 ) dx
2 1
( 3 − 3 x) dx =
x
= −x −2 − 2x 2 + c
3

2.
Z Z
2
x(x 2 + ) dx = (x 3 + 2) dx
x
1
= x 4 + 2x + c.
4

3. HW
The following are some standard integrals
1. Z
sin x dx = − cos x + c

2. Z
cos x dx = sin x + c
 3. Z
1
dx = ln x + c
x
4. Z
ex dx = ex + c

5.
ax
Z
x
a dx = +c
ln a

9.3 Finding the constant of integration

dy
We know that if dx = f 0(x) = kx n , then

kx n+1
y = f(x) = + c, 6= −1.
n+1
kx n+1
Given any point (x, y) where the curve y = n+1 + c passes through,
we can find the actual value of c.

Example 9.3.1. The curve with equation y = f(x) passes through the
point (4, 5). Given that
x2 − 2
0
f (x) = √ ,
x
find the equation of the curve.

9.3.2 Definite Integrals

We need to be able to integrate functions within defined limits. This is

called definite integration.
We recall that Z
3
3x 4 dx = x 3 + c,
5
where c is an arbitrary constant.
Let f(x) be continuous function between x = a and x = b and let
F(x) be the integral of f(x). Then the definite integral between the
limits x = a and x = b is
 Z b
(f(x)) dx = [F(x)]ba = F(b) − F(a),
a
where b is the upper limit and a is the lower limit of integration.

Example 9.3.3. Evaluate the following:

1. Z 4
1
(2x − 3x 2 + 1) dx
1

2. Z 1
1
(x 2 − 1)2 dx
0

9.4 Area under a curve

You need to be able to find the area under a curve.

9.4.1 Area bounded by the x-axis and the curve above the x- axis

If you wish to find the area between a curve y = f(x), the x-axis and
the lines x = a and x = b, then
Z b
A= y dx.
a

Example 9.4.2. Find the area of the region bounded by the curve with
equation y = (4 − x)(x + 2) and the positive x- and y-axes.

9.4.3 Area bounded by the x-axis and the curve under the x- axis

If you wish to find the area between a curve y = f(x), the x-axis and
the lines x = a and x = b, then
Z b
A=− y dx.
a

Example 9.4.4. Find the area of the region bounded by the curve with
equation y = x(x − 3) and the x-axis.
 The following example shows that great care must be taken if you
are trying to find an area which straddles the x-axis such as the shaded
region below.

Example 9.4.5. Sketch the curve with equation y = x(x − 1)(x + 3) and
find the area of the region bounded by the curve and the x-axis.

9.4.6 Area between a curve and a straight line

The figure below shows the graph of y1 = f(x) and y2 = g(x). The area
between y1 and y2 is given by
Z b
A= (y1 − y2 ) dx.
a

Example 9.4.7. Sketch the graph of the curve y = x(4 − x) and the line
y = x. Hence find the area of the region bounded by the two functions.

9.5 Methods of integration

We now consider some methods of integrating functions which are

not given in standard form, such as the ones we have looked at so far.
The idea is to standardize the integrand so that we are able to integrate
using known/standard results. Some of the known/standard integrals
can easily be found on a standard integral table; on the internet or in
most of the advanced Mathematics books.

9.5.1 Substitution method

Suppose we wish to find

Z
2x(x 2 + 3)8 dx

or Z
cos x
dx.
sin x
First, we observe that the two functions being multiplied or divided are
d d
dx (sin x) = cos x,
2
related in some way. That is ; dx (x + 3) = 2x and
and so we use substitution method.
With this method, the substitution usually made is to let u be equal to
f(x) such that f(u) du is a standard integral. It is known that integrals
of the forms, Z
k [f(x)]n f 0(x) dx

and
f 0(x)
Z
k dx
[f(x)]n
where k and n are constants, can both be integrated by using substi-
tuting u for f(x). The following example will help us appreciate this
method.

Example 9.5.2. Integrate each of the following:

1. Z
2x(x 2 + 3)2 dx

2. Z
2x + 1
dx.
3x 2 + 3x + 1
3. Z
3x 2 ex dx.
3

4. Z
cos x
dx.
sin x
5. Z
ln x
dx.
x

9.5.3 Integration by parts

From the product rule of differentiation

d du dv
(uv) = v +u ,
dx dx dx
where both u and v are functions of x, we get
 dv d du
u = (uv) − v .
dx dx dx
Integrating both sides with respect to x gives:
Z Z
u dv = uv − v du.

This is called integration by parts formula and provides a method of

integrating such products of simple functions as xex dx, t 3 sin t dt
R R
R x R
e cos x dx and x 2 ln x dx.
Given a product of two terms to integrate, the initial choice is: which
part to make equal to u and which part to make equal to dv. The
choice must be such that the ’u part’ becomes a constant after succes-
sive differentiation, and the ’dv part ’ can be integrated from standard
integrals.
The following rule holds: If a product to be integrated contains an
algebraic term (such as x, t 2 or 3θ), then this term is chosen as the ’u
part’, except when ln x term is involved; in this case ln x is chosen as
the ’u part’.
We consider the examples below.

Example 9.5.4. Determine

R
1. x cos x dx.
R
2. 3te2t dt.
R
3. x 2 sin x dx.

Example 9.5.5. Determine

R
1. x ln x dx.
R
2. e2x cos 4x dx.

Solution
 R
1. x ln x dx. Here, our choice of u is the log. function. Thus, let
u = ln x and dv = x dx. we have du
dx = x and v =
1 x2
2 . By
Z Z
u dv = uv − v du,

we get
Z Z 2
x2 x 1
x ln x dx = ln x − × dx
2 2 x
Z
x2 1
= ln x − x dx
2 2
x2 x2
= ln x − +c
2 4
R
2. e2x cos 4x dx. Here, the choice of u does not matter as shown
below; Let u = e2x and dv = cos 4x dx. It follows that du =
2e2x dx and v = 1
4 sin 4x. Again by integration by parts formula,
we get
Z Z
1 1
e2x cos 4x dx = e2x sin 4x − sin 4x × 2e2x dx
4 Z4
1 1
= e2x sin 4x − e2x sin 4x dx.
4 2
R 2x
To integrate e sin 4x, We apply the method of integration by
part again. Let u = e2x and dv = sin 4x dx. It follows that du =
2e2x dx and v = − 41 cos 4x. Thus
Z Z
1 1
e2x sin 4x = − e2x cos 4x + e2x cos 4x dx.
4 2

Consequently,
 Z Z
1 2x 1
e2x cos 4x dx = e sin 4x − sin 4x × 2e2x dx
4 Z4
1 2x 1
= e sin 4x − e2x sin 4x dx
4 2 Z 
1 2x 1 1 2x 1
= e sin 4x − − e cos 4x + e2x cos 4x dx
4 2 4 2
Z Z
1 2x 1 1
e2x cos 4x dx = e sin 4x + e2x cos 4x − e2x cos 4x dx.
4 8 4
Hence,
Z Z
1 1 1
e2x cos 4x dx + e2x cos 4x dx = e2x sin 4x + e2x cos 4x
4Z 4 8
5 1 1
e2x cos 4x dx = e2x sin 4x + e2x cos 4x
4Z 4 8
1 1
e2x cos 4x dx = e2x sin 4x + e2x cos 4x + c.
5 10

9.5.6 Integration using partial fractions

The process of expressing a fraction in terms of simpler fractions

called partial fractions was introduced in chapter 5. The following list
summarizes the forms of partial fractions used

Denominator containing Expression Form of partial fraction

f(x) A B C
Linear factors + +
(x + a)(x − b)(x + c) x + a x − b x + c
f(x) A B C
Repeated linear factors + +
(x + a)3 x + a (x + a)2 (x + a)3
f(x) Ax + B C
Quadratic factors +
(ax 2 + bx + c)(x + d) (ax 2 + bx + c) x + d
The general idea here is to split the given rational function into its
partial fractions, which can now be integrated using the methods dealt
with earlier. In particular, we will employ the method of substitution.
To that effect, we have the following.
Example 9.5.7. Find
R
1. x 211−3x
+2x−3
dx.
R 2x 2 −9x−35
2. (x+1)(x−2)(x+3) dx.
R x 3 −2x 2 −4x−4
3. x 2 +x−2
dx.
R 2x+3
4. (x−2) 3 dx.

R 3+6x+4x 2 −2x 3
5. x 2 (x 2 +3)
dx.

Solution
R 11−3x
1. x 2 +2x−3 dx. By Example 6.2.1, 11−3x
x 2 +2x−3
= 2
x−1 − x+3 .
5
By using the
substitution method, it follows that
Z Z  
11 − 3x 2 5
dx = − dx
x 2 + 2x − 3 x−1 x+3
Z Z
2 5
= dx − dx
x−1 x+3
= 2 ln |x − 1| − 5 ln |x + 3| + c.

2. HW

3. x −2x
R 3 2 −4x−4
x 2 +x−2
dx. By partial fraction decomposition,

x 3 − 2x 2 − 4x − 4 x − 10
= x − 3 +
x2 + x − 2 x2 + x − 2
x − 10
=x−3+
(x + 2)(x − 1)
A B
=x−3+ +
x+2 x−1
4 −3
=x−3+ + .
x+2 x−1
 Consequently,
Z 3 Z  
x − 2x − 4x − 4
2
4 −3
dx = x − 3 + + dx
x2 + x − 2 x+2 x−1
Z Z Z Z
4 3
= x dx − 3 dx + dx − dx
x+2 x−1
x2
= − 3x + 4 ln |x + 2| − 3 ln |x − 1| + c.
2

4. HW

5. HW

Certain functions can be integrated by changing the variable of in-

tegration as shown below

Example 9.5.8. Integrate

R x
1. √x+1 dx.
R e2x
2. ex +1 dx.

Solution
R x
1. √x+1 dx. Here, the method of substitution does not yield the in-
tended result. We let u = x + 1 so that du = dx. It follows that
R x R x
√
x+1
dx = √ du. Since we are integrating with respect to u,
u
we change the variable to u. But from u = x + 1, x = u − 1, and so
Z Z
x x
√ dx = √ du
x+1 Z u
u−1
= √ du
Z u
= (u 2 − u− 2 ) dx
1 1

2 3 √
= u −2 u+c
2
3
2 3 √
= (x + 1) − 2 x + 1 + c
2
3
2√
= x + 1 (x − 2) + c.
3
 e2x
dx. Let u = ex + 1, so that du = ex dx. Thus
R
2. ex +1
Z Z x x
e2x e ·e
dx dx
ex + 1 x +1
=
Z e
u−1
= du
Z u
= (1 − u−1) du

= u − ln |u| + c
= ex + 1 − ln |ex + 1| + c
= ex − ln |ex + 1| + k.

NOTE: THESE LECTURE NOTES ON INTEGRAL CALCULUS ARE MEANT FOR MAT1110
(2020/2021) ACADEMIC YEAR ONLY.