Psychology 101 -

Introduction to
Psychology

Intelligence
 Intelligence encompasses a number of mental abilities such as reasoning, planning and
problem-solving. The topic of intelligence is one of the biggest and most debated in psychology.
Learn more about some of the many theories of intelligence, the history of intelligence testing
and much more.
 THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE
While intelligence is one of the most talked about subjects within psychology, there is no standard
definition of what exactly constitutes 'intelligence.' Some researchers have suggested that intelligence is a
single, general ability, while other believe that intelligence encompasses a range of aptitudes, skills and talents.

The following are some of the major theories of intelligence that have emerged during the last 100 years.

Charles Spearman - General Intelligence:

British psychologist Charles Spearman (1863-1945) described a concept he

referred to as general intelligence, or the g factor. After using a technique known
as factor analysis to to examine a number of mental aptitude tests, Spearman
concluded that scores on these tests were remarkably similar. People who
performed well on one cognitive test tended to perform well on other tests, while
those who scored badly on one test tended to score badly on other. He concluded
that intelligence is general cognitive ability that could be measured and
numerically expressed (Spearman, 1904).

Louis L. Thurstone - Primary Mental Abilities:

Psychologist Louis L. Thurstone (1887-1955) offered a differing theory of

intelligence. Instead of viewing intelligence as a single, general ability,
Thurstone's theory focused on seven different "primary mental abilities"
(Thurstone, 1938). The abilities that he described were:

 Verbal comprehension
 Reasoning
 Perceptual speed
 Numerical ability
 Word fluency
 Associative memory
 Spatial visualization

Howard Gardner - Multiple Intelligences:

One of the more recent ideas to emerge is Howard Gardner's theory of multiple

intelligences. Instead of focusing on the analysis of test scores, Gardner
proposed that numerical expressions of human intelligence are not a full and
accurate depiction of people's abilities. His theory describes eight distinct
intelligences that are based on skills and abilities that are valued within different
cultures.

The eight intelligences Gardner described are:

 Visual-spatial Intelligence
 Verbal-linguistic Intelligence
 Bodily-kinesthetic Intelligence
 Logical-mathematical Intelligence
 Interpersonal Intelligence
 Musical Intelligence
 Intra personal Intelligence
 Naturalistic Intelligence

Robert Sternberg - Triarchic Theory of Intelligence:

Psychologist Robert Sternberg defined intelligence as "mental activity directed

toward purposive adaptation to, selection and shaping of, real-world
environments relevant to one’s life" (Sternberg, 1985, p. 45). While he agreed with
Gardner that intelligence is much broader than a single, general ability, he
instead suggested some of Gardner's intelligences are better viewed as individual
talents. Sternberg proposed what he refers to as 'successful intelligence,' which
is comprised of three different factors:

 Analytical intelligence: This component refers to problem-solving abilities.

 Creative intelligence: This aspect of intelligence involves the ability to deal
with new situations using past experiences and current skills.
 Practical intelligence: This element refers to the ability to adapt to a
changing environment.

While there has been considerable debate over the exact nature of intelligence,
no definitive conceptualization has emerged. Today, psychologists often account
for the many different theoretical viewpoints when discussing intelligence and
acknowledge that this debate is ongoing.
 DETERMINANCE OF INTELLIGENCE

Today, nearly all psychologists recognize that both genetics and the environment
play a role in determining intelligence. It now becomes matter of determining
exactly how much of an influence each factor has. First, it is important to note
that genetics and environment interact to determine exactly how inherited genes
are expressed. For example, if a person has tall parents, it is likely that the
individual will also grow to be tall. However, the exact height the person reaches
can be influenced by environmental factors such as nutrition and disease.

Evidence of genetic influences:

 Twin studies suggest that identical twins IQ's are more similar than those of
fraternal twins (Promin & Spinath, 2004).

 Siblings reared together in the same home have IQ's that are more similar
than those of adopted children raised together in the same environment
(McGue & others, 1993).

Evidence of environmental influences:

 Identical twins reared apart have IQ's that are less similar than identical
twins reared in the same environment (McGue & others, 1993).

 School attendance has an impact on IQ scores (Ceci, 2001).

 Children who are breastfed during the first three to five months of life score
higher on IQ tests at age 6 than same-age children who were not breastfed
(Reinberg, 2008).
 TWO KINDS OF INTELLIGENCE

While many people claim that their intelligence seems to decline as they age,
research suggests that while fluid intelligence begins to decrease after
adolescence, crystallized intelligence continues to increase throughout
adulthood.

What are fluid and crystallized intelligence? Psychologist Raymond Cattell first

proposed the concepts of fluid and crystallized intelligence and further developed
the theory with John Horn. The Cattell-Horn theory of fluid and crystallized
intelligence suggests that intelligence is composed of a number of different
abilities that interact and work together to produce overall individual intelligence.

What is Fluid Intelligence?

Cattell defined fluid intelligence as "…the ability to perceive relationships

independent of previous specific practice or instruction concerning those
relationships." Fluid intelligence is the ability to think and reason abstractly and
solve problems. This ability is considered independent of learning, experience,
and education. Examples of the use of fluid intelligence include solving puzzles
and coming up with problem-solving strategies.

What Is Crystallized Intelligence?

Crystallized intelligence is learning from past experiences and learning.

Situations that require crystallized intelligence include reading comprehension
and vocabulary exams. This type of intelligence is based upon facts and rooted in
experiences. This type of intelligence becomes stronger as we age and
accumulate new knowledge and understanding.

Fluid vs. Crystallized Intelligence

According to Knox (1977), ". . . they constitute the global capacity to learn,
reason and solve problems that most people refer to as intelligence. Fluid and
crystallized intelligence are complementary in that some learning tasks can be
mastered mainly by exercising either fluid or crystallized intelligence" (p. 420).

Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence Throughout Life

 Both types of intelligence increase throughout childhood and adolescence.

 Fluid intelligence peaks in adolescence and begins to decline progressively

beginning around age 30 or 40.

 Crystallized intelligence continues to grow throughout adulthood.

 Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences

When you hear the word intelligence, the concept of IQ testing may immediately come to mind. Intelligence
is often defined as our intellectual potential; something we are born with, something that can be measured
and a capacity that is difficult to change. In recent years, however, other views of intelligence have
emerged. One such conception is the theory of multiple intelligences proposed by Harvard psychologist
Howard Gardner.

This theory suggests that traditional psychometric views of intelligence are too limited. Gardner first
outlined his theory in his 1983 book Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences , where he
suggested that all people have different kinds of "intelligences." 1Gardner proposed that there are eight
intelligences, and has suggested the possible addition of a ninth known as “existentialist intelligence” 2.

In order to capture the full range of abilities and talents that people possess, Gardner suggests that people
do not have just one intellectual capacity, but have many different intelligences including musical,
interpersonal, spatial-visual and linguistic intelligences 3

Gardner’s theory has come under criticism from both psychologists and educators. These critics argue that
Gardner’s definition of intelligence is too broad, and that his eight different "intelligences" simply represent
talents, personality traits and abilities. Gardner’s theory also suffers from a lack of supporting empirical
research4.

Despite this, the theory of multiple intelligences enjoys considerable popularity with educators. Many
teachers utilize multiple intelligences in their teaching philosophy and work to integrate Gardner’s theory
into the classroom.
 Visual-Spatial Intelligence
Strengths: Visual and Spatial Judgment

People who are strong in visual-spatial intelligence are good a visualizing things.
These individuals are often good with directions as well as maps, charts, videos
and pictures.

Characteristics of Visual-Spatial Intelligence

 Enjoys reading and writing

 Good at putting puzzles together
 Good at interpreting pictures, graphs and charts
 Enjoys drawing, painting and the visual arts
 Recognizes patterns easily

Potential Career Choices

 Architect
 Artist
 Engineer
 Linguistic-Verbal Intelligence

Strengths: Words, Language and Writing

People who are strong in linguistic-verbal intelligence are able to use words well,
both when writing and speaking. These individuals are typically very good at
writing stories, memorizing information and reading.

Characteristics of Linguistic-Verbal Intelligence

 Good at remembering written and spoken information

 Enjoys reading and writing
 Good at debating or giving persuasive speeches
 Able to explain things well
 Often uses humor when telling stories

Potential Career Choices

 Writer / Journalist
 Lawyer
 Teacher
 Logical - Mathematical Intelligence

Strengths: Analyzing Problems and Mathematical Operations

People who are strong in logical-mathematical intelligence are good at reasoning,

recognizing patterns and logically analyze problems. These individuals tend to
think conceptually about numbers, relationships and patterns.

Characteristics of Logical-Mathematical Intelligence

 Excellent problem-solving skills

 Enjoys thinking about abstract ideas
 Likes conducting scientific experiments
 Good and solving complex computations

Potential Career Choices

 Scientist
 Mathematician
 Computer programmer
 Engineer
 Accountant
 Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence

Strengths: Physical Movement, Motor Control

Those who have high bodily-kinesthetic intelligence are said to be good at body
movement, performing actions and physical control. People who are strong in this
area tend to have excellent hand-eye coordination and dexterity.

Characteristics of Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence

 Good at dancing and sports

 Enjoy creating things with their hands
 Excellent physical coordination
 Tends to remember by doing, rather than hearing or seeing

Potential Career Choices

 Dancer
 Builder
 Sculptor
 Actor
 Musical Intelligence

Strengths: Rhythm and Music

People who have strong musical intelligence are good and thinking in patterns,
rhythms and sounds. They have a strong appreciation for music and are often
good at musical composition and performance.

Characteristics of Musical Intelligence

 Enjoy singing and playing musical instruments

 Recognizes musical patterns and tones easily
 Good at remembering songs and melodies
 Rich understanding of musical structure, rhythm and notes

Potential Career Choices

 Musician
 Composer
 Singer
 Music Teacher
 Conductor
 Interpersonal Intelligence

Strengths: Understanding and Relating to Other People

Those who have strong interpersonal intelligence are good understanding and
interacting with other people. These individuals are skilled at assessing the
emotions, motivations, desires and intentions of those around them.

Characteristics of Interpersonal Intelligence

 Good at communicating verbally

 Skilled nonverbal communicators
 See situations from different perspectives
 Create positive relationships with others
 Good at resolving conflict in groups

Potential Career Choices

 Psychologist
 Philosopher
 Counselor
 Sales person
 Politician
 Intrapersonal Intelligence

Strengths: Introspection and Self-Reflection

Individuals who are strong in intrapersonal intelligence are good at being aware
of their own emotional states, feelings and motivations. They tend to enjoy self-
reflection and analysis, including day-dreaming, exploring relationships with
others and assessing their personal strengths.

Characteristics of Intrapersonal Intelligence

 Good at analyzing their strengths and weaknesses

 Enjoys analyzing theories and ideas
 Excellent self-awareness
 Clearly understands the basis for their own motivations and feelings

Potential Career Choices

 Philosopher
 Writer
 Theorist
 Scientist
 Naturalistic Intelligence

Strengths: Finding Patters and Relationships to Nature

Naturalistic is the most recent addition to Gardner’s theory 5 and has been met
with more resistance than his original seven intelligences. According to Gardner,
individuals who are high in this type of intelligence are more in tune with nature
and are often interesting in nurturing, exploring the environment and learning
about other species. These individuals are said to be highly aware of even subtle
changes to their environments.

Characteristics of Naturalistic Intelligence

 Interested in subjects such as botany, biology and zoology

 Good at categorizing and cataloguing information easily
 May enjoy camping, gardening, hiking and exploring the outdoors
 Doesn’t enjoy learning unfamiliar topics that have no connection to nature

Potential Career Choices

o Biologist
o Conservationist
o Gardener
o Farmer
References:

1
 Gardner, H. (1983) Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences. New York: Basic Books.

2
 Gardner, H. (2004). A Multiplicity of Intelligences. http://www.howardgardner.com/Papers/documents/T-101%20A%20Multiplicity
%20REVISED.pdf

3
 Gardner, H. (2001). The Three Faces of Intelligence. http://www.howardgardner.com/Papers/documents/T-101%20A
%20Multiplicity%20REVISED.pdf

4
 Waterhouse, L. (2006a). Multiple Intelligences, the Mozart Effect, and Emotional Intelligence: A critical review. Educational
Psychologist, 41(4), Fall 2006, pp. 207-225.

5
 Gardner, H. (1999). Intelligence Reframed: Multiple Intelligences for the 21st Century. New York: Basic Books.