GBRM

CHAPTER 1: CELLS ● some proteins are tightly attached to only one side of
the bilayer 🡪 covalent bonding to fatty acids
PLM-BSN 2019-2020 (TORTORA SUMMARY)
● amphipathic as well
● GLYCOPROTEINS = proteins with carbohydrate
CELLS = living structural and functional units enclosed by a groups (straight/branched oligosaccharides) that
membrane protrude to the ECF
● all cells arise from older cells through CELL DIVISION
● CELL BIOLOGY/CYTOLOGY = study of cellular PERIPHERAL PROTEINS
structure and function ● not embedded into bilayer
● attached to polar heads or to integ. proteins
3.1 PARTS OF A CELL
basic parts of a cell… *GLYCOCALYX = extensive sugary coat formed by
1. PLASMA MEMBRANE carbohydrate groups of glycolipids and glycoproteins
- flexible outer surface of cell ( ext. | int, ) ● pattern of carbs is diff for each cell = molecular
- selective 🡪 regulates internal env. of cell “signature” 🡪 cell recognition
conducive for cellular activities ● allows cells to adhere to one another
- key role in cell communication (w/ other cells or ● protects cells from being digested by enzymes
their ext. env.)
● hydrophilic 🡪 film of fluid on surface of many cells
2. CYTOSOL
(e.g. RBC smoothly passing one another; cells lining
(1) CYTOPLASM = fluid portion; contains water,
GI tract and airways moist)
ions, particles, solutes
(2) ORGANELLES = distinctive shape + specific fxn
Functions of Membrane Proteins
3. NUCLEUS
● membrane proteins differ in different types of cells
- houses most of cell’s DNA
depending on its function vs. membrane lipids which
- contains CHROMOSOMES (1 strand of dna +
vary only slightly
assoc. proteins) w/c contains thousands of units
of GENES
integral proteins serve as…
o nucleus controls most of cellular fxn &
1. ION CHANNELS = allows ions to pass through;
structure
mostly selective (only 1 type of ion)
e.g.: K+ channels
3.2 PLASMA MEMBRANE
2. CARRIERS/TRANSPORTERS = selectively moves
PLASMA MEMBRANE
ions through the membrane; changes shape
● flexible yet sturdy
3. RECEPTORS = recognizes and binds a specific
● best described using FLUID MOSAIC MODEL:
molecule (ligand) 🡪 alters cell function
“composed of continually moving sea of LIPIDS
e.g. insulin receptors
intersped with many diff. PROTEINS”
4. ENZYMES = catalyzes chemical reactions/process
o LIPIDS 🡪 allows lipid-soluble, non-polar
inside or outside the cell
particles; blocks water-soluble, polar
5. LINKERS = links cell to other cells w/ other cell’s
particles
membrane protein or protein filaments
o PROTEINS 🡪 transports some
6. CELL-IDENTITY MARKERS = glycoprotein &
polar/water-soluble/charged particles; comm.
glycolipids 🡪 glycocalyx
between intercellular and extracellular
e.g.: ABO blood type markers
proteins
peripheral proteins serve as…
STRUCTURE OF PLASMA MEMBRANE
1. ENZYMES
The Lipid Bilayer
2. LINKERS
● two back-to-back layers of lipids
3. CELL-IDENTITY MARKERS
● have both polar and nonpolar parts 🡪amphipathic
4. SUPPORT to the plasma membrane
- phospholipid heads face ECF & ICF; fatty 5. ANCHOR for integral proteins
acid-tails face each other = 6. participate in MECHANICAL ACTIVITIES
● glycolipids only appear @ outer layer 🡪 asymmetric
MEMBRANE FLUIDITY
lipid polar Nonpolar ● allows most membrane lipids and proteins to move
PHOSPHOLIPIDS phosphorous – two fatty acid tails about; neighboring components can easily switch
(75%) containing head places BUT not transfer from inner to outer layer
CHOLESTEROL -OH group stiff steroid ring; ● excellent compromise for the cell (TOO RIGID = no
(20%) hydrocarbon tail movement; TOO FLUID = no support)
GLYCOLIPIDS carbohydrate head fatty acid tail ● allows transport of materials into and out of the cell
(5%) ● allows cellular activity within the membrane
● allows cell to self-seal when punctured =
Arrangement of Membrane Proteins intracytoplasmic sperm injection & cloning
INTEGRAL PROTEINS depends on…
● proteins that are embedded into lipid bilayer ● no. of double bonds in fatty acid tails of membrane
● TRANSMEMBRANE PROTEINS = proteins that lipids
protrude at both outer and inner layers of lipid; deeply
embedded
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o double bonds 🡪 kinks = spaces for ● may occur through membranes IF membrane is
movement; allows lipids to not be tightly permeable to the substances travelling through
packed ● Types: simple, facilitated, osmosis
● cholesterol = provides support
o @ normal temp 🡪 solid, firm FACTORS AFFECTING DIFFUSION
o @ lower temp 🡪 more fluid (1) steepness of gradient
MEMBRANE PERMEABILITY - steeper = faster
C.M. is selectively permeable… (2) temperature
lipid permeable to non-polar, uncharged molecules - higher = faster
bilayer (e.g.: oxygen, carbon dioxide, and steroids) (3) mass of solute
slightly permeable to small, uncharged - heavier = slower
molecules (e.g.: water & urea 🡪 passes through (4) surface area available for diffusion
gaps when lipids move) - more s.a. = faster
impermeable to polar, charged, and large (5) distance to be traveled
molecules (e.g.: glucose) - thinner membrane/ lesser = faster
membran increases permeability of C.M. to certain ions
e proteins (depends on type of channel/carrier) Simple Diffusion
*macromolecules 🡪 too large 🡪 endo-/exo- cytosis ● passive movement of particles through the C.M. w/o
the aid of proteins
GRADIENTS ACROSS THE PLASMA MEMBRANE ● uncharged, non-polar particles (oxygen, carbon
● allows/helps movement of particles through the C.M. dioxide, nitrogen) & small molecules (fatty acids,
● ELECTROCHEMICAL GRADIENT = combined effect steroids, fat soluble vitamins A,D,E,K)
of both concentration and electrical gradients ● small, polar particles (water, urea)
● route of (1) air exchange & (2) absorption of some
examples: ICF ECF
nutrients + excretion of some wastes
CONCENTRATION carbon dioxide oxygen
GRADIENT potassium sodium Facilitated Diffusion
= diff in concentration of ● route of particles that are too polar or highly charged
particles CP IN pockets
● passive movement of particles through the C.M.
= higher conc. 🡪 lower facilitated by integral membrane proteins that can
conc. (until =) either be a channel or a carrier

ELECTRICAL GRADIENT - + (1) CHANNEL-MEDIATED F.D.

= diff in amt. of charged - channel proteins
particles me aka negativity
- used mostly by ions that are too hydrophilic to
= +🡨🡪- (until no charge) kept inside charmz
pass through the non-polar center of the C.M.
= produces MEMBRANE - selective for specific ions
POTENTIAL - a fast process BUT slower compared to simple
diffusion (lesser surface area for diffusion)
- some channels have PLUGS = particles can only
3.3 TRANSPORT ACROSS THE PLASMA MEMBRANE pass through when open w/c is moderated by
● needed to transport IN needed materials for cellular cellular activities
activity and to transport OUT substances produced by - mostly for potassium (K+) & chloride (Cl-) ions;
the cell for export or as wastes some for sodium (Na+) & calcium (Ca2+) ions
- diff cells = diff no. of channels for diff ions = diff
may be a/n… permeability to diff ions
PASSIVE PROCESS
● does not use ATP (2) CARRIER-MEDIATED F.D.
● uses kinetic energy innate in the substance being - carrier/transporter proteins
transported - solute binds to carrier w/c changes shape and
● moves down the gradient transports solute passively to other side
● e.g. simple diffusion - how fast it occurs depends on the steepness of
ACTIVE PROCESS conc. gradient (e.g. if solute a in ECF has steeper
● uses ATP to move substance against its gradient c.g. than solute b in ICF, it binds to and transports
● e.g. active transport solute a faster)
● also includes use of vesicles - TRANSPORT MAXIMUM 🡪 reached when all
available carriers on C.M. is occupied 🡪
PASSIVE PROCESSES SATURATION (further steepness of c.g. won’t
The Principle of Diffusion make the process any faster)
DIFFUSION - route of glucose, fructose, galactose, and some
● a passive process in which particles use its innate vitamins
kinetic energy to move down its gradient until it
reaches equilibrium Osmosis
● both solute and solvent move ● the passive movement of solvents down its
● @equilibrium 🡪 movement does not stop; equilibrium concentration gradient (high solv. conc. & low solu.
maintained conc 🡪 low solv. conc. & high solu. conc.)
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● may occur through simple diffusion through C.M. or

through AQUAPORINS (integral memb.
proteins/water channels)
● occurs when C.M. is impermeable to the solute 🡪
solvent (water) diffuses through C.M. to reach eq. of
concentration
● eq. is maintained due to HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE
= pressure exerted by the higher amt. of solution 🡪
pushes solvents back (forward & backward movement
occurs)
● OSMOTIC PRESSURE = pressure exerted by
solution with solutes that are unable to permeate the
C.M.; pressure needed to revert conditions before
osmosis occurred; pressure that PREVENTS water ● symporters (ions go in the same direction) or
movement antiporters (ions go in the diff direction)
- normally: in cytosol = in ECF 🡪 cell volume
remains constant examples purpose
- solution’s TONICITY = measure of solution’s Na+/Ca2+ antiporters maintains low Ca2+ conc. in
ability to change cell vol & shape by movement of cytosol
water; isotonic, hypotonic, hypertonic Na+/H+ antiporters help regulate cell pH by
expelling excess H+
tonicit ECF effect Na+/glucose & Na+/amino absorbs amino acids and
y acid symporters glucose (cells lining small
ISO = solute conc. 🡪 = O.P. no change in cell intestine)
shape/vol * Na+ is moving DOWNHILL; partner is moving UPHILL
HYPO solute conc.: solution > cell more water enters 🡪
O.P.: solution > cell cell swells 🡪 cell Transport in Vesicles
more water enters cell bursts ● VESICLES = small spherical sac from membranes
HYPE ● requires ATP = active process
solute conc.: solution < cell more water leaves 🡪
R ● used in transporting substances within the cell across
O.P.: solution < cell cell crenation 🡪 cell
its organelles OR into (endocytosis) and out of
more water leaves cell lysis
(exocytosis) the cell
ACTIVE PROCESSES ENDOCYTOSIS
Active Transport (1) RECEPTOR-MEDIATED ENDOCYTOSIS
● polar, charged particles moving against their gradient - highly selective
● energy (ATP) needed from: (1) hydrolysis of ATP or - vesicle forms when a receptor recognizes and
(2) stored energy in ionic concentration gradient binds to a ligand
● has transport maximum and saturation - cells take up the ff. using this process: (1)
● Na+, K+, H+, Ca2+, I-, Cl-, amino acids, cholesterol-containing low-density lipoproteins
monosaccharides (LDLs), (2) transferrin, (3) some vitamins, (4)
antibodies, and (5) certain hormones
PRIMARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT
● uses PUMPS = membrane proteins that hydrolyzes
ATP 🡪 changes shape 🡪 pumps ion against its conc.
grad.
● cells use 40% of their energy for this
Na+/K+ ATPase/Sodium Potassium pumps
● most prevalent pump
● maintains: low conc. Na+; high conc. K+ in cell
o pumps Na+ out of cell; K+ into cell
o counteracts: diffusion of Na+ into cell & K+
out of cell
● uses enzyme ATPase to hydrolyze ATP
● maintains cell shape and volume
(2) PHAGOCYTOSIS
SECONDARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT - endocytosis large solid particles (e.g. dead cells,
● uses stored energy from Na+ or H+ ions to carry ions viruses, whole bacteria)
against their conc. gradient - can only be done by PHAGOCYTES
● “secondary” since primary active transport maintains (1) MACROPHAGES = in many body tissues
steep Na+ conc. gradient 🡪 stored energy 🡪 K.E. (2) NEUTROPHILS = type of WBC
that allows some Na+ to seep back into C.M. down its - vital defense mechanism of the body
conc. grad.
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the C.M. 🡪 larger surf. area for absorption 🡪

common in absorptive cells)
(2) INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS
- “intermediate” thickness
- made up of several diff. proteins
- exceptionally strong 🡪 found in parts of cell
subject to mechanical stress
- helps stabilize position of organelles & attaches
cells to one another
(3) MICROTUBULES
- thickest protein filaments
- long, unbranched, hollow tubes made up of
protein TUBULIN
(3) PINOCYTOSIS (BULK-PHASE PHAGOCYTOSIS) - forms from CENTROSOME 🡪 extends to cell
- occurs when cell “drinks” a droplet of ECF and peripheries
the solutes it contains - provides cell shape
- no receptor needed - responsible for movement of organelles
- used by many cells esp. absorptive cells (secretory vesicles), chromosomes (during cell
(intestines, kidneys) division), and specialized cell extensions (cilia
and flagella)
EXOCYTOSIS
● transports materials out of the cell using vesicles ORGANELLES
● especially important to: ● specialized structures within the cell that have
(1) secretory cells characteristic shape and serve specific functions in
(2) neurotransmitters cell growth, reproduction, and maintenance
● also used to transport waste out of the cell ● compartmentalizes cellular activity 🡪 cellular activities
● restores lost C.M. in endocytosis can happen simultaneously and little interference
occurs among them
TRANSCYTOSIS ● each organelle contains their own set of enzymes to
● transports substances by undergoing endocytosis into perform their specific function 🡪 cooperate to
the cell, through the cell, and exocytosis releasing the maintain homeostasis
material to ECF ● no. and types of organelles in a cell depends on its
● used by endothelial cells lining blood vessels function
(material from blood plasma 🡪 interstitial fluid)
● transfer of antibodies across placenta to fetal Centrosome
circulation ● located near the nucleus
● duplicated during cell division 🡪 new cells can divide
3.4 CYTOPLASM as well
● cellular contents between the C.M. and nucleus composed of…
● composed of (1) cytosol, and (2) organelles ● two centrioles
- long axes are perpendicular to each other (+)
CYTOSOL - each is composed of 9 microtubule triplets
● or the intracellular fluid (ICF) of cells arranged in a circular manner 🡪 cylindrical
● site of chemical reactions and cellular activity (e.g. ● surrounding pericentriolar material
enzyme activity; glycolysis) - made up of tubulin complexes
made up of… - organizing centers for growth of mitotic spindle
● 75%-90% water (cell division) and microtubules
● various dissolved solutes & suspended components
- ions, glucose, fatty acids, proteins, lipids, ATP, Cillia
and waste products ● dominant component: microtubule
- various organic molecular aggregations (e.g. lipid ● short, hair-like extensions of the C.M.
droplet, glycogen granules) ● made up of 9 microtubule pairs encircling a central
- enzymes microtubule pair and surrounded by C.M.
● contains the cytoskeleton ● anchored to a BASAL BODY (similar structure to
centriole; forms cilia and flagella)
CYTOSKELETON = protein filaments that extend through the ● oar-like pattern of beating allows fluid to move/glide
cytosol; provides cell shape, organization of cell contents; aids against cell 🡪 cells lining intestines, airways, fallopian
in mechanical activity within and of the cell tubes
(1) MICROFILAMENTS
- thinnest protein filaments made up of proteins Flagella
ACTIN & MYOSIN ● dominant component: microtubule
- responsible for basic cell shape and structure ● similar structure w/ cilia; LONGER
- helps generate cell movement (muscle ● generates forward movement through its wave-like
contractions, cell locomotion, and cell division) pattern of beating 🡪 moves entire cell
- provides mechanical support for MICROVILLI
(nonmotile, microscopic finger-like extensions of Ribosomes
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● sites for protein synthesis EXIT/TRANS FACE further modifies proteins, packaged
● name reflects high content of RIBOSOMAL RNA - concave, faces into:
(rRNA) 🡪 ribosomes; still contains 50 other proteins C.M. - SECRETORY VESICLES =
● composed of 2 subunits (1 larger) created separately undergoes exocytosis 🡪 releases
in the nucleolus & comes together @ cytosol proteins to ECF
- MEMBRANE VESICLES = transports
location synthesizes… proteins needed by the C.M.
attached to nuclear membrane proteins for specific - TRANSPORT VESICLES =
or endoplasmic reticulum organelles, for insertion in transports proteins to other organelles
C.M., or for export
free @ cytosol (free ribosomes) proteins for cellular Lysosomes
activities w/in cytosol ● membrane-enclosed vesicles formed from the golgi
attached to mitochondrial mitochondrial proteins complex that contain as many as 60 kinds of powerful
membrane/within mitochondria digestive and hydrolytic enzymes
● acidic pH (pH of 5) compared to cytosol (pH of 7)
Endoplasmic Reticulum - membrane has hydrogen pumps that transports
● a network of membranes in the form of flattened sacs hydrogen into organelle to help maintain acidity
or tubules that extend from the nuclear envelope ● releases final products of digestion to cytosol
● extensive (makes up more than half of the (glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids)
membranous content of cell) ● AUTOPHAGY = worn-out organelles digested by
(1) ROUGH E.R. lysosome
- extends from nuclear envelope - organelles are enclosed by membrane from E.R.
- ribosomes attached to outer surface (AUTOPHAGOSOME) and merges with
- sorts and processes proteins lysosome 🡪 digests worn-out organelle 🡪
- synthesizes phospholipids and glycoproteins releases digested components to cytosol for
ribosomes produce proteins 🡪 enzymes attach reuse
proteins to carbohydrates and phospholipids 🡪 - also used in cell differentiation, control of growth,
secreted via exocytosis/attaches to C.M. or tissue remodeling, adaptation to adverse env.,
membranes of other organelles and cell defense
(2) SMOOTH E.R. ● AUTOLYSIS = lysosome destroys entire cell
- extends from rough E.R. ● lysosomal act. USUALLY occurs w/in cell (e.g. sperm
- no ribosomes on surface BUT contains unique head releases lysosomal enzymes to aid oocyte
enzymes 🡪 more functionally diverse than r.E.R. penetration =ACROSOMAL REACTION)
- synthesizes fatty acids and steroids
Peroxisomes
location function ● also called MICROBODIES
● similar structure with lysosomes, but smaller
liver cells - help release glucose into bloodstream
● contains oxidases (enzymes that oxidize or remove
- help detoxify/inactivate lipid-soluble drugs
or potentially harmful substances H+ from a compound) 🡪 necessary in normal
metabolism (e.g. amino acids and fatty acids)
liver, kidney, - removes phosphate from
● byproducts of oxidation = H2O2 (hydrogen peroxide)
small glucose-6-phosphate to produce “free”
intestine and assoc. free radicals (superoxide) 🡪 toxic
glucose 🡪 bloodstream
● contains catalases (enzymes that break down H2O2)
muscle cells - calcium ions used to trigger contractions
and other enzymes that break down superoxide
come from SARCOPLASMIC RETICULUM
● can self-replicate and grow
(a form of smooth E.R.
Proteasomes
Golgi Complex
● responsible for the continuous breakdown of
● contains enzymes that modifies, packages, and sorts unneeded, faulty, or damaged proteins
proteins (most proteins formed by r.E.R. are
● barrel-shaped composed of 4 stacked rings of
transported to other organelles 🡪 first in transport proteins around a central core
pathway) ● contains proteases (enzyme that breaks down
● made up of 3-20 CISTERNAE (small, flattened proteins into peptides)
membranous sacs) 🡪 entry/cis face, medial cisterna, ● resulting peptides are further broken down by
exit/trans face enzymes in cytosol 🡪 amino acid 🡪 reused to build
● proteins pass through each cisternae through the new proteins
maturation of the cisterna ● tiny, but abundant in cytosol and nucleus
● more extensive in cells that secrete proteins ● only recently discovered
cisterna function Mitochondria
ENTRY/CIS FACE receives, proteins in vesicles from ● generates most of the ATP used by the cell through
- convex, faces rough E.R.; modifies proteins aerobic cellular respiration 🡪 powerhouse of the cell
rough E.R. ● composed of an outer and inner mitoch. membrane
MEDIAL CISTERNA attaches glucose or lipids to proteins with a space between them
🡪 glycoproteins and lipoproteins - inner mitoch. membrane have cristae 🡪 allows
extensive surface area for chem. reactions
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- inner mitoch. membrane contains the ● more nucleoli in cells that need more protein (muscle
MITOCHONDRIAL MATRIX (central, fluid-filled cells, liver cells)
cavity) ● a bundle of protein, DNA, and RNA not enclosed by a
● plays an imp’t role in APOPTOSIS (programmed cell membrane
death due to stimuli such as high amt of free radicals, ● disperses during cell division and reorganizes once
DNA damage, deprivation of growth factor, or lack of new cells are formed
oxygen or other nutrients)
- releases enzyme cytochrome c (used in cellular 3.6 PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
respiration) to cytosol through a pore in the outer ● cells synthesize PROTEINS 🡪 proteins determine
mitoch. membrane 🡪 causes digestive enzymes CELL STRUCTURE & FUNCTION 🡪 organism
to breakdown cell ● PROTEINS = building blocks of diff cellular structures;
● has the ability to self-replicate during times of high hormones; enzymes; transporters
cellular activity (e.g. muscle cells) ● PROTEOME = all proteins in an organism
● has own ribosomes (produce mitoch. proteins needed ● occurs in 2 steps: TRANSLATION &
in C.R.) and its own DNA (circular w/ 37 genes; TRANSCRIPTION
controls synthesis of 2 rRNAs, 22 tRNAs, and 13 ● DNA & RNA store genes as sets of 3 NUCLEOTIDES
proteins that build mitoch. components) o DNA 🡪 BASE TRIPLET 🡪complementary
● mitoch. DNA can only be inherited from mother CODON
● GENETIC CODE
3.5. NUCLEUS
NUCLEUS TRANSCRIPTION
● spherical or oval body; usually most prominent ● part of DNA strand is transcribed into an RNA
● cells usually contain 1 nucleus; some cells have more RNAs needed in the process…
than 1 (e.g. skeletal muscle cells) (1) mRNA = messenger RNA; directs protein synthesis
● controls cellular structure and function; directs cellular (2) rRNA = ribosomal RNA; joins with ribosomal proteins
activities; produces ribosomes in nuclei to form ribosomes
● contains most of the cell’s GENES (hereditary units) (3) tRNA = transfer RNA; one end = amino acid & other
arranged along CHROMOSOMES (somatic cells have end = ANTICODON (set of 3 nucleotides that has
46 chromosomes 🡪 23 from each parent) corresponding codons in DNA)
● RNA POLYMERASE = enzyme that catalyzes
transcription of a strand of DNA; binds & leaves DNA
strand through special nucleotide sequences:
o starts @ PROMOTER
o ends @ TERMINATOR
● complementary pairing of base triplets and codons:
Template DNA base Complementary
sequence RNA base
sequence

A (Actin) U

T (Thymine) A

G (Guanine) C

C (Cytosine) G

● PRE-mRNA =has both introns (part of DNA that do

not code for proteins) and exons (part of DNA that
does code for proteins)
● SMALL NUCLEAR RIBONUCLEOPROTEINS
● GENOME = total genetic information carried by a cell (snRNPS) = enzymes that cut out introns and connect
exons
NUCLEAR ENVELOPE ● results in functional mRNA molecule that leaves
● double membrane each made of lipid bilayer through a nuclear pore 🡪 cytoplasm
● has NUCLEAR PORES (10x larger than channels ● ALTERNATIVE SPLICING 🡪 diff ways of splicing
found on C.M; controls movement of substances 🡪 pre-mRNA into diff mRNA 🡪 diff proteins (allows
small ions and molecules diffuse while larger more types of protein to be coded)
molecules use active transport)

NUCLEOLI
● one or more spherical bodies in nucleus
● sites of synthesis of RNA and assembly of rRNA and
protein into ribosomal subunits 🡪 released to cytosol
to form ribosomes
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CYTOKINESIS (cytoplasmic division) to produce

IDENTICAL CELLS; has 46 chromosomes
● GERM CELLS = gamete, oocyte, or precursor cells of
gametes/oocytes; undergoes MEIOSIS, a special
form of cellular division, to produce daughter cells
with half the number of chromosomes in the parent
cells (23 chromosomes)

SOMATIC CELL DIVISION

● human somatic cells contain 23 pairs of
chromosomes (46 total) 🡪 one member of each pair
from each parent; DIPLOID CELLS (2n)
● HOMOLOGS (homologous chromosomes) =
chromosomes that make up each pair; generally
similar appearance and gene arrangement EXCEPT
sex chromosomes
● SEX CHROMOSOMES = XX (female) Xy (male)
TRANSLATION ● CELL CYCLE = orderly sequence of events in which
● nucleotide sequence in mRNA is translated into somatic cells duplicate its contents and divides into 2
amino acid sequence that forms PROTEINS identical cells; some cells divide more than others;
● carried out by RIBOSOMES in the cytoplasm 2 major periods of the cell cycle…
o small rib. unit🡪 binding site for mRNA (1) INTERPHASE (cell not dividing)
o large rib. unit 🡪 P site, A site (2) MITOTIC PHASE (cell dividing)
● POLYRIBOSOME = several ribosomes attached to a
single mRNA Interphase
● duplication(synthesis) of DNA and cytosolic
components in prep. of cell division 🡪 HIGH
METABOLIC ACTIVITY
● phase in which cell does most of its growing
● G phases = GAP phases (pauses in synth. of DNA)
● S phase = SYNTHESIS of DNA
● defined nuclear envelope, nucleolus and a mass of
chromatin

phase events
G1 - interval bet. mitotic phase and S phase
- metabolically active 🡪 cytosolic components are
duplicated (centrosomes begin)
- all cellular activities described occurs here
- G0 PHASE = cells in G1 for long time
S - synthesis of DNA (duplication) = daughter cells
have same genetic material
- strands of DNA separate @ hydrogen bonds and
bonds with newly synthesized nucleotides with
complementary codons to form new DNA
G2 - cell continues to grow
- enzymes and proteins needed during cell division
will be synthesized
- replication of centrosomes is completed

Mitotic Phase
● results in the formation of 2 identical cells
● 2 forms of division: nuclear and cytoplasmic

(1) MITOSIS (Nuclear Division)

● the distribution of 2 sets of chromosomes into 2
separate nuclei
● results in EXACT partitioning of genetic information
● PMAT: Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase

PROPHASE - chromatin fibers condense into

3.7 CELL DIVISION
chromosomes 🡪 prevent entangling of
● the process in which cells reproduce
chromosomes while moving
types of cells in the body…
- each chromosome = IDENTICAL
● SOMATIC CELLS = body cells; all cells other than a
CHROMATID PAIRS w/ centromere
germ cell; undergoes MITOSIS (nuclear division) and
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(surrounded by protein complex called ● results in 4 haploid daughter cells

KINETOCHORE) holding it together diploid parent cell 🡪 2 haploid daughter cells 🡪 4
- TUBULIN in pericentriolar matter of haploid daughter cells
centrosomes form MITOTIC SPINDLE 🡪
attaches to kinetochore 3.8 CELL DIVERSITY
- lengthening of microtubules of mitotic ● human body contains about 100 trillion cells
spindle 🡪 pushes centrosomes to poles ● varies in size and shape
- nucleolus disappears; nuclear envelope ● MICROMETERS 🡪 measure of cell size
breaks down o largest = 140 micrometers (oocyte)
METAPHASE - mitotic spindle aligns chromosomes @ o diameter of hair strand = 100 micrometers
center = METAPHASE PLATE o smallest = 8 micrometers (RBC)
ANAPHASE - centromeres split = chromatids 🡪 ● shape varies = variety of functions
chromosomes o RBC has large surface area = easy passing
- chromosomes appear V-shaped as they are of O2 to other cells
being dragged to the poles by mitotic spindle o smooth muscle cells are long and
- cytokinesis starts here: CLEAVAGE spindle-like = contracts and shortens for
FURROW starts to form movement
TELOPHASE - chromosomal movement stops o nerve cells have long extensions that permit
- identical chromosomes @ poles of the cell the transmission of nerve impulses over
- chromosomes uncoil 🡪 revert to chromatin great distances
form o microvilli, flagellum, cilia
- nuclear envelope forms around chromatin
masses 🡪 nucleoli reappears 3.9 AGING AND CELLS
- mitotic spindle breaks down ● AGING = normal process accompanied by a
- cytokinesis ends after this phase progressive alteration of the body’s homeostatic
adaptive responses; produces observable changes in
(2) CYTOKINESIS (Cytoplasmic Division) structure and function; increases vulnerability to
● division of cell’s cytoplasm and organelles into 2 environmental stress and disease
identical cells ● GERIATRICS = special branch of medicine
● begins @ late anaphase and ends after telophase ● GERONTOLOGY = scientific study of the process
and problems associated with aging
● ACTIN MICROFILAMENTS (lie just inside C.M.) 🡪
● cells stuck @ G0 phase 🡪 do not divide (nerve cells,
form contractile ring that pulls C.M. progressively
inwards and ultimately pinches the two into separate skeletal muscle cells)
cells ● some cells have limited number of times for cell
division
REPRODUCTIVE CELL DIVISION ● TELOMERES = specific DNA sequences @
chromatid tips; protects tips from degradation and
● production of sex cells 🡪 contains a single set of 23
erosion 🡪 each cycle shortens telomeres
chromosomes; HAPLOID CELLS (n)
● fertilization restores diploid no. of chromosomes ● GLUCOSE 🡪 haphazardly added to proteins forming
(1) MEIOSIS I cross-links between adjacent protein molecules 🡪
PROPHASE I - extended phase where chromosomes stiffening and loss of elasticity in aging tissues
shorten and thicken ● AUTOIMMUNE RESPONSE 🡪 immune system may
- nucleoli and nuclear envelope disappears start to attack own body’s cells
- SYNAPSIS occurs 🡪 pairing of sister
chromatids to form a TETRAD
- CROSSING-OVER occurs 🡪 chromatids
of tetrads exchange genetic material 🡪
GENETIC RECOMBINATION 🡪 daughter
cells are different from one another and
from the parent cells
METAPHASE I - mitotic spindle aligns tetrads @ center =
METAPHASE PLATE
ANAPHASE I - tetrads 🡪 chromatids
- chromosomes appear V-shaped as they
are being dragged to the poles by mitotic
spindle
- cytokinesis starts here: CLEAVAGE
FURROW starts to form
TELOPHASE I - similar to mitotic telophase & cytokinesis
& - 2 daughter cells with haploid number of
CYTOKINESIS chromosomes (23 chromosomes)

(2) MEIOSIS II
● Prophase II, Metaphase II, Anaphase II, Telophase II
● similar to mitotic cell division