EFFECT OF NATURAL FILLER ADDITION OF

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF NYLON

BASED POLYMER MATRIX COMPOSITE

A PROJECT REPORT

Submitted by

D.GOKUL BHARATHI 420416114033

C.B.JAI KUMAR 420416114044
A. SAKTHIVEL 420416114089
J. ASHOK KUMAR 420416114302

in partial fulfillment for the award of the

degree of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

ADHIPARASAKTHI ENGINEERING COLLEGE

MELMARUVATHUR 600319

ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI 600 025

SEPTEMBER 2020
 BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that the project report “EFFECT OF NATURAL FILLER

ADDTION OF MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF NYLON
BASED POLYMER MATRIX COMPOSITE” is the bonafide work of
“D. GOKUL BHARATHI (420416114033), C.B.JAI KUMAR
(420416114044), A. SAKTHIVEL (420416114089), J. ASHOK
KUMAR (420416114302)” who carried out the project work under my
supervision.

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE

Dr.S. GOPALAKANNAN M.E., Ph.D. Dr.K. DHANDAPANI M.E.,

HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT SUPERVISOR

Department of Mechanical Engineering Department of Mechanical Engineering

Adhiparasakthi Engineering College Adhiparasakthi Engineering College

Melmaruvathur – 603 319. Melmaruvathur – 603 319.

Submitted for the project work and viva voce examination held on ____________ at
Adhiparasakthi Engineering College, Melmaruvathur.

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It is indeed a great pleasure and proud privilege to acknowledge the

help and support we received from the positive minds around us in making this
endeavor a successful one. The spiritual blessings of His Holiness
ARULTHIRU AMMA and the divine guidance THIRUMATHI AMMA have
undoubtedly taken us to the path of victory in completing this project.
The infrastructural support with all kinds of lab facilities have been a
motivating factor in this completion of project work, all because of our
CORRESPONDENT SAKTHI THIRU Dr. G.B. SENTHILKUMAR with
great pleasure we take this opportunity to thank him.

From the academic side the constant support from PRINCIPAL

Dr. J. RAJA has encouraged us to work hard and attain this goal of completing
the project. Our sincere thanks to HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT Dr. S.
GOPALAKANNAN who has given us both moral and technical support adding
experience to the job we have undertaken.
We take enormous pleasure in thanking our INTERNAL GUIDE
Dr. K. DHANDAPANI who helped us in crossing obstacles in the path to our
glory and our CO-ORDINATOR Mr. N.SENTHIL KUMAR who was from
the front questioning us at the right time and encouraging us most of the time,
thereby extracting quality work from us.
We also thank other faculty members and non-teaching staff members of
our department who have given their constant support and motivation in all our
endeavors.
 ABSTRACT

The composites are the filler material which is embedded into an organic
polymer resin called polymer composites. The particulate composites are
composites with particles as reinforcing filler material such as silica, quartz,
glass called particle reinforced composite. Sea shell are available in nature. The
seashell composite material used for fabricating dentures should have good
thermal properties in order to withstand higher temperatures without distortion.
In general, sea shell is stronger when incorporated with a resin. The seashells
were collected and prepared by crushing, grinding and filtering the cockle using
sieve. Sea shell particle of micron size in varying proportions are added in
Nylon 6 matrix. Mechanical properties such as Tensile strength, Flexural
strength, Shore hardness, Impact strength, are determined for the injection
moulded specimens evaluated as per ASTM standards and the combination of
best composition is determined. The denture composite samples are reinforced
with seashell powder. The composites containing 3%, 6%, 9%, 12%, 15%, 18%
of sea shell provides the accessory thermal strength to the polymer.

i
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE

NO NO
ABSTRACT i
LIST OF TABLES iv
LIST OF FIGURES v
NOMENCLATURE vi

1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 COMPOSITE 3
1.2 TYPES OF COMPOSITE 5
1.2.1 POLYMER MATRIX COMPOSITE 6
1.2.2 METAL MATRIX COMPOSITES 6
1.2.3 CERAMIC MATRIX MATERIALS 7
1.2.4 FIBER REINFORCED COMPOSITES 7
1.2.5 LAMINAR COMPOSITES 8
1.2.6 PARTICULATE REINFORCED 9
COMPOSITES

2 LITERATURE REVIEW 10

3 MATERIALS USED 13
3.1 MATERIALS
3.1.1 NYLON 6,6 13
3.1.2 SEA SHELL 14

ii
4 PREPARATION OF SEA SHELL POWDER
4.1 BALL MILL 15
4.2 SLEEVE TUBES 16

5 FABRICATION OF POLYMER MATRIX

COMPOSITE
5.1 COMPOUNDING OF POLYMER 17
5.2 INJECTION MOULDING 19

6 TESTING PROCEDURES
6.1 TENSILE STRENGTH 22
6.2 FLEXURAL STRENGTH 22
6.3 SHORE HARDNESS 23
6.4 IMPACT STRENGTH 24

7 RESULT AND GRAPHS

7.1 RESULT TABULATION 25

8 COST ESTIMATION 29

9 CONCLUSION 30

10 REFERENCES 31

iii
 LIST OF TABLES

TABLE TITLE PAGE

NO NO
1 TENSILE STRENGTH 25

FLEXURAL STRENGTH 26
2

3 SHORE HARDNESS 27

4 IMPACT STRENGTH 28

iv
 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE PAGE
NAME OF THE FIGURE
NO NO

1.1 CLASSIFICATION OF MATRICES 4

3.1.1 NYLON 6 STRUCTURE 13

3.1.2 SEASHELL SAMPLE 14

4.1 BALL MILLING EQUIPMENT 15

4.2 SLEEVE TUBES 16

5.1 COMPOUNDED POLYMER 17

5.1.1 TWIN EXTRUDER 18

5.2 INJECTION MOULDING MACHINE 20

5.3 SAMPLE SPECIMEN 21

v
 NOMENCLATURE

PMC Polymer Matrix Composite

MMC Metal Matrix Composite
CMC Ceramic Matrix Composite
FRC Fiber reinforced Composite
LC Laminar Composite
PRC Particulate reinforced Composite
PA Polyamide
TS Tensile strength
FS Flexural strength
SH
Shore hardness
IS
Impact strength
ASTM American Society of Testing and Materials
SEM Scanning Electron Microscope

vi
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

Now a days composites materials are developing in the many industrial sector.
The composite materials are generally taken as the research work in the field of micro
structure studies. The composite materials are high resistance to fatigue and corrosion
degradation. Hence it is highly used in the automobile technology. The composite
materials are highly used in the aeronautical departments because it easier to achieve
smooth aerodynamic profiles for the drag reduction. The complex double-curvature
parts with a smooth surface can be made by the manufacturing operation. Composites
are dimensionally stable i.e. they have low thermal conductivity and low coefficient of
thermal expansion. Composite materials can be tailored to comply with a broad range
of thermal expansion design requirements and to minimise thermal stresses.

The composite materials are mostly available in a nature. The nature based
composites are generally known as bio-degradable composites. The improved weather
ability of composites in a marine environment as well as their corrosion resistance and
durability reduce the down time for maintenance. The Composites are dimensionally
stable i.e. they have low thermal conductivity and low coefficient of thermal
expansion. Composite materials can be tailored to comply with a broad range of
thermal expansion design requirements and to minimise thermal stresses.
Seashells of various molluscs such as oyster, clam, mussel and scallops, are
available abundantly along coastal areas. The two materials which do not dissolve in
each other and together produce a composite material of unique properties. Generally
one of the materials, reinforcing filler materials such as fibers, particles are added to
the continuous phase material in order to enhance the composite properties. The main
function of the filler is to increase the mechanical properties by reinforcing the
continuous matrix and providing appropriate degree of translucency and lower
1
shrinkage properties. The composites where the filler material is embedded into an
organic polymer resin are called polymer composites. The particulate composites are
composites with particles as reinforcing filler material such as silica, quartz, glass
called particle reinforced composite. The composite materials comprising of one or
more phases derived from a biological origin are called bio composites. The distinct
constituent phases used in composite should be compatible with the biological
environment and the interface between the distinct phases should not be affected by the
body environment. In bio composites, the problems of corrosion and release of
allergenic metal ions, such as nickel or chromium are eliminated.

After making and controlling fire and inventing the wheel, spinning of
continuous yarns is probably the most important development of mankind, enabling
him to survive outside the tropical climate zones and spread across the surface of the
Earth. Flexible fabrics made of locally grown and spun fibres as cotton; flax and jute
were a big step forward compared to animal skins. More and more natural resources
were used, soon resulting in the first composites; straw reinforced walls, and bows and
chariots made of glued layers of wood, bone and horn. More durable materials as wood
and metal soon replaced these antique composites.

Originating from early agricultural societies and being almost forgotten after
centuries, a true revival started of using lightweight composite structures for many
technical solutions during the second half of the 20th century. After being solely used
for their electromagnetic properties (insulators and radar-domes), using composites to
improve the structural performance of spacecraft and military aircraft became popular
in the last two decades of the previous century. First at any costs, with development of
improved materials with increasing costs, nowadays cost reduction during
manufacturing and operation are the main technology drivers. Latest development is
the use of composites to protect man against fire and impact and a tendency to a more
2
environmental friendly design, leading to the reintroduction of natural fibres in the
composite technology, increasingly nowadays, the success of composites in
applications, by volume and by numbers, can be ranked by accessibility and
reproducibility of the applied manufacturing techniques.

In future, composites will be manufactured even more according to an integrated

design process resulting in the optimum construction according to parameters such as
shape, mass, strength, stiffness, durability, costs, etc. Newly developed design tools
must be able to instantaneously show customers the influence of a design change on
each one of these parameters.

1.1 COMPOSITE

Fibers or particles embedded in matrix of another material are the best example
of modern-day composite materials, which are mostly structural. Laminates are
composite material where different layers of materials give them the specific character
of a composite material having a specific function to perform. Fabrics have no matrix
to fall back on, but in them, fibers of different compositions combine to give them a
specific character. Reinforcing materials generally withstand maximum load and serve
the desirable properties. Further, though composite types are often distinguishable
from one another, no clear determination can be really made. To facilitate definition,
the accent is often shifted to the levels at which differentiation take place viz.,
microscopic or macroscopic.

In matrix-based structural composites, the matrix serves two paramount

purposes viz., binding the reinforcement phases in place and deforming to distribute
the stresses among the constituent reinforcement materials under an applied force.

3
 The demands on matrices are many. They may need to temperature variations,
be conductors or resistors of electricity, have moisture sensitivity etc. This may offer
weight advantages, ease of handling and other merits which may also become
applicable depending on the purpose for which matrices are chosen.

Solids that accommodate stress to incorporate other constituents provide strong

bonds for the reinforcing phase are potential matrix materials. A few inorganic
materials, polymers and metals have found applications as matrix materials in the
designing of structural composites, with commendable success. These materials remain
elastic till failure occurs and show decreased failure strain, when loaded in tension and
compression.
Composites cannot be made from constituents with divergent linear expansion
characteristics. The interface is the area of contact between the reinforcement and the
matrix materials. In some cases, the region is a distinct added phase. Whenever there is
interphase, there has to be two interphases between each side of the interphase and it’s
adjoin constituent. Some composites provide interphases when surfaces dissimilar
constituents interact with each other. Choice of fabrication method depends on matrix
properties and the effect of matrix on properties of reinforcements.
The below figure shows how the matrix is get classified

Figure 1.1: classification of matrices

4
1.2. TYPES OF COMPOSITES

Composite materials are commonly classified at following two distinct levels:

The first level of classification is usually made with respect to the matrix
constituent. The major composite classes include Organic Matrix Composites (OMCs),
Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs) and Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs). The term
organic matrix composite is generally assumed to include two classes of composites,
namely Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs) and carbon matrix composites commonly
referred to as carbon-carbon composites.

The second level of classification refers to the reinforcement form - fibre

reinforced composites, laminar composites and particulate composites. Fibre
Reinforced composites (FRP) can be further divided into those containing
discontinuous or continuous fibres.

Fibre Reinforced Composites are composed of fibres embedded in matrix

material. Such a composite is considered to be a discontinuous fibre or short fibre
composite if its properties vary with fibre length. On the other hand, when the length
of the fibre is such that any further increase in length does not further increase, the
elastic modulus of the composite, the composite is considered to be continuous fibre
reinforced. Fibres are small in diameter and when pushed axially, they bend easily
although they have very good tensile properties. These fibres must be supported to
keep individual fibres from bending and buckling.

Laminar Composites are composed of layers of materials held together by

matrix. Sandwich structures fall under this category.

5
 Particulate Composites are composed of particles distributed or embedded in a
matrix body. The particles may be flakes or in powder form. Concrete and wood
particle boards are examples of this category.

1.2.1 POLYMER MATRIX COMPOSITES (PMC)/CARBON MATRIX

COMPOSITES OR CARBON-CARBON COMPOSITES

Polymers make ideal materials as they can be processed easily, possess

lightweight, and desirable mechanical properties. It follows, therefore, that high
temperature resins are extensively used in aeronautical applications.

Two main kinds of polymers are thermosets and thermoplastics. Thermosets

have qualities such as a well-bonded three-dimensional molecular structure after
curing. They decompose instead of melting on hardening. Merely changing the basic
composition of the resin is enough to alter the conditions suitably for curing and
determine its other characteristics. They can be retained in a partially cured condition
too over prolonged periods of time, rendering Thermosets very flexible. Thus, they are
most suited as matrix bases for advanced conditions fibre reinforced composites.
Thermosets find wide ranging applications in the chopped fibre composites form
particularly when a premixed or moulding compound with fibres of specific quality
and aspect ratio happens to be starting material as in epoxy, polymer and phenolic
polyamide resins.

1.2.2 METAL MATRIX COMPOSITES (MMC)

Metal matrix composites, at present though generating a wide interest in

research fraternity, are not as widely in use as their plastic counterparts. High strength,
fracture toughness and stiffness are offered by metal matrices than those offered by
6
their polymer counterparts. They can withstand elevated temperature in corrosive
environment than polymer composites. Most metals and alloys could be used as
matrices and they require reinforcement materials which need to be stable over a range
of temperature and non-reactive too. However the guiding aspect for the choice
depends essentially on the matrix material. Light metals form the matrix for
temperature application and the reinforcements in addition to the aforementioned
reasons are characterized by high moduli.

1.2.3 CERAMIC MATRIX MATERIALS (CMM)

Ceramics can be described as solid materials which exhibit very strong ionic
bonding in general and in few cases covalent bonding. High melting points, good
corrosion resistance, stability at elevated temperatures and high compressive strength,
render ceramic-based matrix materials a favourite for applications requiring a
structural material that doesn’t give way at temperatures
Above 1500ºC. Naturally, ceramic matrices are the obvious choice for high
temperature applications.

1.2.4 FIBER REINFORCED COMPOSITES/FIBRE REINFORCED POLYMER

(FRP) COMPOSITES

Fibers are the important class of reinforcements, as they satisfy the desired
conditions and transfer strength to the matrix constituent influencing and enhancing
their properties as desired. Glass fibers are the earliest known fibers used to reinforce
materials. Ceramic and metal fibers were subsequently found out and put to extensive
use, to render composites stiffer more resistant to heat.

7
Fibers fall short of ideal performance due to several factors. The performance of a fiber
composite is judged by its length, shape, orientation, and composition of the fibers and
the mechanical properties of the matrix.

The orientation of the fiber in the matrix is an indication of the strength of the
composite and the strength is greatest along the longitudinal directional of fiber. This
doesn’t mean the longitudinal fibers can take the same quantum of load irrespective of
the direction in which it is applied. Optimum performance from longitudinal fibers can
be obtained if the load is applied along its direction. The slightest shift in the angle of
loading may drastically reduce the strength of the composite.

1.2.5 LAMINAR COMPOSITES

Laminar composites are found in as many combinations as the number of

materials. They can be described as materials comprising of layers of materials bonded
together. These may be of several layers of two or more metal materials occurring
alternately or in a determined order more than once, and in as many numbers as
required for a specific purpose. Clad and sandwich laminates have many areas as it
ought to be, although they are known to follow the rule of mixtures from the modulus
and strength point of view. Other intrinsic values pertaining to metal-matrix, metal-
reinforced composites are also fairly well known. Powder metallurgical processes like
roll bonding, hot pressing, diffusion bonding, brazing and so on can be employed for
the fabrication of different alloys of sheet, foil, powder or sprayed materials. It is not
possible to achieve high strength materials unlike the fiber version. But sheets and foils
can be made isotropic in two dimensions more easily than fibers. Foils and sheets are
also made to exhibit high percentages of which they are put. For instance, a strong
sheet may use over 92% in laminar structure, while it is difficult to make fibers of such
compositions. Fiber laminates cannot over 75% strong fibers.
8
1.2.6 PARTICULATE REINFORCED COMPOSITES (PRC)

Microstructures of metal and ceramics composites, which show particles of one

phase strewn in the other, are known as particle reinforced composites. Square,
triangular and round shapes of reinforcement are known, but the dimensions of all their
sides are observed to be more or less equal. The size and volume concentration of the
dispersion distinguishes it from dispersion hardened materials. The dispersed size in
particulate composites is of the order of a few microns and volume concentration is
greater than 28%. The difference between particulate composite and dispersion
strengthened ones is, thus, oblivious. The mechanism used to strengthen each of them
is also different.

9
 CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE SURVEY

P. Lertwattanaruk, N. Makul
The material used for fabricating dentures should have good mechanical and
tribological properties in order to withstand heavy forces inside the mouth. A study has
been made to evaluate the hardness and tribological properties the Poly (Methyl
methacrylate) PMMA based denture composite reinforced with seashell Nano powder.
The PMMA bio-composites containing 2%, 4%, 6%, 8%, 12%, 16% and 20% by
weight of seashell Nano powder and an unfilled composite as control specimen were
fabricated. The micro hardness of the composites was found using Vickers hardness
tester.

W-T. Kuo, H-Y. Wang, C-Y. Shu, D-S Su

This research involves in addition of 2% seashell Nano powder which had no
significant effect on the micro hardness. But it was found that on increasing the
seashell Nano powder content, the micro hardness value increased till 12% and
substantially decreased beyond 12% seashell Nano powder. The wear test was
performed and frictional force generated during sliding of specimens were evaluated in
pin on disc apparatus. The wear mechanism and dispersion of seashell Nano powder in
the specimen were analysed in Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM).

B. Safi, M. Saidi, A. Daoui, A. Bellal, A. Mechekak, K. Toumi

The wear resistant property increased on addition of seashell Nano powder with
12% seashell Nano powder reinforced composite showing least frictional force
developed during the wear test. The 16% and 20% filled composite developed more
frictional force than developed in 12% filled composite. It was concluded that Polymer
bio-composite could be successfully reinforced by seashell Nano powder with better
10
properties at 12% seashell Nano powder content followed by 8% filled composite
B.I.O. Dahunsi
Sea shell is available in nature. In general, sea shell has more strong which
incorporated with Orth phthalic resin. Sea shell particle size is varying in polymer
matrix composites. In this composite, various sizes of particles are 75, 150, 300, 425
and 600 micrometres and the content of particles is 30gm are used. Here, mechanical
properties (impact strength, hardness, flexural strength, tensile strength) are evaluated
as per ASTM standard and optimise the results. The fractured surfaces are analysed
with the help of SEM pictures

Boutouil, N. Sebaibi, L. Leleyter, F. Baraud

The research aims to use shells powder as a filler adding to natural rubber with
different amount (20,30,50,100,120,150 pphr) and observe its effect on mechanical
properties of rubber which includes hardness and tensile strength . The obtained results
from mechanical tests shown improved in rubber hardness after adding shells powder
and increasing this property with increased percentage of powder but tensile strength
increased to (20 pphr) and then strongly decreased after this percentage

H. Cuadrado-Rica, N. Sebaibi, M. Boutouil, B. Boudart

This research is aimed at discovering filled polyester with desirable and
superior properties using naturally occurring particulate: seashell, snail shell and
hybrid (combination of seashell and snail shell). The mechanical (flexural, tensile,
impact and hardness) and physical (water absorption) properties of sea shell, snail
shell, and sea shell-snail shell-reinforced composites were investigated. The shells
were ground and sieved using 250 microns hand sieve. The test specimens were
prepared using polyester resin with different compositions and prepared in accordance
with ASTM standard.

11
K. Muthusamy, N.A. Sabari
The research involves in the hybrid sample of 30wt% reinforcement showed the
highest resistance before shattering relative to other samples the flexural test was
performed on, the surface hardness of the hybrid at 15wt% reinforcement was also
greatly enhanced. Therefore for applications where flexibility is of top priority, hybrid
reinforcement of 30wt% should be used in place of neat polyester. Snail shell sample
of 5wt% reinforcement showed to absorb the highest amount of energy before
shattering relative to other samples, for this, snail shell reinforcement of 5wt% can be
used in place of pure polyester where impact strength is a major factor.

N.H. Othman, B.H.A. Bakar, M.M. Don, M.A.M. Johari

The objective of this study is to determine the mechanical properties as well

as water absorption characteristics of unsaturated polyester composite reinforced with
varying weight fractions of sea shell with an aim of finding the composite with
optimum mechanical properties. Ground sea shell of particle size 250 microns was
introduced at different percentages into the unsaturated polyester resin. Mechanical
tests which include: tensile, flexural, impact, hardness tests were carried out on the
prepared composite samples. Water absorption test was also carried out on the
samples. The tensile test specimen preparation and testing procedures were conducted
in accordance with the ASTM. The results showed the flexural strength of the
composite with 10 w % seashell particulate reinforcement to be largely improved also
the hardness and impact properties were greatly improved at 10 wt % sea shell filler
loading. This composite could therefore be considered for applications where flexural
properties, impact and hardness properties are of utmost concern.

12
 CHAPTER 3
MATERIALS USED

3.1MATERIALS USED
In this project mainly two types of materials has been used, they are
 Nylon 6
 Seashell

3.1.1 NYLON 6

FIG3.1.1 NYLON 6 STRUCTURE

Density 1.14 g/cm3
Electrical conductivity (σ) 10−12 S/m
Thermal conductivity 0.25 W/ (m·K)
Melting point 463–624 °K
190–350 °C
374–663 °F

Nylon 6 is made of hexamethylenediamine and adipic acid, which give nylon 6 a

total of 12 carbon atoms

Nylon 6 is made of repeating units linked by amide bonds and is frequently

referred to as polyamide (PA). Nylon was the first commercially successful synthetic
13
polymer. There are two common methods of making nylon for fiber applications. In
one approach, molecules with an acid (COOH) group on each end are reacted with
molecules containing amine (NH2) groups on each end. The resulting nylon is named
on the basis of the number of carbon atoms separating the two acid groups and the two
amines. These are formed into monomers of intermediate molecular weight, which are
then reacted to form long polymer chains.

Solid nylon is used for mechanical parts such as machine screws, gears and
other low- to medium-stress components previously cast in metal. Engineering-grade
nylon is processed by extrusion, casting, and injection moulding. Solid nylon is used in
hair combs.Nylon's chemical formula is nHOOC-(CH2)4-COOH+n H2N-(CH2)6-NH2
----> [-OC-(CH2)4-CO-NH-(CH2)6-NH-] n+2nH2O and the part -CO-NH- will stick
together becoming Nylon 6,6.

3.1.2 SEASHELL

FIG 3.1.2: SEASHELL SAMPLE

A seashell may look like a beautiful fancy rock, but it was once the home of a
soft and slimy ocean creature called a mollusk. Mollusks are animals that don’t have
any bones inside their bodies. They are invertebrates so they make shells to protect
themselves from predators, pounding waves, and any other potential threats they might

14
face. Seashells are a type of exoskeleton. An exoskeleton means that an animal’s
skeleton is on the outside of its body instead of inside its body.

15
 CHAPTER 4
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

4.1. BALL MILLING MACHINE

The ball milling machine is the kind of size reducer. In this machine, the large
size seashell is poured inside the ball milling roller. In ball milling machine the
steel balls are used inside the roller. The large size seashells are made to reduce into
micron size by the help of steel balls. When the electric supply is given to the ball
mill its get rolled and size of the seashell is get reduced. The figure shows the shape
of the ball milling equipment.

FIG 4.1: BALL MILLING EQUIPMENT

16
4.2 SLEEVE TUBES

The second equipment used is sleeve tubes. In this equipment there are more
number of sleeves are arranged in the microns order. The microns order comes in the
descending order that is the larger materials are get captured in the top and small
micron level materials are collected in the bottom. The electrical sleeve agitator is
used. In which the materials are get uniformly moves to the sleeve tubes.

FIG 4.2 SLEEVE TUBES EQUIPMENT

17
 CHAPTER 5

FABRICATION OF POLYMER MATRIX COMPOSITE

5.1 COMPOUNDING

Compounding is a process of melt blending plastics with other additives.

This process changes the physical, thermal, electrical or aesthetic characteristics of
the plastic. The final product is called a compound or composite. Compounding
starts with a base resin or polymer.

Compounding consists of preparing plastic formulations by mixing or/and

blending polymers and additives in a molten state, these blends are automatically dosed
with fixed set points usually through feeders/hoppers. It is mostly a blend of
copolymers such as ABS, SAN, and SMA Etc. with additives such as anti-
oxidants, UV- stabilizers and other value adding agents and sometimes a
strengthening component is added such as glass fiber.

18
 Fig 5.1.1 NYLON 6 COMPOUNDED WITH SEA SHELL
There are different critical criteria to achieve a homogenous blend of the
different raw material. Dispersive and distributive mixing as well as heat are
important factors. Compounding is usually done by extrusion. The hopper feeds
the begin of the screw which will gradually transport the resins towards the die.
The screw itself is confined in a barrel that has different zones that can be
heated according to the resin’s properties.
Co-kneaders and twin screws (co and counter rotating) as well internal
mixers are the most common used compounders. The extrudate, which look like
long plastic strands, are then cooled in a water bath, or by spraying as the
conveyor belt moves it to the granulator. The granulator breaks the strands into
the desired pellet sizes.

Fig 5.1.2 TWIN EXTRUDER

19
5.2 INJECTION MOULDING

Injection moulding is a manufacturing process for producing parts by injecting

material into a mould. Injection moulding can be performed with a host of
materials, including metals, (for which the process is called die casting), glasses,
elastomers, confections, and most commonly thermoplastic and thermosetting
polymers. Material for thepart is fed into aheated barrel, mixed, and forced into a
mould cavity, where it cools and hardens to the configuration of the cavity. After
a product is designed, usually by an industrial designer or an engineer, moulds
are made by a mould maker (or toolmaker) from metal, usually either steel or
aluminum, and precision-machined to form the features of the desired part.
Injection moulding is widelyused for manufacturing a variety of parts, from the
smallest components to entire body panels of cars. Advances in 3D printing
technology, using photopolymers which do not melt during the injection
moulding of some lower temperature thermoplastics, can be used for some
simple injection moulds. Parts to be injection moulded must be very carefully
designed tofacilitatethemouldingprocess;thematerial
usedforthepart,thedesiredshape and features of the part, the material of the
mould, and the properties of the moulding machine must all be taken into
account. The versatility of injection moulding is facilitated by this breadth of
design considerations and possibilities. Most polymers, sometimes referred to as
resins, may be used, including all thermoplastics, some thermosets, and some
elastomers. Since 1995, the total number of available materials for injection
moulding has increased at a rate of 750 per year; there were approximately 18,000
materials available when that trend began. Available materials include alloys or
blends of previously developed materials, so product designers can choose the
material with the best set of properties from a vast selection. Major criteria for
selection of a material are the strength and functionrequired for the final part, as

20
well as the cost, but also each material has different parameters for moulding
that must be taken into account.

21
Common polymers like epoxy and phenolic are examples of thermosetting plastics
while nylon, polyethylene, and polystyrene are thermoplastic. Until comparatively
recently, plastic springs were not possible, but advances in
polymerpropertiesmake them now quite practical. Applications include buckles
for anchoring and disconnecting outdoor-equipment webbing.

Fig 5.2 INJECTION MOULDING MACHINE CONFIGURATION

The Injection moulding machine consists of several configurations. The most

appropriate configuration is selected and then the plunger is activated. The
polymer material (compounded Nylon) is then feed to hopper where it leads to a
plunger. The material becomes injected and squeezed out of the narrow nozzle
which is responsible for the shape of the material. For testing purpose, the
specimen is taken as per ASTM standards.

22
a) INJECTION MOULDING FACE b) PLUNGER TOOL

After the injection phase the squeezed material is then obtained. The die at the
injector plays a key role in the determination of the shape of the specimen. The
finally obtained specimen after compounding followed by injection moulding is
shown as below,

Fig 5.3 TEST SPECIMENS OF NYLON 6 - SEASHELL COMPOSITE

23
 CHAPTER 6
TESTINGPROCEDURES

6.1 TENSILE STRENGTH TEST

Tensile tests measure the force required to break a plastic sample specimen and
the extent to which the specimen stretches or elongates to that breaking point.
Specimens are placed in the grips of the universal tester at a specified grip separation
and pulled until failure. For ASTM D 638 the test speed is determined by the material
specification. An extensometer is used to determine elongation

A thermal chamber is installed on the universal test machine. The chamber is

designed to allow the test mounts from the base and crosshead of the universal tester to
pass through the top and bottom of the chamber. Standard test fixtures are installed
inside the chamber, and testing is conducted inside the controlled thermal environment
the same as it would be at ambient temperature. The chamber has internal electric
heaters for elevated temperatures and uses external carbon dioxide gas as a coolant for
reduced temperatures.

6.2 FLEXURAL TEST

The flexural test measures the force required to bend a beam under three point
loading conditions. The data is often used to select materials for parts that will support
loads without flexing. Flexural modulus is used as an indication of a material’s
stiffness when flexed. Since the physical properties of many materials (especially

24
thermoplastics) can vary depending on ambient temperature, it is sometimes
appropriate to test materials

Most commonly the specimen lies on a support span and the load is applied to
the centre by the loading nose producing three point bending at a specified rate. The
parameters for this test are the support span, the speed of the loading, and the
maximum deflection for the test. These parameters are based on the test specimen
thickness and are defined differently by ASTM and ISO. For ASTM D790, the test is
stopped when the specimen reaches 5% deflection or the specimen breaks before 5%.
For ISO 178, the test is stopped when the specimen breaks. Of the specimen does not
break, the test is continuedasfaraspossibleandthestressat3.5%
A thermal chamber is installed on the universal test machine. The chamber is
designed to allow the test mounts from the base and crosshead of the universal tester to
pass through the top and bottom of the chamber. Standard test fixtures are installed
inside the chamber, and testing is conducted inside the controlled thermal environment
the same as it would be at ambient temperature.

6.3 SHORE HARDNESS

Durometer Hardness is used to determine the relative hardness of soft

materials, usually plastic or rubber. The test measures the penetration of a specified
inventor into the material under specified conditions of force and time. The hardness
value is often used to identify or specify a particular hardness of elastomers or as a
quality control measureonlotsofmaterial.

The specimen is first placed on a hard flat surface. The indentor for the
instrument is then pressed into the specimen making sure that it is parallel to the
surface.
The test specimens are generally 6.4mm (¼ in) thick. It is possible to pile several
25
specimens to achieve the 6.4mm thickness, but one specimen is preferred. The
hardness numbers are derived from a scale. Shore A and Shore D hardness scales are
common, with the A scale being used for softer and the D scale being used for harder
materials.

26
6.4 IMPACT STRENGTH

27
 Notched Izod Impact is a single point test that measures a materials
resistance to impact from a swinging pendulum. Izod impact is defined as the
kinetic energy needed to initiate fracture and continue the fracture until the
specimen is broken. Izod specimens are notched to prevent deformation of the
specimen upon impact. This test can be used as a quick and easy quality control
check to determine if a material meets specific impact properties.
The specimen is clamped into the pendulum impact test fixture with the
notched side facing the striking edge of the pendulum. The pendulum is released
and allowed to strike through the specimen. If breakage does not occur, a heavier
hammer is used until failure occurs. Since many materials (especially
thermoplastics) exhibit lower impact strength at reduced temperatures, it is
sometimes appropriate to test materials at temperatures that simulate the intended
the specimens are conditioned at the specified temperature in a freezer until
they reach equilibrium. The specimens are quickly removed, one at a time, from
the freezer and impacted. Neither ASTM n nor ISO specify a conditioning time
or elapsed time from freezer to impact - typical values from other specifications
are 6 hours of conditioning and 5 seconds from freezer to impact.
The standard specimen for ASTM is 64 x 12.7 x 3.2 mm (2½ x ½ x 1/8
inch). The most common specimen thickness is 3.2 mm (0.125 inch), but the
preferred thickness is 6.4 mm (0.25 inch) because it is not as likely to bend or
crush. The depth under the notch of the specimen is 10.2 mm (0.4 inches).

CHAPTER 7
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

7.1 RESULT TABULATION

The following tables are the indicated results for the mechanical
behavior of Nylon 6 –seashell composite
28
 TABLE 1: TENSILE STRENGTH

NYLON (%) SEASHELL (%) TS(MPa)

97 3 68.0
94 6 69.25
91 9 70.0
88 12 71.26
85 15 71.50
82 18 72.80

From the above tabulation we can understood that the tensile

strength for nylon 6 with 3% of seashell gives 68.0 MPa strength and with the 6 % of
seashell gives 69.25 MPa and such as in 18 % of seashell its get increases

Similarly the tensile strength is going on increases based on

differrent compostion between the seashell and nylon mixture,

TABLE 2: FLEXURAL STRENGTH

NYLON (%) SEASHELL (%) FS (MPa)

97 3 80.0
94 6 81.5
91 9 83.0

29
 88 12 86.4
85 15 88.7
82 18 89.0

From the above tabulation we can understood that the

Flexural strength for nylon 6 with 3% of seashell gives 80.0 MPa strength and with the
6 % of seashell gives 81.5 MPa and such as in 18 % of seashell its get increases

Similarly the Flexural strength is going on increases based on

differrent compostion between the seashell and nylon mixture

30
 TABLE 3: SHORE HARDNESS

NYLON (%) SEASHELL (%) SH (UNITS)

97 3 82
94 6 85
91 9 88
88 12 90
85 15 92
82 18 93

From the above tabulation we can understood that the shore

hardness for nylon 6 with 3% of seashell gives 82 units strength and with the 6 % of
seashell gives 85 units and such as in 18 % of seashell its get increases

Similarly the shore hardness is going on increases based on

differrent compostion between the seashell and nylon mixture

31
 TABLE 4: IMPACT STRENGTH

NYLON (%) SEASHELL (%) IP (J/M)

97 3 13.3
94 6 18.0
91 9 22.6
88 12 28.0
85 15 30.2
82 18 38.0

From the above tabulation we can understood that the impact

strength for nylon 6 with 3% of seashell gives 13.3 j/m strength and with the 6 % of
seashell gives 18.0 j/m and such as in 18 % of seashell its get increases

Similarly the impact strength is going on increases based on

differrent compostion between the seashell and nylon mixture

32
 CHAPTER 8
COST ESTIMATION

PARTICULARS AMOUNT (Rs)

Material Procurement (Nylon 6) 3,000
Preparation of Material 2,500
Test Fee 9,000
Lab Charges 800
Transport & Misc 1,000
Total - Rs. 16,300

33
 CHAPTER 9
CONCLUSION
In this project the mechanical behaviour of the polymer-based composite is
investigated. Nylon 6 added with constituents of sea shell in several
compositions, (i.e) 3%, 6%, 9%,12%,15%,18%. For every kg of Nylon 6
three, six, nine, twelve, fiveteen, eighteen grams of seashell are added
respectively.

The materials are then compounded together without using any kind of binding
material. Nylon 6 and seashell are the only constituents of the composite with
varying percentages.

Several mechanical tests such as, Tensile strength, Flexural strength, Shore
hardness, Impact strength are carried out to determine the Mechanical properties of
the composite material. The test results were compared with that of the properties
of Pure Nylon 6 and the comparison is studied.

From each tests the common inference noted is that due to the addition of the
seashell the mechanical properties of the polymer composite is enhanced to
certain level varying based on their compositions.

Apart from the increased mechanical properties the indirect advantage if this
composite is that it makes the non-biodegradable Nylon polymer into least
biodegradable polymer. This property is due to the inclusion of the seashell
which is basically a Natural product made up of Calcium Carbonate and
Minerals.

By this there is a conclusion that the addition of freely available seashell into
the nylon polymer increases its mechanical properties

34
 CHAPTER 10
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