page 29

29. ALGEBRA

Topics:
•

Objectives:
•

29.1 The Fundamentals

29.1.1 Basic Operations

 page 30

commutative a+b = b+a

a+b = c+d ∴a = c + d – b

distributive/collective a ( b + c ) = ab + ac

associative a ( bc ) = ( ab )c a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c
ab = cd ∴a = cd------
b
silly mistakes
1 - 1 1
----------- ≠ --- + ---
a+b a b

• Scilab example,

b = 5;
c = 6;
d = 7;
a=c*d/b
a=c+d-b

29.1.2 Exponents

• The basic properties of exponents are so important they demand some sort of mention
 page 31

1---
n m n+m 0 n n (nth root)
(x )(x ) = x x = 1 , if x is not 0 x = x
m
x
–p 1- ----
n = ---- n n m
( x ) = x n – m = ------------
1 p x = x
---------- x
m m–n
(x ) x
n
( xy ) = ( x ) ( y )
n n x-- = n------x-
n
n m n⋅m y n y
(x ) = x n
n
⎛ x--⎞ = x-----
⎝ y⎠ n
y

• Scilab example,

x = 5;
n = 2;
m = 4;
y = 6;
x^n * x^m
x^(n + m)
x**(n+m)

29.1.3 Basic Polynomials

• The quadratic equation.

2
2 b ± b – 4ac
ax + bx + c = 0 = a ( x – r 1 ) ( x – r 2 ) r 1, r 2 = –--------------------------------------
2a
 page 32

• e.g.,
2
2x + 4x + 2 = 0

2
4 ± 4 – 4 ( 2 ) ( 2 ) = – 1 ± 0 = – 1, – 1
x = –------------------------------------------------
2(2)

∴( x + 1 ) ( x + 1 ) = 0 note the signs

• Complex roots will occur when,

2
b – 4ac < 0
• Cubic equations can be solved explicitly, although this is too much for common memorization.

3 2
x + ax + bx + c = 0 = ( x – r 1 ) ( x – r 2 ) ( x – r 3 )

First, calculate,
2 3 3 2 3 2
Q = 3b
–a R = 9ab – 27c – 2a - S = 3
R+ Q +R T = 3
R– Q +R
----------------- --------------------------------------
9 54
Then the roots,

a S+T a j 3 S+T a j 3
r 1 = S + T – --- r 2 = ------------ – --- + --------- ( S – T ) r 3 = ------------ – --- – --------- ( S – T )
3 2 3 2 2 3 2

• On a few occasions a quartic (4th order) equation will also have to be solved. This can be done
by first reducing the equation to a quadratic,
 page 33

4 3 2
x + ax + bx + cx + d = 0 = ( x – r 1 ) ( x – r 2 ) ( x – r 3 ) ( x – r 4 )

First, solve the equation below to get a real root (call it ‘y’),
3 2 2 2
y – by + ( ac – 4d )y + ( 4bd – c – a d ) = 0

Next, find the roots of the 2 equations below,

2 ⎛ y + y 2 – 4d⎞
2 ⎛ a + a – 4b + 4y⎞
r 1, r 2 = z + ⎜ -------------------------------------------⎟ z + ⎜ ------------------------------⎟ = 0
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
2 ⎛ y – y 2 – 4d⎞
2 ⎛ a – a – 4b + 4y⎞
r 3, r 4 = z + ⎜ -------------------------------------------⎟ z + ⎜ ------------------------------⎟ = 0
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠

• In Scilab,
x = poly(0, ’x’);
roots(3 * x^2 + 4 * x + 2)

q = [2, 4, 3];
p = poly(q, ’x’, ’coeff’); // defines a polynomial using a vector
roots(p)

derivative(p, ’x’); // finds the derivative of the polynomial

horner(p, 5); // evalautes the polynomial at 5
s = (x + 1) / p; // an algebra operation

29.2 Special Forms

29.2.1 Completing the Square

 page 34

2 2
x + Ax + B = ( x + C ) + D
2 2
= x + 2Cx + ( C + D )

2
A = 2C B = C +D

C = A
2
--- D = B–C
2

for example, given,

2
5x + 50x + 10
2
= 5 ( x + 10x + 2 )
2
= 5 ( ( x + 5 ) – 23 )

29.2.2 Newton-Raphson to Find Roots

• When given an equation where an algebraic solution is not feasible, a numerical solution may be
required. One simple technique uses an instantaneous slope of the function, and takes iterative
steps towards a solution.

f ( xi )
x i + 1 = x i – ----------------------
-
d-
⎛ ----- ⎞
f(x )
⎝ dx i ⎠

• The function f(x) is supplied by the user along with an initial guess.

• This method can become divergent if the function has an inflection point near the root.
 page 35

• The technique is also sensitive to the initial guess.

• This calculation should be repeated until the final solution is found.

• Scilab example,

NEWTON RAPHSON ROOT EXAMPLE

29.3 Complex Numbers

• Complex values
 page 36

The Complex (imaginary) Number:

2
j = –1 j = –1

Complex Numbers:
a + bj where,
a and b are both real numbers

Complex Conjugates (denoted by adding an asterisk ‘*’ to the variable):

N = a + bj N* = a – bj
Basic Properties:
( a + bj ) + ( c + dj ) = ( a + c ) + ( b + d )j

( a + bj ) – ( c + dj ) = ( a – c ) + ( b – d )j

( a + bj ) ⋅ ( c + dj ) = ( ac – bd ) + ( ad + bc )j

N- N N* a + bj c – dj bc – ad-⎞
= -------------- = ----- ⎛ -------⎞ = ⎛ --------------⎞ ⎛ -------------⎞ = ac
a + bj + bd
---- ------------------ + ⎛ ----------------- j
M c + dj M ⎝ N* ⎠ ⎝ c + dj ⎠ ⎝ c – dj ⎠ 2 2 ⎝ 2 2⎠
c +d c + d

• We can also show complex numbers graphically. These representations lead to alternative repre-
sentations. If it is not obvious above, please consider the notation uses a cartesian notation, but
a polar notation can also be very useful when doing large calculations.
 page 37

CARTESIAN FORM
Ij
imaginary (j)
N = R + Ij

R
real

2 2
A = R +I R = A cos θ

I
θ = atan ⎛ ---⎞ I = A sin θ
⎝ R⎠
POLAR FORM
Ij
imaginary (j)
N = A ∠θ

θ
R
real
A = amplitude

θ = phase angle

• We can also do calculations using polar notation (this is well suited to multiplication and divi-
sion, whereas cartesian notation is easier for addition and subtraction),

jθ
A ∠θ = A ( cos θ + j sin θ ) = Ae
A + jB A jB A
e = e e = e ( cos θ + j sin θ )

( A 1 ∠θ 1 ) ( A 2 ∠θ 2 ) = ( A 1 A 2 ) ∠( θ 1 + θ 2 )

( A 1 ∠θ 1 ) A1
--------------------- = ⎛ ------⎞ ∠( θ 1 – θ 2 )
( A 2 ∠θ 2 ) ⎝ A 2⎠

n n
( A ∠θ ) = ( A ) ∠( nθ ) (DeMoivre’s theorem)
 page 38

• Note that DeMoivre’s theorem can be used to find exponents (including roots) of complex num-
bers

jθ
• Euler’s formula: e = cos θ + j sin θ

Note: for 0 + 1j = cos θ + j sin θ

θ = π---
π
---
2
j
2
e = j

• From the above, the following useful identities arise:

jθ – jθ
e +e
cos θ = ---------------------
-
2
jθ – jθ
sin θ = e---------------------
–e
2j

• In Scilab

j = sqrt(-1);
A = (1 + 2 * j) / ( 3 + 4 * j);
A
[mag, theta] = polar(A);
mag, theta // the magnitude and angle of the complex angle A
abs(A); // the magnitude of the complex number
real(A); // the real part of the complex number
imag(A); // the imaginary part of the complex number
conj(A); // the conjugate of the complex number
atan(imag(A), real(A)); // the angle of the complex number

29.4 Equality and Inequality

• Some basic relationships are illustrated below with number lines. The shaded dots indicate that
 page 39

the values include the point. Unshaded dots indicate that the values approach but do not equal
the value.

a
x = a x
a
x≠a x

a
x<a x

a
x≤a x

a
x>a x

a
x≥a x

a b
a<x<b x x ∈ ( a, b )

a b
a≤x≤b x x ∈ [ a, b ]

a b
b<x<a x

a b
b≤x≤a x

- rearranging equations with inequalities

a+b<5 ∴a < 5 – b

- When doing calculations there is some roundoff error that result in a number that should be zero
but has a finite value. Consider single precision floating point numbers with 7 digits, or double
precision with 14, the last digit is equality in numerical calculations using a tolerance. In these
 page 40

cases a tolrance is used between the target and actual values to determine equality.
ε = val – target

if ( ε < 0.000001 )thenε = 0

• In Scilab,
if ( x > A ) | (x < B) then
// program statement
else if x == A then
// more program statements
end

• Another Scilab example,

F(x) = 5 0<x≤5
= 0 x ≤ 0, x > 5

function foo = F(x)

if (x > 0) & (x <= 5) then
foo = 5;
else
foo = 0;
end
end_function

29.5 Functions

• Functions help to identify and organize self contained expressions.

• defining functions encourages reuse of mathematical expresions or program code

• terminology,

f(x) (say ’f of x’)

 page 41

• an example function is,

2
f(x) = x + 3
2
f(2) = 2 + 3 = 7

• In Scilab the function becomes,

function foo = f(x)
foo = x^2 + 3; Note: Use indents when writing pro-
endfunction grams to ensure structure. While
these are not necessary they will
mprintf("%f \n", f(2)); make debugging much easier.

Note: Using functions is not neces-

sary in simpler programs, but
larger programs will become very
difficult to work with if functions
are not used.

29.6 Special Functions

29.6.1 Logarithms

• Logarithms also have a few basic properties of use,

The basic base 10 logarithm:

y
log x = y x = 10
The basic base n logarithm:
y
log n x = y x = n
The basic natural logarithm (e is a constant with a value found near the start of this section:
y
ln x = log e x = y x = e

• All logarithms observe a basic set of rules for their application,

 page 42

log n ( xy ) = log n ( x ) + log n ( y ) log n ( n ) = 1

log n ( 1 ) = 0
x
log n ⎛ --⎞ = log n ( x ) – log n ( y )
⎝ y⎠

y
log n ( x ) = ylog n ( x )

log m ( x )
log n ( x ) = ------------------
-
log m ( n )

ln ( A ∠θ ) = ln ( A ) + ( θ + 2πk )j k∈I

e.g.,
solve n
5 = 10
log ( 5 ) = n log ( 10 )
log ( 5 )-
n = ------------------
log ( 10 )

• Note: most computers use the ’log’ function for the natural logarithm. The base 10 logarithm is
normally ’log10’.

• In Scilab this is

log10(3) - base 10 log

log(3) - natural log
log(exp(10))

29.7 Solving Systems of Linear Equations

 page 43

• Systems of linear equations are of the form below,

x+y = 5
2x + 3y = 8

• In general there must be the same number of equations and unknowns to solve the equations.
• In some cases the equations will not be solvable. In this case we say the equations are singular.

29.7.1 Substitution
• Substitution is the most fundamental method for solving linear equations, but it is the least rou-
tine,
Given,
x+y = 5
2x + 3y = 8
To solve for y, we substitute to eliminate x.
∴x = 5 – y
∴2 ( 5 – y ) + 3y = 8
∴y = – 2
To solve for x, we substitute the value for y into an earlier equation.
∴x = 5 – ( – 2 ) = 7

• In Scilab this is

EXAMPLE ????????????

29.7.2 Addition

• Polynomials can be added to eliminate variables (in a matrix for this is referred to as the Gauss-
Jordan row reduction method).
 page 44

Given,
x+y = 5
2x + 3y = 8

multiply and add the equations,

( –2 ) ( x + y = 5 )
2x + 3y = 8

0x + 1y = – 2 ∴y = – 2

x = 5 – ( –2 ) = 7

29.8 Simplifying Polynomial Expressions

29.8.1 Partial Fractions

• The next is a flowchart for partial fraction expansions.

 page 45

start with a function that

has a polynomial numerator
and denominator

is the
order of the use long division to
numerator >= yes reduce the order of the
denominator? numerator

no
Find roots of the denominator
and break the equation into
partial fraction form with
unknown values

OR
use limits technique. use algebra technique
If there are higher order
roots (repeated terms)
then derivatives will be
required to find solutions

Done

• The partial fraction expansion for,

 page 46

1 - = ---- A +B C-
x ( s ) = -------------------- --- + ----------
2
s (s + 1) s
2 s s+1

1 -⎞
C = lim ( s + 1 ) ⎛ -------------------- = 1
s → –1 ⎝ 2 ⎠
s (s + 1)

1 -⎞ 1
A = lim s ⎛ --------------------
2
= lim ----------- = 1
s→0 ⎝ 2 ⎠ s→0 s + 1
s (s + 1)

d 2 1 -⎞ d 1
B = lim ----- s ⎛ -------------------- = lim ----- ⎛ -----------⎞
–2
= lim [ – ( s + 1 ) ] = – 1
s → 0 ds ⎝ 2 ⎠ s → 0 ds s + 1⎠
⎝ s→0
s (s + 1)

• Consider the example below where the order of the numerator is larger than the denominator.

3 2
5s + 3s + 8s + 6-
x ( s ) = -------------------------------------------
2
s +4
This cannot be solved using partial fractions because the numerator is 3rd order
and the denominator is only 2nd order. Therefore long division can be used to
reduce the order of the equation.

5s + 3

2 3 2
s +4 5s + 3s + 8s + 6
3
5s + 20s
2
3s – 12s + 6
2
3s + 12
– 12s – 6
This can now be used to write a new function that has a reduced portion that can be
solved with partial fractions.

x ( s ) = 5s + 3 + –---------------------
12s – 6- solve –---------------------
12s – 6- = ------------
A - + ------------
B -
2
s +4
2
s +4 s + 2j s – 2j

• When the order of the denominator terms is greater than 1 it requires an expanded partial frac-
tion form, as shown below.
 page 47

5
F ( s ) = -----------------------
-
2 3
s (s + 1)
5 - = ---- A +B C - + ------------------
D - + ---------------
E -
----------------------- --- + ------------------
2 3
s
2 s (s + 1) 3
(s + 1)
2 (s + 1)
s (s + 1)

• We can solve the previous problem using the algebra technique.

5 - = ---- A +B C - + ------------------
D - + ---------------
E -
----------------------- --- + ------------------
2 3 2 s 3 2 (s + 1)
s (s + 1) s (s + 1) (s + 1)
3 3 2 2 2 2
A ( s + 1 ) + Bs ( s + 1 ) + Cs + Ds ( s + 1 ) + Es ( s + 1 ) -
= -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2 3
s (s + 1)
4 3 2
s ( B + E ) + s ( A + 3B + D + 2E ) + s ( 3A + 3B + C + D + E ) + s ( 3A + B ) + ( A -)
= --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2 3
s (s + 1)
–1
0 1 0 0 1 A 0 A 0 1 0 0 1 0 5
1 3 0 1 2 B 0 B 1 3 0 1 2 0 – 15
3 3 1 1 1 C = 0 C = 3 3 1 1 1 0 = 5
3 1 0 0 0 D 0 D 3 1 0 0 0 0 10
1 0 0 0 0 E 5 E 1 0 0 0 0 5 15

5 - = ---- 5 + –--------
15- + ------------------
5 - + ------------------
10 - + ---------------
15 -
-----------------------
2 3 2 s 3 2 (s + 1)
s (s + 1) s (s + 1) (s + 1)

29.8.2 Summation and Series

• The notation ∑ xi is equivalent to x a + x a + 1 + x a + 2 + … + x b assuming a and b are integers

i=a
and b ≥ a . The index variable i is an index often replaced with j, k, m, and n.

• Operations on summations:
 page 48

b a

∑ xi = ∑ xi
i=a i=b
b b

∑ αxi = α ∑ xi
i=a i=a
b b b

∑ xi + ∑ yj = ∑ ( xi + yi )
i=a j=a i=a
b c c

∑ xi + ∑ xi = ∑ xi
i=a i = b+1 i=a
⎛ b ⎞⎛ d ⎞ b d
⎜ x ⎟⎜ y⎟ =
⎜ ∑ i⎟ ⎜ ∑ j⎟ ∑ ∑ xi yj
⎝i = a ⎠ ⎝j = c ⎠ i=a j=c

• Some common summations:

N
1
∑i = --- N ( N + 1 )
2
i=1

N–1 ⎧ 1 – αN
i ⎪ ----------------, α ≠ 1
∑ α = ⎨⎪ 1 – α for both real and complex α .
i=0 ⎩ N, α = 1
∞
i 1 , α <1
∑α = ------------
1–α
for both real and complex α . For α ≥ 1 , the summation does not
i=0
converge.
 page 49

• In Scilab

LOOP EXAMPLE

29.9 Limits

• Limits stuff goes here.....

29.10 Problems

1. Rearrange the following equation so that only ‘y’ is on the left hand side.

y = –------------------------------
y----------
+ x- = x + 2 x + xz + 2z-
y+z ans. –x–1

2. Solve the following equation to find ‘x’.

2
2x + 8x = – 8 ans. x= -2, -2
 page 50

3. Solve the following system of equations using substitution.

x + 2y + 3z = 5 ans. x=-7. y=18.75,z=-8.5
x + 4y + 8z = 0

4x + 2y + z = 1

4. Simplify the following expressions.

n m
a) n log ( x ) + m log ( y ) – log ( z ) x y
ans. log ⎛ -----------⎞
⎝ z ⎠

5. Simplify,

( 5x + 3y ) – ( 2x – 7y ) ans. 3x + 10y

2 2
( 5x + 3y ) – ( 2x – 7y ) 5x – 2x + 4y
2
x + 5x + 6
----------------------------- x-----------
+ 2-
2
x + 7x + 12 x+4
5--- + -----7- 22
------
x 3x 3x
5 7- 8-
--- – ----- -----
x 3x 3x
5 5x -
------------ --------------
3 – 7--- 3x – 7
x
5(x + 3) – 9(x – 6) – 4x + 69

5 6
----------- = ------------ x = 27
x–2 x+3

6. Multiply,
ans. 2
( 2x + 3 ) ( 5x + 4 ) 10x + 23x + 12

2 3 2
( 2x + 3x + 4 ) ( 5x + 4 ) 10x + 23x + 32x + 16
 page 51

7. Factor,

2 ans.
x –4 (x + 2)(x – 2)

2 2
x – 4y ( x + 2y ) ( x – 2y )

2
x – 4x + 4 (x – 2)(x – 2)

2
x + 5x + 6 (x + 2)(x + 3)

10. solve for x, y,

5x + 3y = 10
x–y = 0 ans. x=y=1.25

11. Find roots,

2 ans. – 396
x + 2x + 100 = 0 – 1 ± ----------------
4
4 2 – 396
x + 2x + 100 = 0 x = ± – 1 ± ----------------
4

13. Convert the following log to base 10,

log 63 ans. 0.613

14. Find x,

12
x = 1372 ans. x = 1.826

12 + x
5 = 1372

15. Simplify,

log A + log B- 1-
----------------------------- ans. --- log ( AB – D )
C log D C
 page 52

16. Find the polar form for,

5 + 6j ans. 7.81 ∠0.876rad

17. Find the cartesian complex value for,

10 ∠0.13rad ans. 9.92 + 1.30j

18. Find the cartesian complex value for,

3
( 10 ∠0.13rad ) ans. 924.9 + 380.2j

19. Solve,

– 5x – 2 > 3x + 4 ans. x < – 0.75

2
x – 36 > 0 x >6
2
x + 36 > – 12x x>

20. Solve,

( 8 – 3j ) – ( 12 + 4j ) ans. – 4 – 7j

2
( 4 + 5j ) – 9 – 40j
8 – 3j-⎞
⎛ ------------- 0.415 – 1.268j
⎝ 4 + 5j⎠
2
( x – 6 – 4j ) ( x – 6 + 4j ) x – 12x + 52
 page 53

21. Find the limits below.

a) ⎛ t3 + 5 ⎞ ans. 5
lim ⎜ ----------------⎟
t → 0⎝ 5t 3 + 1⎠

⎛ t3 + 5 ⎞
b) lim ⎜ ----------------⎟ ans. 1/5
t → ∞⎝ 5t 3 + 1⎠

22. Evaluate the limits,

sin ( t ) ans.
lim --------------
t→∞ t

sin ( t )-
lim -------------
t→0 t

lim sin ( t )
t→∞

lim sin ( t )
t→0

–t
lim te
t→∞

–t
lim te
t→0

23. Reduce the following expression to partial fraction form.

2
x +4 ans. 4- – ---------------------
13 - + -------------------
5 -
-------------------------------- -----
3
x + 6x + 9x
2 9x 3 ( x + 3 ) 2 9(x + 3)

29.11 Challenge Problems

 page 54

1. Write a program (in Scilab, C, etc.) that will perform the following calculation.
n
2
y(x) = ∑ (x + i)
i=1

2. Develop a program to fit a polynomial to set set of points. In the case where the order of the
polynomial does not allow an exact fit, a least squares method should be used to obtain the best
fit.

3. Write a program in Scilab (ask if you would prefer to use another platform). The program
should use the Newton-Raphson method to find the zeros of an arbitrary function. The func-
tions below should be used for testing the program. The final program will be tested for
robustness. The final program should be structured.

2
x +x+5 = 0
3 2
– 5x + x + 10 = 0