Vietnam National University - Ho Chi Minh City

University of Technology
Faculty of Geology & Petroleum Engineering
Department of Drilling - Production Engineering

Course

Reservoir Engineering
Trần Nguyễn Thiện Tâm
Email: [email protected]

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 References

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 Chapter 4

Fluid flow in porous media

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 Contents
 Primary Reservoir Characteristics
 Flow regimes
 Reservoir geometry
 Fluid flow in porous media

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 Types of fluids
The isothermal compressibility coefficient is essentially the
controlling factor in identifying the type of the reservoir fluid. In
general, reservoir fluids are classified into three groups:
(1) incompressible fluids;
(2) slightly compressible fluids;
(3) compressible fluids.

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 Incompressible fluids
An incompressible fluid is defined as the fluid whose volume or
density does not change with pressure. That is
V 
 0 and 0
p p
Incompressible fluids do not exist; however, this behavior may be
assumed in some cases to simplify the derivation and the final
form of many flow equations.

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 Slightly compressible fluids
These “slightly” compressible fluids exhibit small changes in
volume, or density, with changes in pressure. Knowing the
volume Vref of a slightly compressible liquid at a reference
(initial) pressure pref, the changes in the volumetric behavior
V = Vref exp [c (pref − p)]
where:
p = pressure, psia
V = volume at pressure p, ft3
pref = initial (reference) pressure, psia
Vref = fluid volume at initial (reference) pressure, psia
V = Vref[1 + c(pref − p)]
ρ = ρref[1 − c(pref − p)]

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 Compressible fluids
These are fluids that experience large changes in volume as a
function of pressure. All gases are considered compressible
fluids.
The isothermal compressibility of any compressible fluid is
described by the following expression:
1 1  Z 
cg    
p Z  p T

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 Types of fluids

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 Types of fluids

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 Flow regimes
There are basically three types of flow regimes that must be
recognized in order to describe the fluid flow behavior and
reservoir pressure distribution as a function of time. These three
flow regimes are:
(1) steady-state flow;
(2) unsteady-state flow;
(3) pseudosteady-state flow.

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 Steady-state flow
The flow regime is identified as a steady-state flow if the
pressure at every location in the reservoir remains constant, i.e.,
does not change with time. Mathematically, this condition is
expressed as:
 p 
  0
 t i
This equation states that the rate of change of pressure p with
respect to time t at any location i is zero. In reservoirs, the
steady-state flow condition can only occur when the reservoir is
completely recharged and supported by strong aquifer or
pressure maintenance operations.

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 Unsteady-state flow
Unsteady-state flow (frequently called transient flow) is defined
as the fluid flowing condition at which the rate of change of
pressure with respect to time at any position in the reservoir is
not zero or constant. This definition suggests that the pressure
derivative with respect to time is essentially a function of both
position i and time t, thus:
 p 
   f (i, t )
 t 

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 Pseudosteady-state flow
When the pressure at different locations in the reservoir is
declining linearly as a function of time, i.e., at a constant declining
rate, the flowing condition is characterized as pseudosteady-state
flow. Mathematically, this definition states that the rate of change
of pressure with respect to time at every position is constant, or:
 p 
   constant
 t i

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 Flow regimes

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 Reservoir geometry
The shape of a reservoir has a significant effect on its flow
behavior. Most reservoirs have irregular boundaries and a
rigorous mathematical description of their geometry is often
possible only with the use of numerical simulators. However, for
many engineering purposes, the actual flow geometry may be
represented by one of the following flow geometries:
● radial flow;
● linear flow;
● spherical flow;
● hemispherical flow.

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 Radial flow

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 Linear flow

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 Linear flow

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 Spherical flow

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 Hemispherical flow

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 Number of flowing fluids in the reservoir
There are generally three cases of flowing system:
(1) single-phase flow (oil, water, or gas);
(2) two-phase flow (oil–water, oil–gas, or gas–water);
(3) three-phase flow (oil, water, and gas).

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 Steady-state flow
The applications of steady-state flow to describe the flow
behavior of several types of fluid in different reservoir
geometries are presented below. These include:
● linear flow of incompressible fluids;
● linear flow of slightly compressible fluids;
● linear flow of compressible fluids;
● radial flow of incompressible fluids;
● radial flow of slightly compressible fluids;

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 Linear flow of incompressible fluids
0.001127kA( p1  p2 )
q
L
where:
q = flow rate, bbl/day
k = absolute permeability, md
p = pressure, psia
µ = viscosity, cp
L = distance, ft
A = cross-sectional area, ft2

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 Linear flow of slightly compressible fluids
 0.001127kA 
q1    ln[1  c( p1  p2 )]
  cL 
 0.001127kA   1 
q2    ln  
  cL   1  c ( p2  p1 
)

where q1 and q2 are the flow rates at point 1 and 2, respectively.

p1 = upstream pressure, psi
p2 = downstream pressure, psi
k = permeability, md
µ = viscosity, cp
c = average liquid compressibility, psi−1

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 Linear flow of compressible fluids (gases)
0.111924kA( p12  p 22 )
Qsc 
TLZ  g

where:
Qsc = gas flow rate at standard conditions, scf/day
Z = gas compressibility factor
k = permeability, md
T = temperature, ◦R
µg = gas viscosity, cp
A = cross-sectional area, ft2
L = total length of the linear system, ft

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 Linear flow of compressible fluids (gases)
It is essential to notice that those gas properties Z and µg are very
strong functions of pressure, but they have been removed from
the integral to simplify the final form of the gas flow equation.
The above equation is valid for applications when the pressure is
less than 2000 psi. The gas properties must be evaluated at the
average pressure 𝑝ҧ as defined below:
p12  p22
p
2

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 Example
A natural gas with a specific gravity of 0.72 is flowing in linear
porous media at 140oF. The upstream and downstream pressures
are 2100 psi and 1894.73 psi, respectively. The cross-sectional
area is constant at 4500 ft2. The total length is 2500 ft with an
absolute permeability of 60 md. Calculate the gas flow rate in
scf/day (psc = 14.7 psia, Tsc = 520oR).

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 Radial flow of incompressible fluids
The pressure in
the formation at
the wellbore of a
producing well is
known as the
bottom-hole
flowing pressure
(flowing BHP, pwf).

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 Radial flow of incompressible fluids
0.00708kh( pe  pwf )
Qo 
o Bo ln(re / rw )
where:
Qo = oil flow rate, STB/day
pe = external pressure, psi
pwf = bottom-hole flowing pressure, psi
k = permeability, md
µo = oil viscosity, cp
Bo = oil formation volume factor, bbl/STB
h = thickness, ft
re = external or drainage radius, ft
rw = wellbore radius, ft

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 Radial flow of incompressible fluids
The external (drainage) radius re is usually determined from the
well spacing by equating the area of the well spacing with that of
a circle. That is:
πre2 = 43 560A
or
43560 A
re 

where A is the well spacing in acres.
The pressure p at any radius r:
 Qo Bo o   r 
p  pwf    ln  
 0.00708kh   rw 

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 Example
An oil well in the Nameless Field is producing at a stabilized rate
of 600 STB/day at a stabilized bottom-hole flowing pressure of
1800 psi. Analysis of the pressure buildup test data indicates that
the pay zone is characterized by a permeability of 120 md and a
uniform thickness of 25 ft. The well drains an area of
approximately 40 acres. The following additional data is
available:
rw = 0. 25 ft, A = 40 acres, Bo = 1.25 bbl/STB, µo = 2. 5 cp
Calculate the pressure profile (distribution) and list the pressure
drop across 1 ft intervals from rw to 1.25 ft, 4 to 5 ft, 19 to 20 ft,
99 to 100 ft, and 744 to 745 ft.

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 Summary
Qo = 600 STB/day
pwf = 1800 psi
k = 120 mD
h = 25 ft
A = 40 acres
rw = 0.25 ft
Bo = 1.25 bbl/STB
μo = 2.5 cp

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 Radial flow of slightly compressible fluids
 0.00708kh 
Qo    ln[1  co ( pe  pwf )]
 o Bo co ln(re / rw ) 
where:
co = isothermal compressibility coefficient, psi−1
Qo = oil flow rate, STB/day
k = permeability, md

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 Radial flow of compressible gases
𝑝
The integral is called the “real-gas pseudopotential”
‫׬‬0 2𝑝/( μ𝑔 𝑍)
or “real-gas pseudopressure” and it is usually represented by
m(p) or ψ. Thus:
p
 2p 
m( p )      dp
 Z
0 g 

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 Radial flow of compressible gases
0.703kh(  w )
Qg 
T ln(r / rw )
In the particular case when r = re, then:
0.703kh( e  w )
Qg 
T ln(re / rw )
where:
ψe = real-gas pseudopressure as evaluated from 0 to pe, psi2/cp
ψw= real-gas pseudopressure as evaluated from 0 to pwf, psi2/cp
k = permeability, md
h = thickness, ft
re = drainage radius, ft
rw = wellbore radius, ft
Qg = gas flow rate, scf/day

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 Radial flow of compressible gases
Because the gas flow rate is commonly expressed in Mscf/day,
Equation can be expressed as:
kh( e  w )
Qg 
1422T ln(re / rw )
where:
Qg = gas flow rate, Mscf/day
Equation can be expressed in terms of the average reservoir
pressure pr instead of the initial reservoir pressure pe as:
kh( r  w )
Qg 
1422T [ln(re / rw )  0.5]

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 Radial flow of compressible gases
To calculate the integral in Equation, the values of 2p/µgZ are
calculated for several values of pressure p. Then 2p/µgZ vs. p is
plotted on a Cartesian scale and the area under the curve is
calculated either numerically or graphically, where the area
under the curve from p = 0 to any pressure p represents the value
of ψ corresponding to p. The following example will illustrate the
procedure.

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 Example
The PVT data from a gas well in the p (psi) μg (cp) Z
Anaconda Gas Field is given below: 0 0.0127 1.000
The well is producing at a stabilized 400 0.01286 0.937
bottom-hole flowing pressure of 800 0.01390 0.882
3600 psi. The wellbore radius is 0.3
1200 0.01530 0.832
ft. The following additional data is
1600 0.01680 0.794
available:
2000 0.01840 0.770
k = 65 md, h = 15 ft, T = 600◦R
2400 0.02010 0.763
pe = 4400 psi, re = 1000 ft 2800 0.02170 0.775
Calculate the gas flow rate in 3200 0.02340 0.797
Mscf/day. 3600 0.02500 0.827
4000 0.02660 0.860
4400 0.02831 0.896

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 Radial flow of compressible gases
kh( pe2  pwf2 )
Qg 
1422T (  g Z ) avg ln(re / rw )
where:
Qg = gas flow rate, Mscf/day
k = permeability, md
The term (µgZ)avg is evaluated at an average pressure p that is
defined by the following expression:
pwf2  pe2
p
2
The above approximation method is called the pressure-
squared method and is limited to flow calculations when the
reservoir pressure is less that 2000 psi.

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 Example
The PVT data from a gas well in the p (psi) μg (cp) Z
Anaconda Gas Field is given below: 0 0.0127 1.000
The well is producing at a stabilized 400 0.01286 0.937
bottom-hole flowing pressure of 800 0.01390 0.882
3600 psi. The wellbore radius is 0.3
1200 0.01530 0.832
ft. The following additional data is
1600 0.01680 0.794
available:
2000 0.01840 0.770
k = 65 md, h = 15 ft, T = 600◦R
2400 0.02010 0.763
pe = 4400 psi, re = 1000 ft 2800 0.02170 0.775
Calculate the gas flow rate in 3200 0.02340 0.797
Mscf/day by using the pressure- 3600 0.02500 0.827
squared method. Compare with the 4000 0.02660 0.860
exact method.
4400 0.02831 0.896

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 Radial flow of slightly compressibility fluids
For an infinite-acting reservoir, Matthews and Russell (1967)
proposed the following solution
 70.6Qo o Bo   948 ct r 
2
p(r , t )  pi    Ei  
 kh   kt 
where:
p(r, t) = pressure at radius r from the well after t hours
t = time, hours
k = permeability, md
Qo = flow rate, STB/day
The mathematical function, Ei, is called the exponential integral
and is defined by: 
eu du
Ei ( x)   
x
u
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 Radial flow of slightly compressibility fluids
The exponential integral “Ei” can be
approximated by the following equation
when its argument x is less than 0.01:
Ei(−x) = ln(1.781x)
where the argument x in this case is given
by:
948 ct r 2
x
kt

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 Radial flow of slightly compressibility fluids
Another expression that can be used to approximate the Ei
function for the range of 0. 01 < x < 3. 0 is given by:
a8
 Ei ( x)  a1  a2 ln( x)  a3[ln( x)]  a4 [ln( x)]  a5 x  a6 x  a7 x 
2 3 2 3

x
with the coefficients a1 through a8 having the following values:
a1 = −0.33153973; a2 = −0.81512322; a3 = 5.22123384×10−2;
a4 = 5.9849819×10−3; a5 = 0.662318450; a6 = −0.12333524;
a7 = 1.0832566×10−2; a8 = 8.6709776×10−4
It should be pointed out that for x > 10.9, Ei(−x) can be
considered zero for reservoir engineering calculations.

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 Example
An oil well is producing at a constant flow rate of 300 STB/day
under unsteady-state flow conditions. The reservoir has the
following rock and fluid properties:
Bo = 1.25 bbl/STB, µo = 1.5 cp, ct = 12×10−6 psi−1
ko = 60 md, h = 15 ft, pi = 4000 psi
ϕ = 15%, rw = 0. 25 ft
(1) Calculate the pressure at radii of 0.25, 5, 10, 50, 100, 500,
1000, 1500, 2000, and 2500 ft, for 1 hour. Plot the results as:
(a) pressure versus the logarithm of radius;
(b) pressure versus radius.
(2) Repeat part 1 for t = 12 hours and 24 hours. Plot the results
as pressure versus logarithm of radius.

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 Radial flow of compressible fluids
First solution: m(p) method (exact solution)
 1637QgT    kt  
m( pwf )  m( pi )    log  2 
 3.23
 kh    i cti rw  
where:
pwf = bottom-hole flowing pressure, psi
pi = initial reservoir pressure
Qg = gas flow rate, Mscf/day
t = time, hours
k = permeability, md
T = reservoir temperature
rw = wellbore radius, ft
h = thickness, ft
µi = gas viscosity at the initial pressure, cp
cti = total compressibility coefficient at pi, psi−1
ϕ = porosity
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 Radial flow of compressible fluids
The above equation can be simplified by introducing the
dimensionless time
0.0002637kt
tD 
i cti rw2
Equation can be written in terms of the dimensionless time tD as:
 1637QgT    4t D  
m( pwf )  m( pi )    log  
 kh    
The parameter γ is called Euler’s constant and is given by:
γ = e0.5772 = 1.781

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 Radial flow of compressible fluids
The radial gas diffusivity equation can be expressed in a
dimensionless form in terms of the dimensionless real-gas
pseudopressure drop ψD. The solution to the dimensionless
equation is given by:
m( pi )  m( pwf )
D 
1422QgT
kh
or:
 1422QgT 
m( pwf )  m( pi )    D
 kh 

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 Radial flow of compressible fluids
The dimensionless pseudopressure drop ψD can be determined
as a function of tD by using the appropriate expression of
Equations
For 0.02 < tD ≤ 1000
a8
 D  a1  a2 ln(t D )  a3[ln(t D )]  a4 [ln(t D )]  a5t D  a6 (t D )  a7 (t D ) 
2 3 2 3

tD

where the values of the coefficients of the above equations are:

a1 = 0.8085064 a2 = 0.29302022
a3 = 3. 5264177×10−2 a4 = −1.4036304×10−3
a5 = −4.7722225×10−4 a6 = 5.1240532×10−7
a7 = −2.3033017 × 10−10 a8 = −2.6723117×10−3
When tD > 100, ψD can be calculated by applying Equation
ψD = 0. 5[ln(tD) + 0.80907]
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 Example
A gas well with a wellbore p (psi) μg (cp) Z m(p)
radius of 0.3 ft is producing at a
0 0.01270 1.000
constant flow rate of 2000
Mscf/day under transient flow 400 0.01286 0.937
conditions. The initial reservoir 800 0.01390 0.882
pressure (shut-in pressure) is 1200 0.01530 0.832
4400 psi at 140◦F. The 1600 0.01680 0.794
formation permeability and
2000 0.01840 0.770
thickness are 65 md and 15 ft,
2400 0.02010 0.763
respectively. The porosity is
recorded as 15%. 2800 0.02170 0.775
Assuming that the initial total 3200 0.02340 0.797
isothermal compressibility is 3600 0.02500 0.827
3×10−4 psi−1, calculate the 4000 0.02660 0.860
bottom-hole flowing pressure 4400 0.02831 0.896
after 1.5 hours.
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 Radial flow of compressible fluids
Second solution: pressure-squared method
pwf2  pi2
p
2
 1422QgT  Z 
pwf  pi    D
2 2

 kh 
The above approximation solution forms indicate that the
product (µZ) is assumed constant at the average pressure p. This
effectively limits the applicability of the p2 method to reservoir
pressures of less than 2000.

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 Skin factor
It is not unusual during drilling, completion, or workover
operations for materials such as mud filtrate, cement slurry, or
clay particles to enter the formation and reduce the permeability
around the wellbore. This effect is commonly referred to as
“wellbore damage” and the region of altered permeability is
called the “skin zone.” This zone can extend from a few inches to
several feet from the wellbore. Many other wells are stimulated
by acidizing or fracturing, which in effect increases the
permeability near the wellbore. Thus, the permeability near the
wellbore is always different from the permeability away from the
well where the formation has not been affected by drilling or
stimulation.

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 Skin factor

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 Skin factor

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 Skin factor
 k   rskin 
s  1 ln  
 skin   w 
k r
(1) s > 0: When the damaged zone near the wellbore exists, kskin
is less than k and hence s is a positive number. The magnitude of
the skin factor increases as kskin decreases and as the depth of the
damage rskin increases.
(2) s < 0: When the permeability around the well kskin is higher
than that of the formation k, a negative skin factor exists. This
negative factor indicates an improved wellbore condition.
(3) s = 0: Zero skin factor occurs when no alternation in the
permeability around the wellbore is observed, i.e., kskin = k.

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Unsteady-state radial flow (accounting for the skin factor)
For slightly compressible fluids
For compressible fluids

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 Radial flow of slightly compressibility fluids
162.6Qo Bo o   kt  
pi  pwf  log  2 
 3.23  0.87 s 
kh    ct rw  

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 Radial flow of compressibility fluids
1637QgT  Z   kt  
pi  p wf 
2 2
log  2 
 3.23  0.87 s 
kh   i cti rw  

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 Principle of superposition
● effects of multiple wells;
● effects of rate change;
● effects of the boundary;

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 Effects of multiple wells
“The total pressure drop at any point in a reservoir is the sum of
the pressure drops at that point caused by flow in each of the wells
in the reservoir.”
(Δp)total drop at well 1 = (Δp)drop due to well 1
+ (Δp)drop due to well 2
+ (Δp)drop due to well 3

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 Example
Assume that the three wells as shown in Figure 1.28 are
producing under a transient flow condition for 15 hours. The
following additional data is available:
Qo1 = 100 STB/day, Qo2 = 160 STB/day
Qo3 = 200 STB/day, pi = 4500 psi,
Bo = 1. 20 bbl/STB, ct = 20×10−6 psi−1,
(s)well1 = −0.5, h = 20 ft,
ϕ = 15%, k = 40 md,
Rw = 0.25 ft, µo = 2.0 cp,
r1 = 400 ft, r2 = 700 ft.
If the three wells are producing at a constant flow rate, calculate
the sand face flowing pressure at well 1.

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 Effects of variable flow rates
Consider the case of a shut-in
well, i.e., Q = 0, that was then
allowed to produce at a series
of constant rates for the
different time periods shown in
Figure. To calculate the total
pressure drop at the sand face
at time t4, the composite
solution is obtained by adding
the individual constant-rate
solutions at the specified rate-
time sequence, or:

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 Effects of variable flow rates
(p) total  (p)due to (Qo1 0) 
(p)due to (Qo 2 Qo1 ) 
(p)due to (Qo 3 Qo 2 ) 
(p)due to (Qo 4 Qo 3 )

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 Effects of variable flow rates
The first contribution results
from increasing the rate from 0
to Q1 and is in effect over the
entire time period t4, thus:
162.6(Q1  0) B 
(p)Q1 0  
 kh 
  kt4  
 log  2 
 3.23  0.87 s 
   ct rw  

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 Effects of variable flow rates
The second contribution
results from decreasing the
rate from Q1 to Q2 at t1, thus:
162.6(Q2  Q1 ) B 
(p)Q2 Q1   
 kh
  k (t4  t1 )  
 log  2 
 3.23  0.87 s 
   ct rw  

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 Effects of variable flow rates
The third contribution results
from Q2 to Q3 at t2, thus:
162.6(Q3  Q2 ) B 
(p)Q3 Q2   
 kh 
  k (t4  t2 )  
 log  2 
 3.23  0.87 s 
   ct rw  

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 Effects of variable flow rates
The fourth contribution results
from decreasing the rate from
Q3 to Q4 at t3, thus:
162.6(Q4  Q3 ) B 
(p)Q4 Q3   
 kh 
  k (t4  t3 )  
 log  2 
 3.23  0.87 s 
   ct rw  

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 Example
Figure 1.29 shows the rate
100 150
history of a well that is 85
producing under transient flow
conditions for 15 hours. Given 70
the following data:
pi = 5000 psi, h = 20 ft,
Bo = 1. 1 bbl/STB
ϕ = 15%, µo = 2.5 cp, rw = 0.3 ft
ct = 20×10−6 psi−1, s = 0,
k = 40 md
calculate the sand face
pressure after 15 hours.

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 Effects of the reservoir boundary
Consider Figure 1.30
which shows a well
that is located a
distance L from the
non-flow boundary,
e.g., sealing fault. The
noflow boundary can
be represented by the
following pressure
gradient expression:
 p 
  0
 L boundary

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 Effects of the reservoir boundary
Mathematically, the above boundary condition can be met by
placing an image well, identical to that of the actual well, on the
other side of the fault at exactly distance L. Consequently, the
effect of the boundary on the pressure behavior of a well would
be the same as the effect from an image well located a distance
2L from the actual well.

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 Effects of the reservoir boundary
In accounting for the boundary effects, the superposition method
is frequently called the method of images. The total pressure
drop at the actual well will be the pressure drop due to its own
production plus the additional pressure drop caused by an
identical well at a distance of 2L, or:
(Δp)total = (Δp)actual well + (Δp)due to image well

162.6Qo B   kt  
(p) total  log  2 
 3.23  0.87 s 
kh    ct rw  
 70.6Q B    948 c (2 L ) 2

 o
 Ei  t

 kh   kt 

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 Example
Figure 1.31 shows a well
located between two
sealing faults at 200 and
100 feet from the two
faults. The well is
producing under a
transient flow condition
at a constant flow rate of
200 STB/day. Given:
pi = 500 psi, k = 600 md,
Bo = 1.1 bbl/STB, ϕ =
17%, µo = 2.0 cp, h = 25
ft, rw = 0.3 ft, s = 0, ct =
25×10−6 psi−1
Calculate the sand face
pressure after 10 hours.
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