Understanding Learning

UNIT 2 APPROACHES TO LEARNING

Structure
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Objectives
2.3 Approaches to Learning
2.4 Behaviouristic Approach to Learning
2.4.1 Concept of Behaviouristic Approach to Learning
2.4.2 Characteristics of Behaviouristic Approach of Learning
2.4.3 Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning
2.4.4 Skinner’s Operant Conditioning
2.4.5 Educational Implications
2.4.6 Limitations of Behaviouristic Approach
2.5 Cognitive Approach to Learning
2.5.1 Concept of Cognitive Approach to Learning
2.5.2 Characteristics of Cognitive Approach
2.5.3 Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Approach to Learning
2.5.4 Educational Implications
2.5.5 Limitations of Piaget’s Approach
2.6 Social Learning Approaches
2.6.1 Social Learning Theory
2.6.2 Social-constructivist Approach
2.7 Humanistic Approach to Learning
2.7.1 Concept of Humanistic Approach to Learning
2.7.2 Characteristics of Humanistic Approach to Learning
2.7.3 Contribution of Psychologists towards Humanistic Psychology
2.7.4 Educational Implications
2.7.5 Limitations of Humanistic Approach
2.8 Let Us Sum Up
2.9. Unit-end Exercises
2.10 References and Suggested Readings
2.11 Answers to Check Your Progress

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Course one, i.e. BES 121, has acquainted you with the development of the child
in general as well as an unique individual. This acquaintance will help you in
understanding the behaviour of your learner. As a teacher, you should not only
know your leaner but also the process of learning. In this unit, you will study
various approaches to learning. While dealing with various approaches, you will
study the elements of behaviouristic, cognitive and humanistic approach to
learning that have emerged in recent years. Characteristics and limitations of
each approach have been discussed in the Unit. We present various classroom as
well as educational implications of each approach.
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Learning: Perspectives and
Approaches 2.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
• examine various approaches to learning;
• explain the concept of the behaviouristic, cognitive and humanistic
approaches to learning;
• delineate the chief characteristics of these approaches; and
• discuss critically the applicability of these approaches to your classroom
teaching.

2.3 APPROACHES TO LEARNING

Approaches to learning describe and explain the conditions under which learning
does and does not take place. This movement is towards theorising the process
of learning. It attempts to provide a definite coherence to one particular subset of
experimental findings in the field of learning.

Approaches to learning are concerned mainly with the modus operandi, procedure,
style or technique of learning. These approaches apply to all learning tasks.
Generally, there are two types of approaches prevailing in the world of learning.
They are Surface approach, and Deep approach.
Surface approach: In this approach, the learner’s intention is just to complete
the task requirements. Instead of properly understanding the content, s/he just
memorises information/answers to the anticipated questions. This task is treated
as animposition on her/him.
Deep approach: Here, the learner’s intention is to understand the meaning of
learning object. S/he interacts actively with the content, relates new ideas to her/
his previous knowledge and to her/his everyday experience. S/he examines the
conclusions drawn by the author or the teacher and sometimes even seeks
alternative solutions.
The two approaches cited earlier to learn give rise to an offshoot known as
strategic approach. In this approach, the learner’s intention is to get the highest
possible marks or grades in the term-end examinations. To achieve this, s/he
may choose either of the two approaches. But the most important characteristics
of the strategic approach are well-planned and carefully organised study methods
with the systematic management of time and efforts.
Learning theories that emerged during the twentieth century have been supported
by experimentation. The theories may be classified into four major approaches/
faculties of learning or the schools of thoughts namely behaviouristic, cognitive,
social and humanistic approaches. Here we will study them one by one.

2.4 BEHAVIOURISTIC APPROACH TO LEARNING

The approach which describes learning as a connection between stimulus and
response is the behaviouristic school of thought. This approach to learning
emphasizes that behaviour begins with reflexes i.e., natural responses and new
behaviour results from the acquisition of new bonds of stimulus and response
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through experiences. Behaviourism has its roots in what is called the Approaches to Learning
associationistic school of psychology. The school believes that recollection of
an item of knowledge is facilitated by associating that idea with another when
the individual learned it. For example, an aroma of flowers is associated with
some occurrence in life which generates good or bad feelings later in life.
The major tenets of the behaviouristic approach are as follows:
• Learning brings about changes in behaviour.
• Learning takes place if environmental conditions are arranged appropriately
with general changes.
• Learning is the result of continual interaction of the individual with the
environment.
• The resultant behavioural changes are objectively observable.

2.4.1 Concept of Behaviouristic Approach to Learning

Behaviourists were strongly influenced by the work of the Russian Psychologist
Ivan Pavlov. They devoted themselves to study the overt (directly observable)
behaviour. They believed that overt behaviour was determined by a complex
system of independent stimulus-response connection made more complex through
learning. Thorndike, Watson and Skinner, gave more emphasis on objectivity in
behaviour. Pavlov’s experiment with the salivating dog is a famous one.

2.4.2 Characteristic of Behaviouristic Approachto Learning

The behaviouristic approach has the following important characteristics:
• Behaviourists believe in the objective study of behaviour - animal and human
being both (objectively observable behaviour).
• Its chief emphasis is on environment. This approach considers environment
more important than heredity in the determination of behaviour.
• Conditioning is the key to the understanding of behaviour, which is composed
of stimulus and response links and can be successfully analysed by the
objective scientific method.
• The chief method of learning is condition.
• Behaviourists believe that one unit of knowledge gets associated with a new
unit of knowledge by virtue of similarity, contrast or contiguity (closeness
of occurrence in time or situation).

2.4.3 Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning

Harness (to restrict
Pavlov was basically a movement by subject)
physiologist. While working
on digestive system, he
Tube for collecting
proposed a theory of learning saliva from
subject's mouth
which propagates stimulus- Amount of saliva
response conditioning. This recorded here

theory is known as ‘classical’

as it was first theory of
conditioning, later Watson
and Skinner worked on its
different dimensions. 29
Learning: Perspectives and This learning theory of Pavlov is based on his famous experiment of dog.
Approaches
This theory explains learning by associations and focuses on learning of
involuntary emotions or psychological responses such as fear, increased muscle
tension, salivation or sweating. (Woolfolk, 2013, p. 235)

During the salivation experiment, Pavlov proposed few concepts, which are very
important to know, if one wants to understand classical conditioning.

Neutral Stimulus: It is a stimulus which is not responsible directly for desired

response in neutral condition, e.g.: a tuning fork or a bell has nothing to do with
salivation, if it is being used without association with food.

Unconditioned Stimulus: It is a stimulus which does not require any conditioning

for desired behaviour. Sometimes it is known as natural stimulus also, e.g. Food
is an unconditioned stimulus for salivation.

Conditioned Stimulus: When a neutral stimulus is conditioned with an

unconditioned stimulus for bringing desired behaviour change, it becomes a
conditioned stimulus. A bell or a tuning fork when presented as stimulus along
with food, and get conditioned for salivation, it is conditioned stimulus.

Unconditioned Response: The behaviour which does not require any training
or conditioning for association with an unconditioned stimulus, e.g. salivation is
unconditioned response for food as unconditioned stimulus.

Conditioned Response: The behaviour or response occurred due to conditioned

stimulus, is known as conditioned response, e.g. salivation after ringing the bell
or tuning fork is a conditioned response.

He further identified few important processes in classical conditioning:

Generalization: If behaviour occurs in presence of other stimulus similar to the

conditioned one, this is called generalization, e.g. salivation after hearing the
sounds similar to bell (sometimes may be in higher or lower tone also), is called
process of generalization.

Discrimination: Pavlov proved that at higher level of conditioning, dog learnt

to distinguish the sounds and stopped salivation on sounds other than the bell.
This is called discrimination.

Extinction: If only conditioned stimulus is being presented repeatedly without

associating with the unconditioned one, the desired behaviour (salivation in this
context) faded and stopped to occur.

Spontaneous Recovery: Pavlov observed, if after extinction, the unconditioned

stimulus is being associated again with conditioned stimulus, the behaviour re-
occurs immediately.

These are few concepts as outcome of Pavlov’s experiment.

Classical conditioning helps a teacher to associate positive events with learning.

It helps in avoiding undesired behaviour also and helps learners in recognizing
the situations to discriminate and generalize properly.
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2.4.4 Skinner’s Operant Conditioning Approaches to Learning

Behaviour refers to an activity of an organism that can be observed and measured

by another person/organism or by experimenter. It includes activities like pressing
a key or a lever, or a button, uttering a word, answering a question correctly,
solving problems, and so on. Skinner, as distinct from Pavlov and other
behaviourists, used the operant conditioning approach to the study of learning
(operant is the response made by an organism to the surrounding environment).
When a dog, for example, is taught a trick, it is usually rewarded by food or by
patting after it makes the appropriate behaviour. Operant behaviour can be evoked
by a wide range of stimuli. This can be brought under stimulus control through
the process of discrimination. The basic operation in a Skinnerian experiment is
to determine the rate at which a given operant (e.g. pulling a level or pecking a
key) is emitted under a given set of conditions.

Operant Conditioning is also known as reinforcement conditioning. Here, the

reinforcement is correlated with the response rather than with the stimuli.
In this type of conditioning, reward or reinforcement is not possible unless the
response is emitted. In other words, reinforcement becomes contingent upon the
stimulus.
According to Skinner, the basic law underlying this type of conditioning is that
if the occurrence of an operant is followed by a reinforcing stimulus then the
conditioning is strengthened. In other words, what gets strengthened is the
response, or operant and not an S-R connection as in Thorndike’s law of effect.
Skinner demonstrated his theory of learning his theory of learning by the simple
experiment of putting a hungry rat in a box (known as Skinner Box). When the
rat after fretting about, presses a lever accidentally, food is released. Every time
Rat does this, it gets food. After several repetitions, the rat learns that if he is
hungry, he can get food after pressing the lever and he goes straight to the lever,
presses it and gets good. In other words, food reinforces that rat’s activity of
pressing lever. Here behaviour and appropriate response are important factors. If
reward is withheld repeatedly, the behaviour extinguishes.
Operant conditioning is a learning force which affects desired response more
frequently by providing a reinforcing stimulus immediately following the
response. The most important principle of this type of learning is that behaviour
changes according to its immediate consequences. Pleasurable consequences
strengthen behaviour while unpleasant consequences weaken it. For example, a
pigeon pecks the red ball and gets food in Skinner’s famous experiment. Because
of food (reinforcement), the pigeon is likely to peck the same ball again and
again.
In operant conditioning, learning objectives are divided into many small steps/
tasks and reinforced one by one. The operant - the response/behaviour of act - is
strengthened so as to increase the probability of their reoccurrence in the future.
Three external conditions - reinforcement contiguity and practice - must be
provided in operant conditioning.
Reinforcement: The most important aspect of Skinner’s theory of learning relates
to the role of reinforcement. An organism is presented with a particular stimulus
- reinforcer - after it makes a response. In a given situation, the organism will
tend to repeat responses for which is reinforced.
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Learning: Perspectives and Skinner distinguished between positive and negative reinforcements. Positive
Approaches
reinforcement is a stimulus which increases the probability of desired response.
The positive reinforcement is a positive reward. Praise, smiles, prize, money, a
funny television programme, etc. are the example of positive reinforcement. In
negative reinforcement, the desired behaviour is more likely to occur if such
stimulus reinforcement is removed. For example, we can close windows and
doors to avoid hearing loud noise; we can avoid wrong answers by giving right
answers. Here noise and wrong answers are negative reinforcers. Thus a negative
reinforcer is negative reward - the avoidance of which gives us relief from
unpleasant status of affairs. Skinner did not equate negative reinforcement with
punishment.

2.4.5 Educational Implications

The behaviouristic approach is one of the most important contributions to learning
which throws light on habit formation, habit breaking and the role of incentives
in learning. This approach is helpful in shaping the behaviour of students in the
desired direction. Skinner has demonstrated in a number of ways how operant
behaviour is shaped. The approach also helps the teacher in increasing the
vocabulary of his students.

The most significant contribution to this theory in educational practice is the

concept of programmed learning and introduction of teaching machines in
teaching-learning. Let us elaborate both the concepts.

Programmed instruction: It is a system of teaching-learning within which pre-

established subject matter is broken down into small discrete steps which are
carefully organised into a logical sequence and which can be rapidly learned by
the students. Each step builds upon the previous one. Reinforcement is given
after each step. There is a provision for checking the progress. If the response is
correct, the student can go ahead, if not then he can proceed to the next step after
registering the correct response.

Programmed Instruction is highly individualized instructional strategy and is an

effective innovation in the teaching process. It is found quite useful for classroom
as well as self-learning.

Teaching machine: It is another application of the behavioural approach to

learning. Teaching machines present items in an essentially predetermined
sequence, permit the students to respond and give them immediate feedback.
Teaching machines are automatic devices which present a question or other
stimulus to a stimulus, provide a means of response, and then inform him/her of
the correctness of his/her response immediately after he had responded. They
are of two types (i) constructed-response and (ii) multiple-choice machines.

Skinner’s theory suggests the great potentiality of the shaping procedure for
behaviour modification. According to this theory the following procedure is
applied to ensure effective learning in students:
• Learning objectives should be defined very specifically in terms of behaviour
• Objectives should be arranged in order of simple to complex.
• For developing motivation among the students, the classroom reinforcers
like praise, blames, grades, etc., should be used.
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• Proper use of positive and negative gestures also serves as reinforcers to Approaches to Learning
work.
• Reinforcers should be used periodically so that the possibility of extinction
of the desired behaviour is resisted.
• In the classroom, the principle of immediacy of reinforcement is very
important. Praise for a job done well given immediately can be stronger
reinforcer or motivator than a grade given much later.
Skinner’s principles of learning focus attention on the individual’s pace of
learning.

Check Your Progress 1

Notes: a) Write your answer in the space given below.
b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of the unit.
1) What is the role of conditioning in programmed instruction?
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2.4.6 Limitations of Behaviouristic Approach

The behaviouristic approach to learning has certain limitations. Important among
them are as follows:
• The approach considers human being as a machine which may not be true.
• This approach explains emotions, thoughts and actions entirely with reference
to only this over behaviour.
• It is doubtful if the results derived from controlled experimental studies on
animals would yield the same results on human beings insocial learning
situations.
• It is argued that the behaviourists have ignored the structural and hereditary
factors which are very important in the development of psychological process
of language.
• The operant reinforcement system does not adequately take into account the
elements of creativity, curiosity and spontaneity in the human beings.
• Behaviourists argue that all human behaviour is acquired during the lifetime
of the individual. Thus this theory gives no place to the importance of genetic
inheritance.
• Skinner’s theory of learning dehumanises the learning process on account
of its emphasis on the mechanisation of the mental process.
• Operant theory of learning does not deal with the depth of mind and thus it
is artificial in nature.
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Learning: Perspectives and
Approaches 2.5 COGNITIVE APPORACH TO LEARNING
In the behaviouristic approach, learning is seen as the overt behaviours of learners,
while in the cognitive approach, learning is considered as inner psychological
functioning such as perception, concept formation, attention, memory and
problem-solving. In this approach the learner first perceives the total situation in
the problem field, finds a relationship between the elements of the object or the
problem, and deduces a strategy for solving the problem.
The major tenets of this approach are as follows:
• Learning is an active process involving change in the cognitive structure.
• Learning requires cognitive effort and accurate conceptual understanding.

2.5.1 Concept of Cognitive Approach to Learning

The word ‘cognition’ is derived from the Latin word ‘cognoscrere’ which means
to know, or to perceive. Cognitive theories discuss how people gain an
understanding of themselves and their environment and how, in using this, they
act in relation to their environment.

According to cognitive theorists, teaching is a process of developing

understanding or insight in the learner. Learning is the organization of precepts
and purposes by the learner. Classroom experiences are related to the individual
goals of learners. These experiences are encouraged to discover relationship to
create the consequences of their efforts.

Cognitive approach emphasizes and gives importance to cognition (perception)

in learning. According to this approach, learning is a complex process and it is
viewed as acquiring changes in the cognitive structure. In other words, learning
is the change in the cognitive structure. These changes (learning) take generally
in basically three ways. They are:
• Differentiation
• Generalisation, and
• Restructuration
Let us elaborate each of these.
In differentiation, learning begins by differentiating specific aspects of oneself
and of one’s environment. For example, an infant perceives every woman as his/
her mother. Later on s/he differentiates between mother, aunt, sister, etc. Thus
the cognitive structure becomes more specific.

In generalisation, concrete and particular instances are given and the children
reach general conclusion or generalisation. After differentiating the concept, the
child gradually categories the differentiated concepts on the basis of specific
unifying characteristics known as generalisation. For example, the child first
learns to differentiate between various things as men, women, animals, birds,
etc. and later on s/he unifies these differentiated concepts to form a single concept
- living things and thus generalisation is reached.

Restructuration, as the processes of differentiation and generalisation take place,

the individual restructures his cognitive structure to accommodate these
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differentiated and generalized concepts to gain control of him/her and the world. Approaches to Learning
The child learns that all living things do not behave as human beings do. Thus,
the concept of living things is restructured.

2.5.2 Characteristics of Cognitive Approach

The main characteristics of the cognitive approach are as follows:
• Earlier cognitivists gave more emphasis to insight while the modern
cognitivists place more importance on the human mental process, similar
to a computer system in operation.
• In the cognitive approach, learning is considered as an active and dynamic
process
• In this approach the perceptions of learner are processed through
differentiation, generalisation and restructuration which help the learner in
reacting to the specific cognitive structure to get a clear picture of the
environment.
• The cognitive approach is represented by a dynamic system.
• The learner is purposive and interacting within the field of his/her goals.
• It is the most suited for concept formation, problem solving and other higher
mental processes.

2.5.3 Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Approach to Learning

In recent times, the work of Piaget has received a lot of attention. Piaget’s work
has influenced a lot of thinking.

Piaget studied the growth and development of the child. The main objective of
Piaget has been to describe the process of human thinking from infancy to
adulthood.
Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development redefines intelligence, knowledge
and the relationship of the learner to the environment. Intelligence, like a
biological system is a continuing process that creates structures. In continuing
interactions with the environment, s/he needs intelligence. Similarly, knowledge
is an interactive process between the learner and the environment. Knowledge is
highly subjective in infancy and early childhood and becomes more objective in
early adulthood.
He believes that learning is a function of certain processes. They are: assimilation,
accommodation, adaptation and equilibration. Let us discuss each process in
detail so that Piaget’s cognitive approach to learning is understood properly.
Assimilation: It is a process of incorporating new objects and experiences into
the existing schema (here, schema refers to well-defined sequences of actions).
As soon as the schema of action is developed, it is applied to every new object
and in every new situation. Assimilation of experiences into a succession of
cognitive scheme takes place. Later, representation of words and actions using
symbols takes place resulting in representational schema. The observation of
surroundings and process leads to assimilation in the early stages of learning.
This assimilation accounts for the children’s ability to act on and understand
something new in terms of what is already familiar. Assimilation is followed by
accommodation.
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Learning: Perspectives and Accommodation: In the individual’s encounters with the environment,
Approaches
accommodation accompanies assimilation. Accommodation is the adjustment
of internal structures to the particular characteristics of specific situations. For
example, biological structures accommodate the type and quantity of food at the
same time so that the food is being assimilated. Similarly, in cognitive functioning,
internal structures adjust to the particular characteristics of new objects and evens.
Accommodation also refers to the modification of the individual’s internal
cognitive structures. When the learner realizes that his or her ways of thinking
are contradicted by events in the environment, the previous ways of thinking are
reorganized. This reorganization, which results in a higher level of thinking, is
accommodation.

As the child continues to confront experiences in the environment, the schema is

so formed so as to not remain permanent. S/he has either to combine her/his
previous schemata or to modify them as per new experiences. The process of
combining/modifying existing schemata and the arrival at new schemata is known
as accommodation. Here, the child remains active and explores questions,
experiments, etc.

Equilibration: In cognitive development, equilibration is the continuing self-

regulation that permits the individual to grow, develop and change while
maintaining stability. Equilibration, however, is not a balance of forces but it is
a dynamic process that continuously regulates behaviour. It indicates the balance
between assimilation and accommodation. Equilibration is the factor that
maintains stability during the process of continuous interaction and continuous
change. Without equilibration, cognitive development would lack continuity and
cohesiveness but instead would become fragmented and disorganized.

Equilibrium is the balancing act between the old and the new, between perceptions
and experiences. It is a dynamic process that attempts to reduce dissonance.

Adaptation: Assimilation helps in getting new experiences into existing schema,

while accommodation helps in combining/expanding/changing the new schema
based on new experiences. Thus, the individual is helped in adjusting to new
environment. This adjustment to a new environment is known as adaption. This
adaption is also not the permanent one. S/he develops many new or modified
schemata as s/he alters or extends her/his range of action. Adaption results from
the interactionist process between the organism and environment--which helps
the individual to organise her/his life experiences from the environment. In
adapting to events in life the person tries to assimilate all experiences and
information into existing cognitive structures. If this is possible, s/he
accommodates by changing the cognitive structure. By assimilating the new to
the old and by accommodating the old to the new, the person learns. The process
of adaptation continues throughout life.

Based on his characterization of cognitive functioning as consisting of

organization and adaptation, Piaget has presented a definition of intelligence.
He believes that intelligence is not a fixed trait set for life but rather a process of
adapting to the environment. The environment makes demands from the person.
These demands are reacted to when the person assimilates aspects of the
environment into existing cognitive structures and accommodates the cognitive
structures to environmental demands. In the first case, the person’s behaviour is
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determined by existing cognitive structures. In the second case, the person’s Approaches to Learning
cognitive structures are modified by the environment. The result is adaptive
behaviour or intelligence. Adaptation is a process through which a person seeks
an equilibration or balance between what s/he presently perceives, knows and
understands and what s/he sees in any new phenomena, experiences or problems.

Adaptation is the human tendency to survive for equilibrium or balance between

self and environment. The equilibrium is conceptualised by Piaget as a dynamic
and growth-producing process which would be achieved at each intellectual stage,
before a person reaches the next level of cognitive functioning. Therefore, the
adaptation and the growth of organisms provide an explanation of the problems
and processes involved in the adaptation of intelligence or knowledge (Piaget
1980).

Piaget has mapped out in detail the stages by which cognitive functions develop
and the times at which given concepts may be expected to appear.

Piaget has propounded the four stages thus - probably the clearest version of his
classification as sensory-motor, preoperational, concrete operations and formal
operations. Each stage represents an increase over the previous one in the child’s
ability to think abstractly, predict the world correctly, explain reasons for things
accurately, and generally deal intellectually with the world.

i) Sensory-motor stage: This is known as the first stage. It extends roughly

from birth to the age two. As the names implies, the schema that develops
during this stage are those involving the child’s perception of the world and
the coordination by which s/he deals with the world. It is during this period
that the child forms his/her most basic conceptions about the nature of material
world. He learns that an object that has disappeared can reappear. S/he learns
that is the same object even though it looks very different when seen from
different angles or in different illuminations. S/he relates the appearances,
sound and touch of the object to one another. S/he discovers ways in which
her/his own actions affect objects, and acquires a primitive sense of causality.
Thus, her/his world becomes increasingly an orderly arrangement of more
or less permanent objects, related casually to each other and to her/his own
behaviour.

ii) Proportional stage: It is known as the second stage and extends roughly
from about age 2 to 7. In this stage, the child begins to exhibit the effect of
having learned language. S/he is able to represent objects and events
symbolically: not just to act towards them, but to think about them. The
children have internal representations of objects before has words to express
them. These internal representations give the child greater flexibility for
dealing adaptively with the world, and attaching words to them gives him/
her much greater power of communication. However, his/her intellectual
abilities are still very limited compared with those of an adult. His/her thinking
is still decidedly concrete by an adult standard. S/he tends to focus on one
aspect of a situation to the exclusion of others, a process that Piaget calls
cantering. His/her reasoning can be a logician’s nightmare, and s/he finds it
difficult to understand how anyone else can see things from a point of view
other than his/her own. S/he is thus, as the name of the stage implies, still
early in the process of acquiring a logical, adult intellectual structure.
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Learning: Perspectives and iii) Concrete operation stage: The third stage extends from age 7 to 11. Again,
Approaches
this represents an increase in flexibility. In this case, over the preoperational.
The sort of operations to which the name of the stage refers includes
classifying, combining and comparing. The child in the stage of concrete
operations can deal with the relationships among hierarchies of terms such
as robin, bird and creature. S/he is aware as the preoperational child is not,
of the reversibility of operations. What is added can be subtracted, and a
substance that has been changed in shape can be restored to its original shape.
A girl at this stage will not fall into the fallacy that a preoperational girl may
of saying, “I have a sister, but she doesn’t have any sister”.

Again, however, Piaget pointed out this is not the whole story. One child
may have learned arithmetical operations by role fail to supply them when
appropriate, while another child may deal effectively with problems without
ever having been exposed to arithmetic. Learning of symbolic manipulations
may be helpful to the child in going from the wide variety of concrete
situations is more important.

Dominance of logical
mathematical experience
Formal operational

“True”
Logical structures/operations are Concrete operational
developed

“Transductive”
logic dominates; beginning of qualitative Preoperational
identities Semi-logical thinking
(a=a, b=b)

Dominance of physical experience, action

Sensorimotor: Action
schems are the only logico-mathematical
experiences
oriented intelligence
action scheme

Fig 10.1: Cycle of Cognitive Development

iv) Formal operations stage: The fourth stage and final stage around age 11
years. It involves improvements in abstract thinking, continuing to about
age 16. In this stage, the capacity for symbolic manipulation reaches its peak.
Though children in the previous stage have been able to perform a number
of logical operations, they haved one so within the context of a concrete
situation. Now, the person intellectuality, because s/he is no longer a child,
can view the issues abstractly. They can judge the validity of logical argument
in terms of their formal structure, independent of content. S/he can explore
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 different ways of formulating a problem and see what their logical Approaches to Learning
consequences are. S/he is at least ready to think in terms of a realm of abstract
propositions that fit in varying degrees in the real world that s/he observes.
S/he may not demonstrate all the tendencies in every possible situation, but
s/he has reached the stage at which he is capable of doing so. The intellectual
apparatus of formal reasoning that provides the basis for so much human
achievement is at least potentiality at his/her disposal.

Children may not show those stages within the age-ranges specified above,
because of differing home and school environments. But what Piaget insists on,
is that the sequence of these stages in intellectual development remains the same
for all children.

At the higher education level, we are concerned with learners who are at the
fourth stage i.e. formal operation stage. Therefore, we should know more about
this stage. (learners at undergraduate level are expected to beat this stage).
The important characteristics of the formal operation period/stage are listed below:
• Learner at this stage survey many possibilities
• They design a system of what is hypothetically possible, is structured and
followed by empirical verification.
• They can conceive of an imaginary world.
• They become critical of their own standards and look objectively at the
assumptions in hand
• They accept assumptions for the sake of argument
• They generate hypotheses, discuss and proceed them to test
• They try to generalize things
• They become conscious of their own thinking and provide rational/
justification for their thinking, judgement and actions.
• The older adolescents or adults are sufficiently detached from their ego and
from their inner world to be objective one. They are also detached enough
from external things to be objective observers and to be able to reason about
the assumptions and the hypotheses and as such they can establish general
laws.
• They go even to the extent of finding empirical and mathematical proofs for
their observations.
• At this stage, thinking goes beyond the immediate present and attempts are
made by them to establish as many vertical relationships as possible.
• Notions, ideas and concepts are formal which belong to the present and
future.

2.5.4 Educational Implications

The following important direct/indirect educational implications of Piaget’s
approach to cognitive development are given below:
• Piaget’s description of cognition (as a result of interaction of the individual
with environment, accompanies by the process of assimilation and
accommodation) includes that cognitive development is a continuous process
39
Learning: Perspectives and from birth to adulthood. This theory believes in gradual progression from
Approaches
one stage to another. Therefore, the teacher should try to determine the levels/
stages of development of learners and accordingly s/he should plan his
instruction/teaching.
• The relationship between the educational system and the child will be a
unilateral and reciprocal one.
• Childhood is accepted as a necessary and important phase in the development
of logical thinking.
• Science and mathematics are taught with actions and operations. Such
instructions should begin in nursery school with concrete exercises.
• Experimental procedures and free activity through training should be
introduced for both liberal arts and science students.
• Active methods that require the learners to rediscover or reconstruct the
truths to be learned should be used. The teacher also provides counter
examples to the learner that lead to reflection of their often hasty solutions.
• Audio-visual aids can serve only as accessories in the learner’s personal
investigations of truth.
• Give-and-take can be developed in the group.
• Spontaneous activity with small group of learners brought together by means
of their mutual interest in a particular activity should be the major feature of
classroom learning. The classroom should be a centre of real activities carried
out in common so that logical intelligence may be elaborated through action
and social change.
• Learners must be permitted to make their own mistakes and to correct these
errors themselves. Therefore, classroom instruction must be planned to
facilitate the process of construction, assimilation and accommodation
through which physical/empirical abstraction and reflective abstraction can
occur.
• The process of experimentation by learner at all ages is important. Only
through experimentation the learner can acquire the skills that are necessary
for formal operational thought. More importantly, experimentation often gives
birth to new ideas. For young children, their first new ideas may not seem so
original to adults. But such a practice in which children are encouraged to
develop new ideas can lead to original discoveries. The more we can help
children to have their own wonderful ideas and feel good about themselves
for having them, the more likely it is that they will someday happen upon
wonderful ideas that no one else happened upon before.
• The cognitive activity that is generated by experimentation is essential. A
child can be mentally active without physical manipulation just as s/he can
be mentally passive while actually manipulating objects.
• Many activities in pre-school curricula can provide opportunities for cognitive
development. Block painting, finger painting, musical games, cooking,
dramatic plays etc. engage the children in empirical and logical-mathematical
abstraction.
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• The classroom should provide situations to children in constructing their Approaches to Learning
own knowledge so that the children can comprehend the world in new ways
at different cognitive levels.
• Classroom activities should maximize the child’s opportunities to construct
and coordinate many relationships that he or she is capable of exercising.
• At the pre-school level, the child is more interested in the observable effects
or his or her actions than in relating the result to an organized cognitive
structure.
• The implications of educational practice are important. First, a variety of
activities games and experiences should be provided to that the learner can
exercise his or her developing subsystems. One suggestion is to use
individualized mathematics laboratories that utilize a variety of materials
for measurement and experimentation. Examples include blocks, dried peas,
matchboxes, drinking straws, pipe cleaners and so on.
• Games and activities that can provide experience with classification and
serration are also needed. Classification games can be developed using blocks
or pieces of plastic or felt that vary in two properties, such as colour and
shape. Circles, squares and triangles in red, blue, yellow and green for
example may be used in a variety of ways. Card games in which shapes and/
or colours are to be matched is one example.
• Drill and practice should be given in the classroom to make teaching-learning
effective.

2.5.5 Limitations of Piaget’s Approach

Piaget’s approach to learning has some limitations also. The important limitations
are as follows:
• Piaget does not seem to make his terminology very clear to his readers.
• He is too preoccupied with numerous epistemological considerations.
• Piaget’s entire work lacks scientific methodology as conventionally
understood.
• His emphasis is on concepts of relationships and he does not investigate
nominal concepts.
• It’s lengthy and time consuming.
• No direct teaching is involved.
• Mathematics and Science cannot be applied in early childhood.
• Tailoring narrow exercises for individual children is both impractical and
unnecessary.
• The child does not notice the contradictions in his or her own explanations.
• Children may lose confidence in their ability to figure things out.
• a child cannot engage in abstract thought and cannot perform any useful
scientific activity.
• The preoperational child or even the concrete operational child is not yet
ready for reading since his thought structures are as yet primitive.
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Learning: Perspectives and
Approaches Check Your Progress 2
Notes: a) Write your answer in the space given below.
b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of the unit.
1) if you have to understand learning by problem solving, which approach
is useful and why?
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2) What is the role of perception in the cognitive approach?
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2.6 SOCIAL LEARNING APPROACHES

In contrast to behaviourist and cognitivist thinker, there were few who proposed
that role of social interaction is very important in learning. Bruner (1986) said “I
have come increasingly to recognize that learning in most settings as a
communal activity, a sharing of culture.”

Social perspective to understand learning was considered as important one by

Bandura in his social learning theory as well as by Lev Vygotsky in his social
constructivist approach. We will discuss in brief about these theories here.

2.6.1 Social Learning Theory

In his social learning theory, Bandura distinguishes acquisition of knowledge
(learning) with observable performance based on that knowledge
(behaviour). His theory emphasised on learner through observing others’
behaviour and actions, this he called observational learning. We will discuss in
details about observational learning in unit 4 on this block.

2.6.2 Social-constructivist Approach

Vygotsky advocated socio-cultural perspective of learning. According to him,
social and cultural interactions for a learner are very important. He assumed that
“every function in a child’s cultural development appears twice: first, on
the social level and later of the individual level; first between the people and
then inside the child.” (1978, p. 57)
Vygotsky had a belief that a child learn better if s/he receives the support from a
42 more learned individual. Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) and scaffolding
are the key concepts as outcome of his theory. We will discuss in detail about all Approaches to Learning
these in unit 3.

2.7 HUMANISTIC APPROACH TO LEARNING

Humanists think learning as the way in which the individuals develop a unique
way of controlling their environment and attaining the best potential. Humanistic
approach is based on humanism, which is a philosophy of Man-ism or Human
being-ism, concerned with human and humane interests, characteristically human,
not supernatural belonging to human beings and not to external nature, raising a
human being to his/her greatest potential or giving him/her as a human being,
the greatest satisfaction.
The major tenets of the humanistic approach are given below:
• Humanistic psychologists view learning as a process that is inevitable and
unique for every individual
• Human beings concerns -what a human being ought to be
• An individual can distinguish between herself/himself and her/his
environment and is inherently capable of taking responsible decision and
learning effectively
• A child is capable of learning. Let it learn with love and peace (without any
external pressure).
• Human beings possess the power or potential of solving problems through
reasons courage, reason vision and human virtues.

2.7.1 Concept of Humanistic Approach to Learning

The term ‘humanistic’ originates from ‘humanism’ which has been derived from
the Latin word ‘Homo’ means ‘human being’. Thus, literally speaking humanism
is the philosophy in which the human being occupies a central place. The
humanistic approach makes use of creativity, belongingness, self-development,
co-existence, mental health, values, etc. It is comparatively a new approach to
learning.

2.7.2 Characteristics of Humanistic Approach to Learning

The important characteristics of the humanistic approach are given below:
• It is concerned with the welfare of all human beings.
• This approach emphasises on learning in natural environment of human love,
peace cooperation, freedom, equality rather than of physical values, money,
wealth, etc.
• It believes in co-existence.
• It considers the best learning as based on truth, good and beautiful.
• It believes that learning becomes effective when is need-based.
• Its emphasis is on learning at the higher level i.e. self-transcendence and
self-actualization.
• Learning is experience-based.
• It emphasises on self-motivation for better learning.
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Learning: Perspectives and • To increase the learner’s self-direction and independence.
Approaches
• It helps learners take more responsibility for determining what they are
learning.
• It increases learner’s reactivity.
• It develops an interest in the arts.
• It fosters curiosity.

2.7.3 Contribution of Psychologists Towards Humanistic

Psychology
In the latter half of the twentieth century, it was felt that both psycho-analysis
and behaviourism tried to describe the human being to their best, however, both
have failed to study the human being as ‘human being’. In the year 1961, a
Journal of Humanistic Psychology was published which made it clear that
humanistic psychology addresses such issues as individual’s needs, creativity,
belongingness, self-development, self-actualization, freedom, mental health,
values, responsibilities, etc. Individualism, existentialism, empiricism and
culturalism, etc. are different landmarks inn this approach. Thus, humanistic
psychology includes human beings as well as their total capacities, characteristics
and potentialities.

Maslow has described the existentialist psychology, which indicates that the
lacunae and shortcomings of an individual succeed in maintaining its existence.
He named these lacunae and shortcomings ‘needs’ and listed different types of
needs, on the fulfillment of which the individual exists.
Maslow has analyzed five types of needs as given below:

Fig. 2.1: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

These needs are presented in a sequential order, known as the hierarchical model
of needs. According to Maslow, people learn to satisfy these needs depending
upon the individual’s experience, exposure, etc.

According to him, a highly developed person (self-actualized person) develops

the following characteristics:
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• S/he understands the relationship between natural and realities. Identifies Approaches to Learning
his/her responsibilities and work accordingly.
• S/he believes in the present and not in the past or future.
• S/he loves others and has faith in democratic principles.
• S/he makes use of his/her creativity for the welfare of society.
Moslow advocated three methods of learning - subjective, objective, and
interpersonal. The subjective method includes self-experiences or internal
experiences, the objective method includes external experiences based on
reasoning and logic and the interpersonal method includes the description of
other people based on observation. All the three methods are linked to each
other. However, humanistic psychology puts more weight on the third approach
i.e. interpersonal.

Carl Rogers was another humanistic psychologist who has described ‘self’,
‘becoming’, ‘ experiencing’ and ‘concepts of humanistic approach’ on the basis
of subjective as well as objective factors. We can divide his theory into two
parts: concept and process.

Concept: The main concept in his theory are - experience field, self-ego-ideal,
real ego, congruence, incongruence and self-actualization.

Process: The process includes - barriers in the psychological development,

relationship between individual and society, emotions and learning.
According to Roger’s theory, learning in an individual takes place through its
interactions with the external environment based on its internal experiences.
Therefore, different individuals have different types of interactions and learning.
This type of reaction goes on between activity and it aims the human being and
his/her values, the human being and his/her previous experiences the human
being and his/her self, etc. When this reaction remains positive as per his/her
internal self, assimilation takes place and relationship exists. S/he becomes a
better learner, a better human being and a well-adjusted person.

2.7.4 Educational Implications

This approach recommends such educational reforms like open schools, ungraded
classes, free schools, etc. The following are the main implications of the
humanistic approach to the learning process.
Place of the child in teaching-learning: This approach believes in ‘child-
centered-education’. Therefore, it emphasizes on reach, touch and teach the
child according to his nature, interests, aptitudes, etc. The teacher should assess
a student’s attitude, aptitude, potentialities, abilities, level of aspiration, his/her
social, emotional, intellectual, physical, aesthetic development and mental health
and should plan his teaching activities accordingly.
Emphasis on individuality: According to this approach, a human being is a
wonderful creation. S/he has his/her own individuality, which should be respected
and developed through education. Individual differences should be respected
and internal virtues of individual be developed.
Understanding the child: According to the humanistic approach, we should
know our learner: their interest, personality, capabilities and background 45
Learning: Perspectives and environment and use teaching methods and contents accordingly. The important
Approaches
humanistic principle of education given by this approach is ‘first, understand the
child and then teach’.
Method of teaching: In this approach, the methods of teaching are developed
based on psychological principles. Active learning is more emphasised. Learner’s
readiness, mental set and motivation are considered as basis for deciding the
method of teaching to be used.
Discipline: This approach emphasises on self-discipline and self-control.
Place and role of Teacher: This humanistic approach recognizes the teacher as
a guide, friend and helper of the learners in their learning. The teacher is considered
as the milestone in the journey of total development of the child.
Humanistic approach is a democratic approach, which recognizes ‘child’ and
advocates the providing of a rich environment with a view to have its all-round
development.
Besides, there are some more strong points in favour of this approach to learning:
• Teachers should thoroughly understand their subject-matter and make wise
use of research-demonstrated principles of motivational learning. They must
understand themselves as an important teaching aid.
• Teachers should keep in mind that learners bring their total selves to class.
They bring heads that think, They bring values that help them to filter what
they see and hear. This brings the unique learning styles among the students.
• Teachers must know that learners may be different in learning experiences.
• To encourage the learners to think and get involved in abstract discussion.
• A series of questions should be brought up and discussions should be started
actively or passively in the classroom. So that learners may give suggestions
freely and run the classroom democratically.
• The teachers should help the learners to decide for themselves who they are
and what they want to be. The learners can decide for themselves. They have
a conscious mind that enables them to make choices. Through their capacity
to make choices they can at least have a change at developing the sense of
self-necessary for productive lives.
• Teachers should understand the learner’s point of view. The attempt is to see
the world as the student sees it, accept it as truth for him/her and not to force
him/her into changing.
• Good teaching is best done through a process of helping learners explore
and understand the personal meanings.

2.7.5 Limitations of Humanistic Approach

Like other approaches to learning, the humanistic approach to learning has been
limitations. Important of them are as follows:
• It seems like too much commonsense and too little like science.
• It makes hard to identify humanists and non-humanists.
• It totally depends upon the thinking of one’s individual not others.
46 • It does not believe in passive listening.
• It is based upon a native type of phenomenology only. Approaches to Learning

• It is impossible to recognize an authentic person.

• It is difficult in verifying conceptual conclusions.
• It is known as open rather than a closed system of education.
• It is difficult to define simple religious optimism or emphasizing the power
of positive thinking.
• It is difficult to accumulate objectively verified knowledge.

Check Your Progress 3

Notes: a) Write your answer in the space given below.
b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of the unit.
1) What is the role of ‘needs’ in the humanistic approach?
...............................................................................................................
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2) How is ‘self’ important in the humanistic approach?
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3) How is ‘child-centred education’ an epitome of the humanistic
approach?
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2.8 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, we have discussed in brief the meaning of approaches to learning,
and distinguished it from method and mode. Then, we tried to describe two
types of approaches – deep approach and surface- approach.

Under the behaviouristic approach we have studied its basic tenets, characteristics
and the concept of behaviourism. Pavlov’s classical conditioning and Skinner’s
47
Learning: Perspectives and operant conditioning theories have been described in brief to understand its main
Approaches
concepts and limitations. You have also studied educational implications of the
behaviouristic approach to learning.

Under the cognitive approach to learning, you have studied tenets, important
concepts like differentiation, generalisation and restructuration. You have also
studied the Jean Piaget’s cognitive approach to learning and its process like
assimilation, accommodation, equilibration and adaptation. A brief introduction
of social learning theories is also given. Details are in next units.

Similarly, under the humanistic approach, we discussed its basic tenets and
described the meaning of humanism in relation to the humanistic approach. In
the latter part the important characteristics of the humanistic approach have also
been presented. We have also tried to present the contributions of various
psychologists towards humanistic psychology and described the main theme of
theories given by various humanistic psychologists like Maslow, Carl Rogers.
At the end of the unit, we have given the limitations of this approach and also
discussed the important educational implications which can be drawn from the
humanistic approach to learning.

2.9 UNIT-END EXERCISES

1) Give an article from any journal to two groups of learners and ask them read
and be ready to answer the questions on it. When they complete the reading,
ask some specific questions on the content discussed in the article. On the
basis of answers, analyse, categorise and classify students as the deep learners
and the surface learners.

2) Take any topic of your interest and try to identify the process of differentiation
integration and restructuration of the cognitive approach.

2.10 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS

Chauhan, S.S. (1988): Advanced Educational Psychology, Vikas Publications,
New Delhi.
Kulshrestha, S.P. (1994): Assessing the Non-Scholastic Behaviour of Learning,
Association of Indian Universities, New Delhi.
Mathur, S.S. (1994): Educational Psychology, Loyal Book Depot, Meerut.
Sharma, K.N. (1990): Systems, Theories and Modern Trends in Psychology, H.P.B.
Agra.
Entwistle, Noel (1985): New Directions in Educational Psychology – Learning
and Teaching, TheFalmer Press, London & Philadelphia.
Gredler-Bell, E. Margaret (1986): Learning and Instruction: Theory and Practice,
MacMillan Publishing Company, New York, Collier MachMillan Publishers,
London.
Woolfolk, E. Anita (2013): Educational Psychology, Prentice Hall International
(UK) Limited, London.

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Bigg, L. Morris (1982): Learning Theories for Teachers, Harper & Row Approaches to Learning
Publishers, Inc., 10, East 53rd Street, New Delhi

2.11 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1) Programmed instruction is based on the concept of “immediate feedback”.
Immediate feedback is a form of response which is rewarding. Thus by
rewarding, a learner is motivated to attempt a question. Therefore, the
instruction of a learner is programmed on the basis of her/his pace to learn
for immediate feedback.

2) i) The cognitive approach shall be useful in problem solving. The perception

of the problem involves observation, identification, assimilation, and
restructuring. The cognitive approach involves all these and much more.

ii) Perceptions are vital in forming mental maps and links between problems
and their solutions. The perception of the learner is processed through
differentiation, generalisation and restrcuturation. This is useful in
developing clear learning of the environment in order to solve problems
and develop understanding about reality.

3) i) The humanistic approach is based on the individual’s specific learning

conditions and requirements. Understanding the need of individuals is
the first step towards fulfilment of learning objectives. The humanistic
approach focuses an individuality of the learner and hence considers
individual learners’ need in designing instructional activities.

ii) In the humanistic approach, self is important in understanding the

relationship between nature and realities. It identifies learner’s
responsibilities and work accordingly. A person becomes a better learner,
a better human being and a well-adjusted personality.

iii) The learner according to this approach is always at the receiving end.
There is rather a dynamic interaction between the learner and the teacher.
The focus always remains on the method and patterns that are most
suitable to learner.

49