MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY

FOUNDRY EQUIPMENTS AND MATERIALS

Patterns, moulds-type of moulds, moulding, sand characteristics, core making, melting furnaces. Foundry
materials and tools

Material

Metallic Non-Metallic

Ferrous Non-Ferrous Plastic

(Iron based) Rubber
Wood
Pig Iron Aluminum and its Alloys Fibre
Wrought Iron Copper and its Alloys Canvas
Cast iron Brass Asbestos
Malleable iron Bronze Glass
Ductile or Spheroidal Nickel and its Alloys Leather
Grey(SG) Iron Zinc and its Alloys Jute
Steel – Mild Steel, Titanium etc Refractory
Carbon Steel, Alloy
Steel, Tools Steel,
Stainless Steel

Pig iron 
Pig iron is the raw material obtained from the chemical reduction of iron ore in a Blast furnace

It is the intermediate product of smelting iron ore with a high-carbon fuel such as coke, charcoal usually

with limestone as a flux. 

The process of reduction of iron ore (Hematite, Magnetite, Siderite - generally carbonates, hydrates or oxides of
the metal) to Pig iron by a process called ‘Dry Distillation’ is known as ‘Smelting’

Pig iron has a very high carbon content, typically 3.5–4.5%, which makes it very brittle and not useful directly as
a material and will be available in ‘Ingots’.

Wrought iron
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It is a highly refined iron of 99% with a small amount of slag forged out into fibres useful in blacksmithing
operations
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It is non-corrosive
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The presence of slag produces a stricture which diminishes the effect of fatigue caused by shocks and vibrations
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It is tough, malleable and ductile

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Its ultimate tensile strength is 350 Newton’s per mm 2
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It cannot be melted, but at white heat, it becomes soft enough to take any shape under the hammer ie. Forging
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It will withstand sudden and excessive shock loads without permanent injury
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It s produced by two commercial methods known as Puddling process and Aston or Byers process
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Eg. Chains, Crane hook, Railway coupling, pipe fittings, boiler tubes, utensils etc
Cast iron
 Called as ‘Foundry Engineering’
Malleable iron 
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is cast as White iron, the structure being a metastable( a state of delicate equilibrium whose behavior is
unpredictable) carbide in a pearlitic matrix. Through an annealing heat treatment the brittle as cast
structure is transformed. Carbon agglomerates into small roughly spherical aggregates of graphite leaving
a matrix of ferrite or pearlite according to the exact heat treat used.
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Three basic types of malleable iron are :Blackheart malleable iron, Whiteheart malleable
iron and Pearlitic malleable iron
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It has got good ductility
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Malleable iron also exhibits good fracture toughness properties in low temperature environments
Ductile or Spheroidal Grey iron (SG iron)
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Ductile iron, also known as ductile cast iron, nodular cast iron, spheroidal graphite iron, spherulitic
graphite cast iron and SG iron
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While most varieties of cast iron are brittle, ductile iron is much more flexible and elastic, due to its
nodular graphite inclusions
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In ductile irons the graphite is in the form of spherical nodules rather than flakes (as in grey iron), thus
inhibiting the creation of cracks and providing the enhanced ductility that gives the alloy its name. The
formation of nodules is achieved by addition of nodulizing elements, most commonly magnesium and less
often, cerium, into the melt.
Various Processes of Producing Products
a. By Machining
b. By Moulding ( Casting – Foundry – Metal Casting Process )
c. By injection moulding
d. My Mechanical Working methods like hot rolling, cold rolling, , squeezing (Thread Rolling), punching,
shearing
e. By Forming like Bending, piercing, extrusion, drawing, smithing, forging, Spinning
f. By fabrication through welding
g. Powder Metallurgy
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Metal Castings
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Casting is the process of forming objects by pouring molten metal into a cavity called mould and allowing
it to solidify
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Casting is one of the oldest form of manufacturing process
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Castings are extensively used almost in all engineering applications such as automobiles, Machine Tools,
Aircraft industries, equipments etc
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Reasons for wide applications:
o Cheapest of method of production
o Best way to form contours than any other methods
o Very good in compression
o Can absorb vibrations ie. Damping property
o Can be machined easily without lubrication
o Cheaper than weldments and forgings
o Practically all metals can be cast
o Any size is possible ie few grams to several tones
o Few examples of castings:
 Engine blocks
 Machine tool beds
 Flywheels
 Pulleys
 Gear blanks
 Pipes

Steps involved in making a casting in sand moulds

o Pattern making
o Core making
o Moulding
o Pouring
o Heat treatment – Normalizing, Annealing, Stress relieving
o Shot blasting / sand blasting
o Fettling
o Testing and inspection
Pattern Making and Foundry
PATTERNS
 A pattern is a model of anything so constructed that it may be used to form an impression in damp sand or other
suitable material, called ‘Mould’
 When the mould is filled with molten metal and the metal is allowed to solidify, it forms a reproduction of the
pattern which is known as ‘Casting’.
Functions of a Pattern

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  To produce the mould cavity of appropriate shape and size in which the molten metal can be poured to
obtain desired casting
 To produce seats for cores in the mould in which cores can be placed to produce cavity in the castings.
These prints are called as ‘Core prints’
 To establish the parting surfaces and line in the mould
 To establish distinct locating points in the moulds of which corresponding points on the casting care used
as reference points, for checking the casting dimensions and relative location of machined and other
surfaces
 To enable production of greensand or rammed-up cores within the mould itself
 To minimize defective castings
 To minimize the cost of casting
Pattern Materials : Wood, Metal, Plastics, Rubber, Plaster of Paris and wax
Characteristics of Pattern Materials
- Easily workable, can be easily shaped and joined
- Light in weight
- Strong, hard and durable so that it may be resistant to wear, abrasion and corrosion
- Dimensionally stable in all situation
- Easily available at low cost
- Repairable and reusable
- Able to take good surface finish
Wooden Patterns
Advantages
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Easily available and satisfies most of the aforesaid requirements
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Can be cut into convenient sizes, can be bent to any radius or curving and then joined together by gluing
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Smooth surfaces can be obtained by sanding
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Can be preserved by applying Shellac
Limitations
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It is readily affected by moisture and changes its shape on drying out
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It absorbs moisture from damp moulding sand as well as from atmosphere
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It wears out quickly due to sand abrasion
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It may warp badly, if not stored properly
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Do not last long and hence used when a smaller number of castings are to be produced
General
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Wood should be properly dried before it is used
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It should be straight-grained, free from knots and free from sapwood
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Most commonly used wood varieties are : Teak, Sal, Mahogany, Shisham. Pine, Deodar etc
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Compresses wood laminates and laminated wood impregnates – , Plywoods and card boards are also used

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Advantages of seasoning

 Wood becomes hard

 It becomes more durable
 Its resistance to shock and stresses are increased
 Its workability is improved
 It density is reduced
 It does not warp after seasoning
 Shrinkage does not occur after seasoning
 Defects like twisting, bowing and splitting do not occur
 Its ability for taking up polishing and painting is improved
 Its resistance to fire is increased
Methods of Seasoning

a. Natural or Air seasoning

b. Water seasoning
c. Artificial or Kiln seasoning
d. Other processes - Boiling, Electric seasoning and chemical seasoning
e. A combination of air and kiln seasoning
Metal Patterns
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When a large number of castings are to be produced, metal patterns are preferred
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No moisture absorption, no warpage, Do not change their shape
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Mostly used in machine moulding because of their accuracy, durability and strength
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A metal pattern itself is a cast from a wooden pattern called ‘Master Pattern’
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Metals used for patterns include Cast iron, Steel, Brass, Aluminium, White metal etc
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Cast iron metal pattern
o It is strong and gives a smooth mould surface
o It is resistant to abrasive action of the sand
o They are heavy and brittle in nature
o Rusting is a problem, needs a dry storage
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Steel Patterns
o It is strong and gives a smooth mould surface
o It is resistant to abrasive action of the sand
o Easy to machine
o Difficult to cast
o Rusting problem
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Brass metal pattern
o Preferred when patterns are small in size, since heavier than cast iron
o High cost
o Strong and has more wear resistance
o Takes a better and smoother surface
o Do not rust
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Aluminium metal pattern

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 o Probably the best material for metal patterns
o It melts at low temperature
o It is soft and easy to work ie. high degree of machinability
o Light in weight
o Resistance to corrosion
o Since soft in nature, there is a liability of getting damaged by rough usage
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White metal pattern
o Best material for making intricate and fine shapes
o These alloys are used mostly in die-casting production
o Have low melting point of 200° C
o Has little shrinkage
Plastic Patterns
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They are strong and dimensionally stable
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Resistant to wear
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Do not absorb moisture
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Have very smooth and glossy surface
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Light in weight
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Because of glossy surface, it can be withdrawn from the mould very easily without injuring the mould
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No dry or liquid parting compound is necessary
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Has very low solid shrinkage
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To make a plastic pattern, master wooden pattern is necessary
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Two types:
o Thermo Plastic – The most common material is Ploystyrene foam. It can be easily shaped, machined and
fabricated to form the pattern
o Thermosetting Plastic – Epoxy resin(two components : Binder and hardener) patterns are popular for good
production qualities
Rubber Patterns
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Silicone rubbers are used for forming a very intricate type of die for investment casting

POP Patterns
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Gypsum cement is known as ‘Plaster of Paris’
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Has compressive strength up to 300 Kg / cm2
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It can be readily worked with wood tools
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When talc and cement are mixed with water, it forms a plastic mass capable of being cast into mould

Wax Patterns
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Wax patterns are excellent for investment castings process
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The commonly used waxes are : paraffin wax, shellac wax, bees-wax, ceresin wax, micro-crystalline wax
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High Tensile strength and hardness
Pattern Allowances

Shrinkage Allowance
 All metals contract during cooling from pouring temperature to room temperature

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  The contraction takes place in three forms: liquid contraction, solidifying contraction and solid
contraction
 The liquid contraction and solidifying contraction are compensated by suitably designing the gates
and risers
 The solid liquid contraction has to be compensated by giving extra material in the pattern which is
called as ‘ Shrinkage Allowance.
 For eg. 10.5 mm /metre for Grey Cast iron castings while 21mm /metre for steel castings
 The prominent factors which influence the metal contaction are :
o Pouring temperature
o Design and dimension of the casting
o Type of mould material
o Moulding method
o Mould resistance to shrinkage of metal
o The metal of which the casting is to be made
o The allowances are expressed in mm / metre while the contraction of the metal is always
volumetric
Machining Allowance
 The machining area of the casting are given adequate allowance in addition to shrinkage allowance
 It varies from 1.5 mm to 16 mm but 3 mm is quite common for small and medium size castings
 The amount of this allowance depends upon :
o Size and shape of the casting ie. Small or big
o Casting method
o The type of machining to be employed
o The degree of finish required
o Whether the casting is ferrous or non-ferrous
Draft Allowance
 All pattern are given a slight taper on all vertical surfaces ie. the surfaces parallel to the direction of their
withdrawal from the mould to facilitate easy withdrawal of pattern from the mould without damaging the
surfaces and edges of the mould
 It is provided on both internal and external surfaces
 The amount of draft on internal surfaces is more than the external surfaces
 It can be expressed in degrees but normally in mm / metre
 The factors influencing this draft allowance are : i) Design of pattern, (ii) its vertical height and (iii)
method of moulding

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Distortion Allowance
 When the castings are irregular in shape , the contraction is not uniform throughout the casting due to thermal
stresses
 To eliminate this unevenness, an opposite distortion is provided so that the effect is neutralized
Rapping or Shake Allowance
 During the rapping of the mould, the cavity increases a little and a negative allowance is to be
provided in the pattern to compensate the same

Mould-wall Movement Allowance

 Movement of the walls in sand moulds takes place on account of the excessive heat and static
pressure exerted on the surface layer of sand which comes in contact with the molten metal

 Graphitization is another cause of mould wall movement in case of ferrous castings and needs to
be compensated by providing corresponding allowance in the pattern.

Types of Patterns

 Solid or Single Piece Pattern

 Two-piece or Split Pattern
 Multipiece Pattern
 Match Plate Pattern
 Gated Pattern
 Skeleton Pattern
 Sweep Pattern
 Pattern with Loose Pieces
 Cope and Drag Pattern
 Follow Board Pattern
 Segmental Pattern

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 MOULD MAKING

A Mould may be defined as the negative print of the part to be cast and is obtained by the pattern in the
moulding sand container (boxes) into which molten metal is poured and allowed to solidify

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Moulding is an art of making a mould by using patterns and cores so that molten metal is poured into the
mould to produce castings

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PROPERTIES OF MOULDING SAND
1. Permeability
a. It is the property to allow gases to escape easily from the mould
b. Permeability will be lower if ramming is hard and silt content is high
2. Strength (or) Cohesiveness
a. The property of holding together of sand grains
b. The strength grows with density, clay content of the mi and decreased size of grains
c. When the strength increases, porosity decreases
3. Refractoriness
a. It is the ability of the moulding sand mixture to withstand the heat of melt without showing any
sign of softening or fusion
b. It increases with the grain size of sand and its content and with the diminished amount of
impurities and silt
4. Plasticity (or) Flowability
a. Plastic nature to take any desired shape
5. Collapsibility
a. This is the ability of the moulding sand mixture to decrease in volume to some extent under the
compressive forces developed by the shrinkage of metal during freezing and subsequent cooling

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 b. This property permits the moulding sand to collapse easily during shake out and the cores to
collapse during knock out
c. This property depends on the amount of quartz sand and binders and their types
6. Adhesiveness
a. Property of sand mixture to adhere to moulding boxes so that it does not fall out when the flasks
are lifted and turned over
7. Co-efficient of expansion
a. Should have low co-efficient of expansion
8. Chemical Resistivity
a. The sand should not chemically react or combine with molten metal

Types of Moulding Sand

a. According to their clay bonding material
 Natural Sand – contains sufficient amount of clay and hence no more binders required
 Synthetic Sand – artificially compounded by mixing sand and selected type of clay binders
i. Advantages :
1. Low cost for bulk volume
2. Widespread availability
3. Possibility of sand reclamation and reuse
b. According to their use
 Green Sand
i. sand in its natural or moist state with 20-30% clay
ii. composition : silica, clay, bentonite, coal dust and water
iii. Used for small castings
 Dry Sand – when the moisture is evaporated by drying or baking. Having greater strength and
thermal stability – meant for large and heavy castings
 Loam Sand – sand contains a high as 50% clay – used in loam moulding of large grey iron
castings
 Facing Sand – used for facing the mould and comes in contact with the molten metal when
poured. – possess high strength and refractoriness
 Parting Sand - purely clay-free sand which sprinkled on the pattern and the parting surfaces of
the mould so that cope and drag get separated easily
 Backing or Flour Sand – black in colour, used next to the pattern to back up the facing sand
Core Sand – sand used for preparation of cores, also called as Oil sand

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