AASHTO GUIDE FOR DESIGN OF PAVEMENT STRUCTURES VOLUME 2 Prepared for: AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF STATE HIGHWAY AND TRANSPORTATION OFFICIALS Under Contract With: NATIONAL COOPERATIVE HIGHWAY RESEARCH PROGRAM* ‘TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH BOARD NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL NCHRP PROJECT 20-7 (TASK 24 & 28) AuGuUST 1986AA. BB. ce, DD. EE, FF. GG. HH. 1 3 KK. LL. MM. NN. PP. VOLUME 2 APPENDICES Guidelines for the Design of Highway Internal Drainage Systems Position Paper on Pavement Management Remaining Life Considerations in Overlay Design Development of Coefficients for Treatment of Drainage Development of Reliability Relationship Between Resilient Modulus and Soil Support Relationships Between Resilient Modulus and Layer Coefficients Development of Effective Roadbed Soil Moduli Survey of Current Levels of Reliability Development of Design Nomographs Determination of J-Factor for Undowelled Pavements Develoment of Models for Effects of Subbase and Loss of Support Extension of Equivalency Factor Tables Recommendations for the Selection of an AASHTO Overlay Method Using NDT Within the AASHTO Performance Model Framework Pavement Recycling Fundamentals Development of NDT Structural Capacity RelationshipsIntroduction to Volume 2 INTRODUCTION TO VOLUME 2 DOCUMENTATION OF DEVELOPMENT FOR THE REVISED AASHTO GUIDE FOR DESIGN OF PAVEMENT STRUCTURES The AASHTO Joint Task Force on Pavements formulated a two-phase approach for developing the Guide under the direction of the National Cooperat- ive Highway Research Program (NCHRP). The program was to be conducted in three phases as follows: 1. Phase I - Development of background in- formation and preparation of a general plan, schedule and budget 2. Phase II - Organization, coordination, and initiation of the actual activities 3. Phase II] - Preparation of the revised Guide for submittal to AASHTO. The Phase 1 report was completed in December 1983 and the Phase II report was completed in April 1984. The Phase III documents were developed in two parts, Volume 1 and Volume 2. Volume 1 is contained within a document that was published in notebook form in early 1986, Volume 2, which is the documentation of the research and development for Volume 1, is contained in this report. A third docu- ment, Volume 3, which more fully covers the subject of mechanistic-empirical design procedures addressed initially in Volume 1, Part IV is currently in progress. SCOPE OF REVISED GUIDE Based on a series of meetings with the AASHTO Joint Task Force on Pavements, it was agreed, in principle, that the new Guide would be prepared in four parts as follows and designated as Volume 1. 1. Part I - Pavement Design and Management Principles 2. Part II - Modifications of Existing Guide for Design of New Construction and Re- construction 3. Part II - Pavement Rehabilitation - With and Without Overlays 4, Part IV - Mechanistic-Empirical Design Procedures Further, the following issues and/or items were identified ‘as being of primary importance in the preparation of the Guide: 1, Revision and strengthening of procedures for pavement rehabilitation 2. Methods of rehabilitation other than over- lays 3. Modification of methods for design of new pavernents 4, Development of procedures for incorporat- ing reliability into the design of both rigid and flexible pavements 5. Development of a method for calculating life cycle costs for alternate pavement de- sign strategies 6. Strengthening the Guide with regard to considerations of drainage 7. Development of improved procedures for identifying the strength of foundation ma- terials 8. Development of improved procedures for identifying layer coefficients for, materials of construction used in pavement structures 9. Provision of design procedures for low- volume roads 10. Sufficient development to reasonably assure that the Guide will be useful for a number of years, after which revisions may be nec- essary for some parts of the Guide . 11, Modification of performance algorithms to better represent the effects of environment 12. Development of load equivalency factors (procedures) for non-standard vehicles13. Incorporation of improved pavement man- agement concepts in the organization and description of the revised Guide 14, Development of background information ap- propriate for the development of mechanis- tic pavement design procedures 15. Consideration of the effect of age on pave- ment performance To facilitate completion of the revisions to the Guide by 1985, it was agreed that the basic design con- cepts would be included in Volume 1, and the docu- mentation of changes would be included in Volume 2 MANAGEMENT The approach used to develop the new Guide was a “team approach.” The AASHTO Task Force on Pavements worked closely with project consultants in the development of each of the four parts. The project team was managed by Mr. Fred N. Finn and Dr. B. Frank McCullough. The project assignments for each part of the new Guide are given in Table 1 DOCUMENTATION OF KEY CHANGES IN THE NEW GUIDE The new AASHTO Guide for Design of Pavement Structures provides a comprehensive set of proce- dures which can be used for the design and re- habilitation of pavements, including: 1. flexible (asphalt concrete) surfaces 2. rigid (portland cement concrete) surfaces 3. aggregate surfaces for low-volume roads ‘As mentioned earlier, the new Guide is presented in four parts. Part I provides general background ma- terial to assist the user in the proper use of the design procedures and to provide an understanding of the concepts used in the development of the Guide, Part II provides detailed procedures for the design of new pavements or the reconstruction of existing pavements. Part III presents alternate meth- ods for pavement rehabilitation with or without the addition of an overlay. Finally, Part IV provides a framework for future developments in the design of pavement structures using mechanistic design proce- Design of Pavement Structures dures. Key changes in the Guide are discussed bricf- ly in the following paragraphs and reference is made to a series of Appendices in this report that docu- ‘ment these changes. Major changes that apply to more than one type of pavement structure include: 1. Reliability - The procedure for the design of both rigid and flexible pa Vides a common method for reliabil factor which is multiplied by the design traffic. Reliability is defined as “the prob- ability that a pavement system will perform its intended function over its design life (or time) and under the condition (or envi ment) encountered during operation.” This allows the designer flexibility in designing different classes of roads at different re- liability levels (¢.g., 50%, 75%, 90%, etc.). Appendix EE presents the development of reliability concepts, and Appendix I] Presents the results of a survey establishing reliability levels currently used by the states. 2. Life Cycle Costs - Information has been added relative to economic analysis and comparisons of alternate designs based on life eycle costs. In the Guide, life cycle costs refer to all costs (and in the complete sense, all benefits) which are involved in the provision of a pavement during its complete life cycle. The present worth evaluation made during the specified analysis period is recommended for making the economic analysi 3. Pavement Management - Background in- formation regarding pavement management and its relationship to pavement design is provided in Appendix BB. In this regard, pavement “design” (Part II) and “rehabilitation” (Part III) are considered a total part of the overall pavement manage- ment process. 4. Extended Load Equivalency Values - Load equivalency values were extended to include heavier loads, more axles, and higher levels Of present serviceability indices, (PSI's up to 3.0) in light of the increasing pressure toIntroduction to Volume 2 Table 1. Project assignments for the new Guide. I. Pavement Design and Management —«*F.N. Finn Project Manager Principles W.R. Hudson Team Leader S.B. Seeds Staff Engineer II. Pavement Design for New B.F. McCullough Project Manager Construction and Reconstruction & Team Leader R.G. Hicks Staff Engineer R.L. Lytton Staff Engineer S.B. Seeds Staff Engineer III. Pavement Design for B.F. McCullough Project Manager Rehabilitation of Existing MW, Witzcak Team Leader Pavements M.I. Darter Staff Engineer R.L. Lytton Staff Engineer J. Epps Staff Engineer IV. Mechanistic-Empirical Design F.N. Finn Project Manager Procedure C.L. Monismith Team Leader M.I. Darter Staff Engineer Notes: Special Reviewers include: 1) R. LeClere - Parts 1, 11, U1 2) PLE, Irick - Parts I, II, IITincrease vehicle size and weight. In the new Guide, load equivalency factors are present- ed for the following conditions: a) Single axles - 2 to 50 kips b) Tandem axles - 2 to 90 kips ©) Triple axles - 2 to 100 kips These factors are presented in more detail in Appen- dix MM. 5. Rehabilitation - A major addition to the new Guide is the inclusion of an entire section on rehabilitation. Information is pro- vided in Part III for the rehabilitation with and without overlays. This was prompted by the gradual shift from design and construc- tion activities to maintenance and rehabili tation of the existing USA road network. The primary objective of this section is to Present a comprehensive framework of a method which provides guidance for select- ing the major rehabilitation strategy (or strategies) for use on a particular project. ‘As with the existing Guide, the overall phi- losophy is based on the AASHTO design serviceability-performance concept. This framework allows for a combined design- rehabilitation strategy to be analyzed over @ predefined analysis period. Remaining life considerations in overlay design and con- cepts for the overlay design procedure are presented in Appendices CC and NN, re- spectively. The development of NDT struc- tural capacity evaluation, a requirement for the overlay design procedure, is presented in Appendix PP. The fundamentals of the non overlay strategy (recycling) are presented in Appendix 00. 6. Three Tiered Design Approach - Whereas the original Guide provided only a nomog- raph solution for layer thicknesses, the new Guide permits determination of layer thic- knesses using either of the following meth- ods: a) Catalogue - a listing of designs for dif- ferent traffic and climatic conditions b) Nomograph - similar to the prior Guide Design of Pavement Structures ©) Computer - identifies available pro- grams capable of solving the basic equa- tions Al techniques permit the user to select an optimum design sol 7. Environment ~ Improvements in the Guide were made to allow adjustments in design as a function of direct environmental loss such as frost heave and swelling clays. For indirect environmental loss, emphasis is giv- en to the effect that seasonal variations have on performance. Procedures for cal- culating pavement damage during various seasons of the year are given in Part II, and background for this is provided in Appendix HH. In general, it consists of establishing an effective annual roadbed soil modulus which would produce the same change in PSI as would be obtained by calculating the change with respective seasonal moduli 8. Drainage - Provisions have been made in the Guide for guidance in the design of subsurface drainage systems and for modi- fying the design equations to take advan- tage of improvements in performance re- lated to good drainage. Though the data on effects of moisture are extensive, the actual effect of drainage installations on pavement life is limited. In this Guide, drainage is treated by considering the effect of water on the properties of the pavement layers and their effect on the structural capacity of the pavement. It is recognized that added work is needed to document the actual ef- fect of drainage on pavement life. For new design (Part Il), the effect of drainage is considered by modifying the structural layer coefficient (flexible pavements) and the load transfer coefficient (rigid pavements) as a function of: a) quality of drainage (e.g., time required to drain) b) percent of time the pavement structure is exposed to moisture levels approach- ing saturation The development of coefficients for treatment of drainage is presented in Appendix DD. Details of the design of subsurface drainage systems were feltIntroduction to Volume 2 M2. important, thus they were included in Appen- dix AA. 9. Mechanistic-Empirical Design Procedure - 10. ‘An overview of the state of the knowledge concerning improved design concepts is pro- vided in Part IV of the Guide. While these procedures have not, as yet, been incor- porated into the Guide, extensive informa- tion is provided in Volume 3 as to how the methods could be used in the future when enough documentation is provided. Design Nomographs - The development in- formation for the numerous nomographs used in the Guide is contained in Appendix Jd Flexible Pavement The major changes related solely to flexible pave- ment design and/or rehabilitation include: Resilient Modulus - AASHTO Test Meth- od 7-274 (resilient modulus of fine grained soils and granular materials) is recommend- ed as the definitive test for characterizing soil support. The old soil support scale in the Guide has been replaced with resilient modulus. Guidelines for relating resilient modulus to soil support values are also pro- vided in the Guide. User agencies, however, are encouraged to obtain modulus test equipment and trained personnel to measure modulus directly. Appendix FF provides the information pertaining to the development of the resilient modulus scale. Layer coefficients - The resilient modulus test has also been recommended as the pro- cedure to be used in assigning layer coeffi- cients to both stabilized and unstabili material. These relationships are based on available literature and, to some extent, on theoretical development. These develop- ments are presented in Appendix GG. As with soil support, guidelines are provided to relate modulus to layer coefficient. Until user agencies develop expertise with the modulus equipment, however, they can use prior relationships developed between CBR, R-value, unconfined compressive strength, and so forth, and layer coefficients. Rigid Pavements The major changes related solely to rigid pave- ment design and/or rehabilitation include: Tied Shoulders and Widened Lanes - A procedure is provided for the design of rigid pavements with tied shoulders and widened lanes. For example, for concrete pavements with tied shoulders or widened lanes, the load transfer coefficient is reduced by rec- ognizing improved load distribution char- acteristics. This results in reduced slab thickness or, for the same slab thickness, improved pavement and shoulder perfor- mance. This documentation is presented in Appendix KK. ‘The loss of support beneath a rigid pave- ment has a major impact on performance. This is accounted for by the loss of support term in Part II, and the documentation is provided in Appendix LL.Guidelines for Design of Highway Internal Drainage Systems AAI APPENDIX AA GUIDELINES FOR THE DESIGN OF HIGHWAY INTERNAL DRAINAGE SYSTEMS AA.1_ GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS AA.L Introduction Research has established that inadequate drainage adversely affects pavement performance (/). Prior to the development of pavement designs, consideration should be given to experience gained with drainage problems on similar improvements in the area. A review of the existing conditions should provide formation on specific problem areas that may re- quire corrective drainage treatment and subsurface drainage as design. Drainage conditions may be divided into the fol- lowing two main categories (Figure 1): A) Drainage of the pavement system due to roof leakage (water entering the pavement interior through cracks and joints) over “impermeable” subgrades resulting in a “bathtub” condition when the entrapped water cannot readily escape. B) Drainage of the subgrade due to high groundwater tables or drainage of free wa- ter due to temporary perched conditions. Urban highways and arterial streets designed with curbs, gutters, catch basins and storm sewers are considered by some to possess adequate drainage provisions unless the roadway is close to or below the groundwater table. Where sufficiently permeable subgrade soils are themselves in a drained environ- ‘ment, there may be no real need for a subsurface drainage system. The pavement design procedure itself should always require checking for low per- meability layers (natural or man made) which could ‘cause temporary perched water tables. AA.1.3. Materials The elements used in an internal drainage system may generally be divided into four categories: 1. Underdrain pipes 2. Aggregate filters and permeable media 3. Geotextiles 4. Outlets with headwalls or other protection Internal drainage implies drainage below the ground/pavement surface. The internal drainage sys- tem’s purpose is to provide for the removal of free water entrapped in the pavement system and/or the subgrade (Figure 2). The underdrain pipe may be manufactured of concrete, clay, bituminized fiber metal or various plastics; they may be smooth or corrugated, round or half round. While the majority of these products are perforated, a few are designed to take water at the joints. Basic requirements are that they be manufac- tured of a material that will be durable in the physical and chemical environment in which they are to be placed for the design life of the improve- ment. Aggregates utilized in developing the filters and permeable media should consist of sound, clean, granular materials with zero plasticity. The grada- tion should be selected to protect against the loss of soil fines by hydraulic piping while still providing sufficient drainage capacity. Many proprietary types of geotextiles are ave able. They are generally manufactured of synthetic fibers and may be woven or non-woven to provide a porous cloth-like material. Their purpose in drainage systems are to serve as an element(s) in a mul- tilayered filter system acting as a replacement for a layer of granular material. The opening size of the geotextile should be compatible with both the pro- tected layer and the element into which the free water drains. Headwalls are protective devices of steel, concrete, or other durable materials installed to protect the outer end of the drain pipe against crushing. AA.L.4 Design The design of the drainage system consists of developing drainage components for the internal drainage condition that will provide desired results for the particular design section, employing economi- cal materials that will be effective throughout the design life.*y eanatd faa “Worst Condition” Drainage Situations Dye tye eee tb aay PAINFALL, | Why were LL ‘Relctively impervious base 7 Low permeabitity subgrode ——> ROOF LEAKAGE f Bteeding NA Relonvely imperdous bese \———Soturoted sabgrace > HIGH GROUND WATER TABLE & g 3 2+z aan8ya Syam, obout € Keep Joints os well ‘seoled 8 possible ELEMENTS OF INTERNAL DRAINAGE SYSTEM suaishg aBoujoug youserys komysiy fo w8isa 40f souyopng, eryAad It is also appropriate to recognize that no subsur- face drainage system can perform acceptably with- out the problem of adequate surface drainage first being addressed. In rural areas this generally implies ‘opening the longitudinal drainage ditches early dur- ing construction and maintaining these ditches throughout the performance life of the roadway. The drainage system's effectiveness is measured bby the time required to achieve removal of free water from the pavement structure without a s cant loss of efficiency with the passage of time and without transporting soil fines out of the subgrade, subbase or base. Groundwater tables will occasionally be encoun- tered in proximity of the proposed grade. Free water must be removed in such situations to avoid prob- Jems such as erosion of subgrade and pavement base, loss of support, possible frost heave, and continually weak subgrades. Depression of the free water surface below the depth of frost penetration is frequently desirable. Each drainage system should be individually de- signed for the environment in which it is to function. Tt must accommodate inflow while providing protec- tion to adjacent soil to prevent piping. The gradation of the aggregates must be designed so there will be no loss of filter fines into a collector pipe or issuing from the discharge edge of the permeable media. AALS Summary The condition of drainage that will be attained during and after construction of the improvement must be properly diagnosed. Should a drainage sys- tem prove necessary, the design scheme and the components employed therein must be compatible with the environment in which they will serve to assure successful system performance. Usually more than one functional system can be designed for any given set of conditions. However, the most appro- Priate cost and performance-effective method can only be developed from a knowledge of the potential problem, the several elements of the system and their physical and chemical compatibiit AA. MATERIALS. ‘AA.2.1. Introduction The materials used in the free water internal drainage system play a major role in the efficiency Design of Pavement Structures and long term effectiveness of the installation. The materials must be physically and chemically stable within their intended environment, structurally ade- quate for the anticipated stress-strain levels, and properly sized to accommodate the anticipated in- flow volumes while serving as effective filter media and withstand routine maintenance procedures. Materials used in an underdrain system will gen- erally consist of one or more of the following: A) Aggregates B) Geotextiles ©) Pipe underdrain and/or collector Aggregates may serve one or more functions with- in the underdrain system. The drain as a whole must be able to; (1) collect the free water passing through and/or store temporarily within the pavement sys- tem, (2) prevent infiltration or transportation of soil fines from the subgrade and aggregate subbase and/or base into filter systems and (3) may be used as the principal element of the drain system to Femove the inflow. To satisfy these requirements, the particle sizes must be properly graded for the par- ticular application and sufficiently durable to with- stand degradation under the anticipated loads, al- ternate freezing and thawing, and chemical action, Geotextiles, if employed, will generally be used as either an outer or inner layer of a multilayer system, such as may be necessary when a single layer cle- ment proves deficient in satisfying all the require- ments for long term effective operation. The geotex- tile should have sufficient strength and durability to withstand the handling stresses common to the placement and other construction procedures. The range of openings must be sufficient to provide the degree of filtration necessary to protect the soil against piping and erosion, yet the total open area and permeability must be sufficient to pass the an- pated inflow without creating a dam that is less permeable than the soil being protected. The geotex- tile must have a chemical composition that will be stable and durable for performance during its service life. The openings may be uniform or non-uniform depending upon the style of manufacture and the openings should remain reasonably constant in size under the stresses normal to placement and service life. A certain degree of elasticity is usually desir- able to compensate for unanticipated localized high stress conditions which are almost certain to be experienced somewhere in each installation. The spe- cial provision developed should be written to provide for competition by a number of manufacturers and,Guidelines for Design of Highway Internal Drainage Systems if possible, to specify physical properties that appear appropriate and reasonable for the specific installa- tion. The properties must be selected recognizing the possibility of unanticipated construction problems and delays, such as a very rough subgrade or UV degradation (2), ‘The pipe underdrain is provided as the vehicle to convey water out of the drainage collector. Industry has provided a considerable number of products ranging from clay tile to corrugated metal to various shapes, sizes and types of plastic pipe. Physical strength is a major concern since the pipe may be subjected to construction loading that exceeds any loads ever anticipated during its performance life. The pipe selection should be durable within the chemical environment into which it shall be placed. This is a viable concern since recent investigations of isolated and unique situations have shown compara- tively rapid deterioration of some types of pipe, ¢.8.. the metal pipes in areas of conspicuous mine waste for coal seam drainage, conducive to a significant acid content of ground water and surface runoff. Some metal pipes have been adversely affected by iron bacteria resulting in the need for pipe replace- ment. Some types of plastic pipes are also subject to exterior damage by gnawing rodents. The tolerances to which the products have been manufactured should be within limits that will assure a satisfactory connection or joint. The openings (perforations or slots), if any, should be made sufficiently close to the specified size so that the total cross sectional area of the openings are sufficient to accept cal- culated inflow, yet are not of such size per hole to admit aggregate particles from the granular filter clement. The nature of the joints, when specified, should prevent misalignment of the joint, and pro- vide openings sized to preclude piping the aggregate from the granular filter element. Headwalls, when provided, serve as protection of the drain outlet against damage. Since the headwall is exposed to the effects of weathering plus the ‘oceasional loading from maintenance equipment, the products used should be durable and have sufficient strength to sustain anticipated loads. The protection, device should be designed so that it will not pose a safety hazard to cither maintenance operations nor to fast moving vehicular traffic forced from the traveled way onto shoulders or foreslopes (Figure 3) AAS Most plastic pipe will deteriorate with ultraviolet exposure and should be protected from the sun, AA.2.2. Example Specification The detailing of material specifications for all drainage conditions is not possible because the range of products is of such a magnitude and the problems relating to special areas and unique con‘ broad. Furthermore, current research will provide extensive added valuable insight to the performance of geotextiles. Therefore, the materials specification included with this appendix is offered primarily as an example. Detailed specifications required to sat- isfy the existing conditions should be prepared for each improvement. Granular Materials. The granular materials used in a filter system shall consist of hard, durable particles. When the filter element is to consist of a graded sand or gravel, the gradation shall satisfy the controlling filter design criteria for each situation. Fine filter aggregates (concrete sand) should not consist of crushed carbonates as they can readily go into solution with time. Geotextiles. The geotextile shall be made from a strong, tough, porous nylon, polypropylene, or other rotproof polymeric fibers formed into a fabric of the woven or non-woven type. The geotextile shall be free of any treatment or coating which might signifi- cantly alter its physical properties and be dimensio ally stable so the fibers maintain their relative posi tions with respect to each other. Storage and han- dling of geotextiles shall be in accordance with the manufacturer's recommendations except that in no case shall the geotextiles be exposed to direct sun- light, ultra-violet rays, temperatures greater than 60° Celsius (140° Fahrenheit), mud, dirt, dust and debris to the extent that its strength or toughness arc diminished or its filtration characteristics changed. Torn or punctured geotextiles shall not be used. Recommended minimum Geotextile selection criteria for filtration and drainage applications are set forth in Table 1 Pipe Underdrains. Pipe underdrains may be made of various materials. They shall satisfy the appro- priate specification as indicated below:Design of Pavement Structures ye view saorsép weabway ETE RODENT SHIELD DETAIL (ALTERNATES) ea vivetees ag yy BNE swore are DESIGN NOTE The Designer should consider use of an 18" bardar of sod on new construction where erosion could be @ problem. Other oporoved erosion contro! materiois may also be used. CONCRETE HEADWALL FOR PIPE ORAIN Figure 3.Guidelines for Design of Highway Internal Drainage Systems Table 1. Recommended minimum engineering fabric selection criteria in drainage and filtration applications. AAT I. PIPING RESISTANCE (soil retention - all applications) A, Soils with 50% or less particles by weight passing U. S. No. 200 Sieve: BOS No. (fabric) > 30 sieve B. Soils with more than 50% particles by weight passing U. S. No. 200 Sieve: EOS No. (fabric) > 50 sieve NOTE 1. Whenever possible, fabric with the lowest possible Equivalent Opening Size (E0S) No. should be specified. 2. When the protected soil contains particles from 1- inch size to those passing the U. S. No. 200 Sieve, use only the gradation of soil passing the U. S. No. 4 Sieve in selecting the fabric. IT. PERMEABILITY Critical/Severe Applications” Normal Applications k (fabric > 10 k (soil) k (fabric > k (soil) ‘Woven monofilament fabrics only: percent open area > 4.0 and EOS No. 100 sieve ITI, CHEMICAL COMPOSITION REQUIREMENTS / CONSIDERATIONS A. Fibers used in the manufacture of civil engineering fabrics shall consist of a long chain synthetic polymers, composed of at least 85% by weight of polyolephins, polyesters, or polyamides. These fabrics shall resist deterioration from ultraviolet exposure ~ B. The engineering fabric shall be exposed to ultraviolet radiation (sunlight) for no more than 30 days total in the period of time following manufacture until the fabric is covered with soil, rock, concrete, etc.AAS Design of Pavement Structures Table 1, Recommended minimum engineering fabric selection criteria in drainage and £{ltration applications. (contd.) IV. PHYSICAL PROPERTY REQUIREMENTS (all fabrics) Fabric Fabric Unprotected Protected* Grab Strength (ASTM D-1682) 180 1b 80 1b (Minimum in either principal direction) Puncture Strength (ASTM D-751-68)? 80 1b 25 Ib Burst Strength (ASTM D-751-68) 290 psi 130 psi Trapezoid Tear (ASTM D-1117) 50 lbs. 25 lbs. (any direction) 1, All numerical values represent minimum average roll values (i.e., any roll in a lot should meet or exceed the minimum values in the table) 2, Tension testing machine with ring clamp, steel ball replaced with a 5/16 inch diameter solid steel cylinder with hemispherical tip centered within the ring clamp. 3. Diaphragm Test Method. 4, Fabric is said to be protected when used in drainage trenches or beneath/behind concrete (Portland or asphalt cement) slabs. All other conditions are said to be unprotected. Examples of each condition are: Protected: highway edge drains, blanket drains, smooth stable trenches =< 10 feet in depth In trenches in which the aggregate is extra sharp, additional puncture resistance may be necessary. Unprotected: stabilization trenches, interceptor drains on cut slopes, rocky or caving trenches or smooth stable trenches = 10 feet in depth.Guidelines for Design of Highway Internal Drainage Systems Clay Drain Tile AAD AASHTO M 179 Extra Strength and Standard Strength Clay Pipe and Perforated Clay Pipe Concrete Drain Tile Bituminized-Fiber Non-Pressure Sewer Drain and Underdrai Systems Asbestos Cement Perforated Underdrain Pipe Asbestos Cement Storm Drain Pipe Metallic Coated Corrugated Iron or Steel Culverts and Underdrains Corrugated Aluminum Alloy Culverts AASHTO M 65 AASHTO M 78 AASHTO M 177 AASHTO M 189 ASTM C-663 AASHTO M 36 AASHTO M 196 ‘Thermo-Plastic and Polyethylene Corrugated Drainage Pipe or Tubing, Heavy Duty (PE) Polyvinyl Chloride Tubing Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene Pipe AA.3 DESIGN AA.3.1 Introduction The effectiveness of the underdrain system de- pends upon proper analysis of the condition of drain- age, that either presently exists or that may develop. The designer must also arrange the drainage system so as to effectively remove the excess water using materials that will be cost effective and be compati- ble with the environment in which they will be placed. These guidelines have been prepared with their primary application to new construction. With new construction, the designer can evaluate weather, traf- fic, geologic conditions, and available materials to optimize the total pavement structure for long life and the most favorable cost-benefit ratio. The retro- fit of existing improvements with internal drains has not been directly addressed. Water entering the pavement structure over a period of years tends to develop its own flow paths under the influence of gravity and traffic impact loading. It is not probable that retrofit drainage installations can immediately replace well established internal water migration routes or even prove as effective as a properly de- signed and constructed system combined with a new improvement. However, experience has generally demonstrated the worth of retrofit installations in extending pavement performance life. AA.3.2 Analysis of the Situation Effective analysis of the probable drainage con- ditions for a proposed improvement requires a knowledge of the proposed grade line relative to existing ground line, the probable temperature and conditions, and the geotechnical en AASHTO M 252 AASHTO M 278-81 AASHTO M 264 ronment of the improvement. The grade line is es- tablished by planners and designers. The precipit tion and temperature are derived from historic records. The existing soils conditions can generally be found in detailed geotechnical reports, soils re- ports or geological reports which may be prepared for the improvement, County soil maps and ground- water bulletins may provide valuable information on near surface conditions that can prove useful. This information must then be considered for its antic pated influence upon the configuration of the pro- posed improvement (3). From this total view, es- timates may be made of the quantities of water to 'be encountered, the direction of its movement and its effect upon the improvement. Previous studies (4)(5) have provided a method to estimate the uniform design infiltration rate, Qy, by means of the following empirical expression. While not dimensionally correct, the expression yields re- alistic values and is recommended for use: IN, We Qa- Ll +K, wo WC, where Q, is the design infiltration rate (cubic feet/day/square foot of drainage layer), I. is the crack infiltration rate (cubic feet/day/lineal foot of crack) an average value of 2.4 is suggested for trial, though experience may suggest a different value dependent on the available void space in the pave- ment structure. N. is the number of contribution Jongitudinal cracks, We is the length of contributing transverse cracks or joints (in feet), W is the width of base or subbase subjected to infiltration (in feet), WC, is the spacing of transverse cracks or joints (feet), and Kp is the rate of infiltration (numerically equal to the coefficient of permeability) through the uncracked pavement surface (cubic feet/day/square foot). For portland cement concrete pavements K, isAA10 considered insignificant, as it is for most dense grad- ed bituminous concrete pavements. However, infil- tration may prove very significant in the case of ‘open graded bituminous concrete pavements such as those designed for rapid internal drainage to reduce hhydroplaning. Values for such special designs could only be arrived at after special laboratory studies, For normal cracking and joints on new pavements, it is recommended that the value for N, be taken as: Ne = (N +1) where Nis the number of traffic lanes. Where pavement drainage is to be designed for other than normal cracking, Ne should be taken as the equiv- alent number of continuous longitudinal cracks. Normal transverse cracking resulting from ther- mal and moisture changes can vary considerably, especially in continuously reinforced concrete pave- ments where slab thickness and the percent of steel reinforcement can exert an important influence. Therefore, it is recommended that the value of WC, be developed on the basis of local observation of regular transverse cracking for the type of pavement under consideration. In bituminous concrete pave- ments, 40 feet is usually an acceptable transverse crack spacing, Figure 4 contains the 1 hour/1 year frequency rainfall map to aid in evaluating rainfall conditions at sites as required throughout the United States The Mean Annual Total Precipitation map shown in Figure 5 is provided to give an added insight into the anticipated yearly total precipitation. Figure 6 shows the graphical distribution of rainfall through- out the United States on a month by month basis. These data are intended to aid the designer in devel- oping an estimate of the average time between periods of precipitation, thus providing a rational background for selecting a theoretical percentage of time in pavement design life that the pavement should perform under drained conditions. For exam- ple, a 90% drained life would imply that the pave- ‘ment will be either fully saturated or in a partially drained state 10% of its design life. Thus, a pave- ‘ment subjected to precipitation about once every five days would be expected to drain in about 1/2 day. To establish the degree of need for an internal drainage system, it is necessary to estimate the ca- pacity of the subgrade to remove entrapped water by seepage. Classically, such an evaluation can best be made by construction of flow nets on typical sections and evaluating seepage quantities in accordance with Design of Pavement Structures Darcy's law. Ideally, such analyses should be con- ducted using permeability values of subgrade materi- als and with a proper knowledge of the soils and ground water regime that will likely exist ‘As an approximation of the amount of time re- quired to drain 0.5 ft? of water by subgrade seepage from a one foot wide transverse slice of a 24 foot pavement draining to a relatively impervious base at depth, refer to Figure 7. Figure 8 is included to provide a broad overview of permeabilities for var- ious materials which the designer may encounter. ‘Also provided on Figure 9 is a chart (5) for estimat- ing loss by seepage from a pavement system to an underlying permeable strata at depth Since soils with a permeability of 10? CM/SEC or greater are far less common over much of the nation than the fine grained soils with permeabilities ‘more in the nature of 10* CM/SEC, the preceding design considerations suggest the desirability of drainage systems. Water is typically discharged through one or both of the following mechanisms: 1. Aggregate drains 2. Pipe drains An aggregate drain consists of granular materials of sufficient permeability so that the free water can be collected and moved laterally under gravity. The aggregate materials may be stabilized with agents such as asphalt or portland cement which best sat- isfy the needs of the drainage system. The gradation of the granular material may range from (AASHTO M6-81) concrete sand upwards to 3° (AASHTO #2) stone as necessary in providing the permeability to move the required volume of water within a given time. The aggregate drain can be used both as a blanket collector and a trench drain, It may consist of single or multiple elements as required to satisfy concerns for proper filtration discussed elsewhere in this section. The designer will discover that depending upon conditions and materials, the design may require ‘more than one layer of granular filter material to satisfy filter requirements. Such situations are not unusual and the additional layers can have a signi cant economic impact on the total cost of the drain- age system. In such situations, the designer may consider the use of a suitable geotextile to serve as a replacement of one or all of the granular filter layers. These materials are comparatively inexpen- sive and are relatively simple to install (Figure 10)ty aan8yg The 1 hour/1 year frequency precipitation rates in the United States (FHWA, 1973) swaiss aBouyoug Jousarys Komysixy fo w8isaq sof souyapng, iw“s ean8py ‘Mean annual total precipitation in the United States (in inches). (U.S. Weather Bureau.) _ tive saunjonaig: mauianng fo u8iseq+9 aanBra Month-to-month variation of preci jpitation in the United States. (U.S. Weather Bureau.) | aq fousaruy Komyssxy fo w8saq] sof sauyaping, suiarsdg aBouo. erveyAAI Design of Pavement Structures Time required to droin 05 tt of water/ lineal foot of a 24'wide pavement = Distance from Subbase to the wotertable, ‘Hor Height of Drain above on impervious bounary PERMEABILITY wo cursec| so-tcursec | 1 %cursec | 10-6 cM/sec| 107CM/SEC 28 Fi/Day | 0.28 Ft /Duy | 0028 Ft/Dey\ 00028 Ft/Doy |CO0Z8FL/Dey| Ratio H/Ho Chart Based on DARCYS LAW In Form of O.5T = K yy A T = Time(Doys) = Hydraulic Head In Ft. Ho= Depth of “Soil Reservoir" Overlying Impervious Layer, Fr. A= Area, 24 Ft? BASE DRAINAGE TIME VARIOUS SUBGRADE PERMEABILITY Figure 7.TYPICAL COEFFICIENT OF PERMEABILITIES OF VARIOUS SOILS +g aandya Kin K(Om/See)| Feet /Doy | Droinoge | Soil Type 108 28,550 Good Clean Gravel tor 2,835 Good Glean Gravel | 3 3 ae 0 20s | Good | Geom Cone Sea S| ER ag $8/383} |g | Se8 wo 20.3 | Good eee 3 ago 10-2 28 | Good cwon soa \88S188 | |B | § 10% as | Fair ond over [© to-4 0.03 Foir Mixtures 8 es 10-5 0.003 Poor Very Find Sand; g g | 0-6 0.0003 Poor Organic a Inorganic a] ‘Sits; Mixtures oF Sl os (Roughly 0 ‘Sond, Sifts 8 Clay; a) s§ Foot /Yeor) Glaciol Till ; gs Stratified Clay 3| $8 Deposits g|~8 in 07 0.00003 | Practically | Impervious Soils 7 10-8 0.000003 | impervious Such os = §8s 09 0.000000} Homogeneous, s Sse Rough) Cloys Below Zone S) ag] 3808 we of Weatheri Ss] 8858 "oot in ad &a] 8882 100 Years) suiaysdg Bousoug ousaruy KomySiqy fo w8ysaq 40f seuypaping, styAA-I6 Design of Pavement Structures Structural Section @, Average Quttion ‘Rate. K =Coef. Permeability ih Ft./ Doy. W Width of Pave'mt. ‘Section, EOE RT «Depth Underlyit TR Ate a a ue dectn Uncertyng 2°" E sigh Permeability Layer" Stratum, Ft. — H,*Piezometric Head, 2 ft. + = oa \ o6| gen on og o oO 0.2 0.4 “06 08 1.0 4 hort for Estimating Vertical Outflow from a Pavement Structural Section through the Sub- grade to an Underlying High Permeability Layer Figure 9.Guidelines for Design of Highway Internal Drainage Systems AAIT Geotextile as a trench liner for trench drain wudeecags Ses 3 ee er French drain without pipe Trench droin with pig Geotextile Liner Geotextile Liner Geotextile as @ protective wrap around pipe Trench drain with pipe and Geotestile Wrap Geotextile as membrane filter between the soil and open graded base material Geotextile membrane filter layer TYPICAL _USES OF GEOTEXTILES PAVEMENT UNDERDRAINS Figure 10.AA18 ‘The most common practice for the construction of blanket type drains has been the placement of a layer of permeable aggregate material of 4 to 6 inches in thickness. However, this practice has met with periodic problems because adequate permeabil- ity to provide flow in a horizontal direction under low hydraulic head requires that these layers be course grained and essentially free of fines. Such materials are often plagued with construction prob- Jems due to the reduced stability commonly encoun- tered with open graded aggregates. In recent years, increased interest has been shown in the stabilization of these open-graded aggregate layers to facilitate construction and to provide added support. Per- meabilities of stabilized open-graded aggregate ma- terials have been as great as 30,000 feet per day (6) It has long been recognized that proper gradation and density are important to the stability of an aggregate material. The proper gradation for stabil- ity is quite different than the gradation sought for high permeability. Stable gradations usually range uniformly from coarse to fine, where in permeable gradations, the fine portion is best deleted. Thus, to obtain the desired permeability of a blanket drainage layer, some stability may have to be sacrificed, though the loss can frequently be compensated for by stabilization (Figure 11). With an open-graded base, a specific gradation should be selected to provide the permeability that transports water to a drain pipe or elsewhere accord- ing to the design intentions. The performance analysis of an aggregate drain system can be simplified through the use of chart “A”. The family of curves shown represent the per- meability (K) of each granular collectors expressed in feet per day. The chart represents a plot of Darcy's law with simplifying assumptions; (1) steady state saturated flow rather than non-steady state, (2) ignoring the influence of air, and (3) a single seep- age layer without drawdown at the outflow end Since the flowpath does not show drawdown, the chart ignores friction between the water and the porous media. These simplified assumptions will gen- erally exaggerate the actual yield to a significant degree. With this realization, values picked off for discharge time should always be reduced by judge- ‘ment. In general, the reduction, conservatively, will be about 50% of the calculated value. Having obtained from the chart “A” the required permeability (K) 10 remove a certain “Q” (quantity of water within the allotted time), an aggregate may Design of Pavement Structures be selected that satisfies the required K value. K values are to be determined on the basis of labora- tory testing with devices such as the constant head and falling head permeameters. Approximate K val- ues are shown in the following chart for several aggregate gradation or may be roughly approxi- mated through Hazen’s equation for loose filter sands; K ~ 2835 x100 (Dio)? Wherein Dio is the 10% size (90% larger than and 10% smaller than) of the sand gradation curve ex- pressed in centimeters. The number 2835 is a con- version factor from centimeters per second to feet per day. (For example calculations, see Figures 12- 14) Material Well-graded sand and gravel 1 Dusty conerete sand 2 Clean concrete sand 20 Coarse sand 200 Pea gravel 5,000 1/2" stone (uniform) 30,000 F stone (uniform) 100,000 The use of trench-type (French) aggregate drains may also be considered at times and the same cor- rection procedures for reduced cross section apply. There are certain inherent hazards when aggre- gate drains are used. First, as in any drainage col- lector, provisions must be made to protect against the invasion of the collector by soil fines from the adjacent soil, transported by inflowing water or in- truded under the dynamic action of vehicular traffic. Additionally, the outflow end must be kept free of plugging fines or roots, etc., or the transmissibility will be substantially reduced and performance im- paired. The same collector arrangement may be combined with the use of perforated underdrain pipes or tiles. The advantage that accrues with the use of pipe drains is that flow is much faster in an open conduit than it is in a porous media, other drainage cir- cumstances being similar. An estimate of the dis- charge of an open conduit may be calculated by Manning's formula for channel flow: Q = 3600 (1.486 xA xR¥? xS") where Q = discharge in cubic ft per hour 1 ~ roughness coefficient ‘A. = cross sectional area of inside of drain pipe in feet”Bra “TT aan’ MATERIAL EVALUATION (Aggregate Used; Crushed Stone; Asphalt Cement Used; 85-100 Penetration Grode } GRADATION TYPE car CGA CABB CABA CAN «CAISA_CAISB_CAISA CANIS CAISA ODOT Grodation* % Possing %" sieve «100: 100100 00 00100 wo 00100 0000 % Passing "sive = 6045 65 55 (100 95 00100 wo 7 % Possing %" siove - = = - = 90 @ 900 = % Passing *4 sieve 0 & 6 10 50 2 5 ° wo ° % Passing *16 sieve ° ° ° ° oO o o ° o o Asphott Content, % 2 2 2 18 2 2 2 2 2 18 2 Average Bulk Sp. Gr 1891.68 (1.98 1.881851. BF 191.831. BF BB 1.88 K, lacy 3200- 6600- 3600- 4700- 4300- 2600- 2800- 4000- 5500- 3300- 4900~ 4100 8100-4300 « 6600 «$200 ©3800-3300 5000 6000 39007700 Average Morsholt 777 851 «806 Bil_ = B24 BOB 1000 60728 e280 stobility , (bs. Notes 7... Specimens were prepared occording to ASTM test method DI559. 2. Taree spacimens for each set were tested. ‘3. Each specimen wos compacted with 35 blows /toce. 4. Specimens were immersed in ‘woter both of IOO*F # 18°F for 50-40 minutes before stability tests. swarsds aBouroug pousstuy Komysiy fo wBisaq sof saujapn orey