MOUNT KENYA UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

BLA1218: CRITICAL WRITING IN LITERATURE

1
BLA1218 CRITICAL WRITING IN LITERATURE

COURSE OUTLINE

MOUNT KENYA UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGTES

BLA1218 CRITICAL WRITING IN LITERATURE

PURPOSE
This course guides the students in concepts involving writing in literature.

Objectives

By the end of the course, students should be able to:

-discuss basic of liberty expressions

-formulate and evaluate literary questions

-write reviews, essays, term papers

COURSE CONTENT:

Topic Lesson Remark

Basic of liberty expressions 1
Interpretations 2
Organization and presentations 3
Scholary topic 4
Evaluation of topics 5
Formulating research questions 6
Conducting research work. 7
Evaluating research finding 8
Technical aspects of academic style 9
Skills of writing reviews 10
Skills of writing essays : 11
Expository 12
Argumentation

Skills of writing term papers: 13

drafts
editing
documenting

2
 references APA/MLA
Exams 14

Teaching /learning methodologies

Module

Course assessment

Exams -- Total – 100%

Recommended text books

1.Axelord, R.B and C.R Copper(2002) reading critically, writing well. Boston

2.Barnet S. and cain W.E (2000) A short guide to writing about literature) N.Y

3.Carbett, E.p.j 1965 (classical rhetoric for modern student N.Y OUP

4.Hacker, D. (2004) Rules for writers. Boston: bedfold/st.martin’s

5.Struck, W. and E.B White (1979). The elements of style N.Y: Macmillan

6.Mbaya, F (2008) a journey within E.A.E.P publishing

7.Ruto, B.(2003) Death trap E.A.P Publishing house, 2001-Nairobi-KenyLINE

3
LIT 121 CRITICAL WRITING IN LITERATURE
INTRODUCTION

This course introduces the learner to critical writing for literary works. It also gives the
learner the knowledge of various styles of documenting scholarly work to allow them to
make choices.

1.0Lesson one
1.1 Introduction
In this lesson the learner is introduced to definitions and functions of writing

1.2Objectives

By the end of the course the learners should be able to do the following:
a) Explain what academic writing is and its functions.
b) Qualities of good writing

1.3Writing

What is writing basically?

It is a form of expression
The result of your thinking can be expressed through writing.
 You can correct and revise your work until you are satisfied that it is your best
work unlike speaking where a word that has been said cannot be reversed.
 You can use writing to record your observations and later revise
 You can also use writing to reflect your knowledge
 You can read and contemplate and then express yourself in writing
 Writing is part of study, so you can be examined by writing CATs, exams, or term
papers so that your understanding of a subject can be gauged through what you
write.

4
  For whatever profession writing is useful so it is advisable to improve all aspects
of writing e.g. handwriting, grammar, express your self clearly and precisely.
 You can always tell an educated mind from a piece of writing.

1.4 Qualities and characteristics of good writing

1.4.1 Economy

This means that the writer has sentences without unnecessary words and paragraphs
without unnecessary sentences.
Any word in the sentence should mean something without leaving details.
Economic writing is efficient and aesthetically satisfying and makes a minimum demand
on the energy and patience of the reader.
Basically, the responsibility of a writer is to produce a piece of writing to provide
economy which avoids strains but promotes pleasure by producing a sense of form and
right proportion writing, should be precise.

1.4.2 Simplicity
A piece of writing should avoid affectation and should be natural. It should be easy to
understand so that the reader does not strain.

1.4.3 Clarity

A piece of writing should be clear, readable and understandable.

Informative, readable and engaging (charming) writing is good. Do not engage any
difficulty in understanding a piece of writing.
All writing is done for humans by humans so have the reader in mind.

5
If writing is obscure (difficult to understand) it shows the writer hasn’t discovered thesis
yet and is confused.

1.5Activity

Explain what academic writing entails.

Axelord, R.B And C.R Copper(2002) Reading Critically, Writing Well. Boston
.Barnet S. And Cain W.E (2000) A Short Guide To Writing About Literature N.Y

Hacker, D. (2004) Rules For Writers. Boston: Bedfold/St.Martin’s

6
2.0 Lesson two

2.1 Introduction
This lesson explains to the learner what to expect in an academic writing task.

2.2Objectives

By the end of the lesson the students should be able to do the following:
a) Describe the process of writing.
b) Explain the anatomy of writing.

2.3Writing as a process
Writing as a process is multi –stage with stages that are functionally related.
A writer who hopes to succeed should address the stages.
The process aspect of writing is serious and demanding and therefore requires substantial
commitment.
Writing has the following stages:

2.3.1Approaching the writing stage

 At this stage the writer needs to analyze the task and where necessary make relevant
consultation.
 Determine the type of writing and the audience
 Consider the personal strength in writing the task.
 Be prepared to do a lot of thinking around the subject.
 Adopt a positive approach from the start

7
2.3.2 Examining the question or task
 Determine whether the task at hand is analytical or creative.
 Know the conventions that govern the mode of writing.
 Ensure that the scope of the task is clearly defined and work out possible relevant
framework of ideas.

2.3.3 Collecting information

Look out for information that will address the demands of the task at hand.
Considering the scope defined earlier.
Collect and systematically store information that may help in efficient use of the
information
Keep record of all documentary information from as many sources as possible.

2.4 Activity
Try to identify a task and start off by collecting

Axelord, R.B And C.R Copper(2002) Reading Critically, Writing Well. Boston
.Barnet S. And Cain W.E (2000) A Short Guide To Writing About Literature N.Y

8
3.0 Lesson three

3.1 Introduction
This lesson explains the stages of writing.

3.2 Objectives

By the end the lesson the learner should do the following:

a) Establish what is done at the planning stage.
b) Express some understanding of writing an academic paper.

3.3 Planning stage

At this stage reorganize the information collected in such a way that it expresses logical
and complete pattern of thought.
A plan is a reduced fashion of the author’s complete thoughts.
It is a framework of key ideas that gives the indication of the writer’s general direction of
thought.
Planning needs to be done when the writer thinks he has exhausted the key sources of
information.

3.4 Writing out the task

At this stage, the writer brings together the ideas identified in the plans and uses language
to organize the content.
The writer will need to edit the work or request someone else to edit the work at three
levels

9
 i) At the level of language
ii) At the level of content
iii) At the level of organization

The writing process involves therefore, the choice of the task, limiting the topic, selecting
important information, organizing the information logically, developing the materials in
details, expressing the materials in orderly paragraphs and finally editing the work.

3.5Activity

What do you understand by planning and how do you go about it?

Axelord, R.B And C.R Copper(2002) Reading Critically, Writing Well. Boston
.Barnet S. And Cain W.E (2000) A Short Guide To Writing About Literature N.Y

10
4.0Lesson Four
4.1 Introduction

This lesson explains the anatomy of scholarly writing and how to plan for writing.

4.2 Objectives

By the end of the lesson the students will have done the following:
a) Explain the anatomy of writing.
b) Explain the way to plan for writing.

4.3 Anatomy of writing

A writer must address the challenges that link the various parts of a work in a
functionally coherent way.
In order to do this, the writer must place himself in the shoes of the reader.
The challenges must be to create a text that can stand on its own and which all have an
interpretation agreeable to alternative readers.
Writers should particularly think of the way they introduce their work and the way they
conclude it.

4.4 Planning for writing

When a writer collects plenty of information he needs to reorganize the information in

such a way that it expresses a logical central idea and to discard information that may be
repetitive.
A plan needs to be drawn to reflect a summative picture of the writer’s thought patterns.
It should give only the key ideas and as far as possible ideas that address the central idea.
11
Planning is a central component of communicating.
A plan has three functions as explained below:

a) Topical function - it helps the reader to focus on the themes of the text.
b) Highlighting function - it helps to signal the main ideas based on the overall idea.
c) The information function -it communicates the writer’s knowledge on the topic.

Writers may choose to draw a model linear plan which indicates sequenced thinking on a
topic.
I) Introduction- Here the following is expected:
a) Thesis statement
b) Statement of purpose
II) Body –Everything about the task is explored here in paragraphs and chapters.
III) Conclusion-This is where everything is wrapped up in summary. This part is usually
tied up to the introduction and is brief in nature.

Activity

Draw a plan showing the various parts.

Refrences

Axelord, R.B And C.R Copper(2002) Reading Critically, Writing Well. Boston
.Barnet S. And Cain W.E (2000) A Short Guide To Writing About Literature N.Y

12
5.0 Lesson Five
5.1 Introduction

This lesson exposes the learner to the skills needed in writing academic work.

5.2 Objectives

By the end of the lesson the learner should be able to do the following:
a) Establish the skills of writing.
b) Answer some key questions in academic writing.

5.3 Skills of critical writing

The writer needs to determine ways of carrying the text all through to its logical
conclusion.
Apart from the need to use linking words e.g. and, or, next, neither etc, the writer also
needs to do the following to improve text readability.
a) Deliberate repeating of the key word or concept to remind the reader of the central
direction
b) Deliberate reference of ideas in the previous paragraphs.
c) Deliberate reference to the theses statement.
 A writer does well to determine whether the writing task is on a problem, an event, a
movement, a process, a method or a controversy.

13
 In all these, the writer needs to ask certain key questions (e.g.) if it is a problem to
write on, a writer may ask the following questions.
i) What has caused the problem?
ii) Who are affected by the problem?
iii) What possible solutions may be suggested?
iv) What problems may be caused by the suggested solutions?
v) How does the problem compare with similar problems?
vi) Does the problem have historical developments?

5.4 Checklist
A writer needs to check the economy of word choice in order to achieve the required
precision in the text.

It is crucial to check the cohesion and coherence.

 Coherence - an orderly relationship between parts in speech, writing or arguments.
 Cohesion – close relationship based on grammar or meaning between different parts
of a sentence or between one sentence and another.
 Not only should there be a good choice of words but also accuracy in usage.
 When concluding a text, the writer needs to ensure that the text provides a logical link
between the conclusion itself and the rest of the text.
 The writer also needs to refer to the thesis statement to give the work thematic
development and task fulfillment.
 A conclusion needs to give the writer’s should point and possible suggestion and
recommendations.
 Writing being an important skill, therefore involves the ability to express and
organize ideas coherently.

14
5.5 Activity

Using a task of your choice analyse text readability.

Carbett, E.P.J 1965 Classical Rhetoric For Modern Student N.Y OUP

Hacker, D. (2004) Rules For Writers. Boston: Bedfold/St.Martin’s

15
6.0 Lesson six
6.1Introduction
This lesson exposes the learner to different types of writing

6.2 Objectives
By the end of this lesson the learners should do the following:
a) Describe different types of writing.
b) Identify

6.3 Types of writing

There are different types of writing eg essays, reports, theses, term papers, dissertations
etc.

6.4 Essay
What is an essay?
An essay is a formal, coherent and usually quite lengthy piece of informative and /or
argumentative writing. When writing an essay one should take note of the following:
1. Trust your voice
2. Start the essay in plenty of time and go on, and on no account leave it till the last
minute
3. Pay attention to mechanical accuracy, sentence structure and paragraphing
4. Always pause before embarking on fresh argument.
5. Read as many articles /essays as you can.Ask yourself the following questions:
a) What does the question/title ask you to do?
b) Do you know what you chiefly want to say?
c) How are you going to start?
A typical essay has three parts namely Introduction, body and conclusion.

16
The introduction is normally one paragraph and it states the central idea of the whole
essay.
The body proves that the topic sentence for the whole essay is true or acceptable.
The summary does the following:
1. Summarizes briefly the two or three points you have made in the individual
paragraphs in the body with a rephrasing of the topic sentence for the whole
essay.
2. Reminds the reader of the main ideas from the body and restates the thesis of the
entire work.
Both the introduction and conclusion are short and brief to the point.

6.5 Topic thesis

This tells what you want to say in the whole essay.

Brainstorming can be done alone or in a group. Jot down as many topics as come to you
then examine, eliminate and finally choose the one that suits you best. A topic should not
be too broad or too inclusive but should be narrowed down to a limit of time.
Pick a period and restrict yourself that era. Limit your topic by referring to local matters
and a specific aspect. Choose a goal that either explains, describes, compares, analyses or
argues and take sides. The essay must be complete by itself before getting a title. Don’t
let your title do the work of the thesis statement. Remember a thesis statement is not an
announcement e.g. my subject deals…

6.6 Steps to follow

1. Choose a topic or understand a given one
2. Limit the topic
3. Write a clear unified thesis statement
4. Gather your information
5. Prepare an outline – use number, roman numbers, dashes, bullets etc.

17
 6. Let your outline lie for a day or two
7. Write the first draft
8. Let the draft lie for a day or two
9. Revise and edit your first draft
10. Make a neat copy according to good manuscript form
11. Be sure to proof read before handing in

6.7 Dissertations and Theses in Literary Studies

6.7.1 Importance of writing

Input in literary studies comes from reading but the output is assessed in what you write.
Your success in reading is invisible to others unless you also know how to write. Observe
these four basic principles:

1. Writing means construction

2. Writing involves a constant process of reconstruction
3. Writing is a way of thinking
4. Writing is different from talking

6.8 Types of essays

a) Descriptive – this entails vivid description of phenomena so that the reader feels
like he/she can identify with the situation as explained.

b) Argumentative – this brings about discussion on conflicts, different points of views

and takes sides .
c) Assertion –this makes use of words like would suggest, argues, is of the opinion etc.
d) Justification – this is where the writer shows reasons as to why his work is relevant.
e) Presupposition – this makes use of words like nearly, supposed or claimed

18
f) Generalization- this is giving general information commonly acceptable to a certain
culture.
g) Technical – use of different meaning for terms.

Whatever kind of essay you write try to express taste and value by avoiding the use of
words like ‘very’ etc. and observe the following:
 Distance yourself from other peoples’ terms
 Avoid the use of rhetorical questions and create dialogue.
 Avoid Stylistic infection e.g. The use of irony, satire and sarcasm.
 Use unbiased and gender free language.
 Avoid use of passives because they are characteristic of scientific papers.
 Use active voice more.
 Yourself and your reader
 Avoid using ‘I’ – e.g. ‘I argue’ instead it should rather be argues.
 Avoid Personalization –e.g. ‘In this essay’ instead say ‘This essay explains…’
The classical rhetoricians devised the system of topics to aid the process of discovering or
inventing arguments in any given case.
Rhetoric is the art or disciplines that deal with the use of discourse, either spoken or
written, to form or persuade or move an audience whether that audience is made up of
one single person or a ground of person.
Rhetoricians customarily have excluded from their province such informal mode of a
speech as small talk, jokes, greetings exclamations or directions.
Rhetoric has traditionally been concerned with those instances of formal, premeditated,
sustained monologue in why a single person seeks to exert an effect on an audience.

19
6.9 Academic argumentation
In the world of academics it is important that scholars develop effective argumentation as
a skill which is needed both in spoken and written discourse.
An academic community is a special one with certain specific expectations.
Remember that knowledge is dynamic and there are ongoing researchers that need to be
defended.
Scholars need to always define a particular line of thought.
In order to enhance effective argumentation the following, hints are suggested.
i) There is need to select an issue that is truly worth making an argument about.
ii) Try to define certain terms in a away you intend to use them in order to
make your audience understand you better.
iii) Always remember that an argument is two sided and therefore there is need to
respect the opinion of the other side.
iv) Don’t make hurried generalization without sufficient evidence
v) Permit the other side of opinion to prevail where merit stands out strongly
vi) Select and evaluate your evidence
vii) Diversify your evidence in order to strengthen your argument.

6.10 Activity

Write an essay of your own choice

Carbett, E.P.J 1965 Classical Rhetoric For Modern Student N.Y OUP

Hacker, D. (2004) Rules For Writers. Boston: Bedfold/St.Martin’s

20
7.0 Lesson Seven

7.1 Introduction

This lesson explains writing letters.

7.2 Objectives

By the end of this lesson the learners should do the following:

i) Express what writing letters entails.
ii) Differentiate types of letters.

7.3 Letters
What is a letter?
It is a written communication – a means of giving information or exchanging ideas. There
are different types of letters eg. Friendly letters which are informal and official letters like
applications.

7.4 Friendly letter

This type of letter is written to friends and relatives and can be as long as the writer
wishes depending on the information one wishes to deliver. The address of the writer
appears at the top right hand corner. The salute note as well as the signing is usually
informal with words like ‘loving’, ‘dearest’ etc.

7.5 Formal/Official letter

This type of letter is written for official purposes eg sending official information to
workers, employer etc., applications, memos etc.

21
The address of the writer is at the right hand corner and on the left hand corner the
address of the recipient is written. The salute is ‘Dear sir or madam’ and signing is either
‘yours faithfully’ or ‘sincerely’

7.6 Activity
Write a friendly and a formal letter.

Carbett, E.P.J 1965 Classical Rhetoric For Modern Student N.Y OUP

Hacker, D. (2004) Rules For Writers. Boston: Bedfold/St.Martin’s

22
8.0Lesson Eight

8.1 Introduction
This lesson is about reviews.

8.2 Objectives
By the end of this lesson the learners should do the following:
Write a book review.

8.3 Review
What is a review?
A review is an essay that draws attention and passes comments on a topical matter –
publication of a book, the release of a record the opening of a stage play or film etc.
Reviews are short and they do the following:
1. Tell the reader broadly what the book/play/film etc is about and what it is like.
2. Give a clear sense of what the reviewer thinks of it.
3. Say whether it is worth spending money on

8.4 Book Review

Book review should be brief like one to two pages.

Identify the language and styles.
Identify the themes (e.g. oppression by employer etc
Identify the characters and their roles.
Stress that significance of the book

23
As you read for example I shall marry when I want by Ngugi Wa Thiongo answer the
following questions:
What are the themes?
What is the life span of the story?
Personal response – Do I like the story? Why? Why not?
Those who write for the newspaper are given a certain limited space and this would be a
hindrance to exploration of deeper meaning.
Book review tries on generalities while the critic deals with an aspect and digs deeper.
Articles by e.gProf. Mazrui and Prof. Egara Kabaji in Daily Nation, you will realize they
are not keen on scholarly and literary explications.
A book reviewer writes for a news paper or a popular magazine and what he’s interested
in is to report rather than to make an aesthetic judgment. What he covers is primarily an
industry not art. He writes for the average man who simply wants to know the following:
 What is the title?
 Who is the author?
 What is the price?
 Who is the publisher?
 Year of publication?
 Brief 1-2 page?
 Number of pages.
 Who is the reviewer?
 What are the themes?
 Why are characters important?
 Stress significance of the book.
 By what historical tie was the text written?

8.5 Activity

Write a book review of a literary text of your choice.

24
Carbett, E.P.J 1965 Classical Rhetoric For Modern Student N.Y OUP

Hacker, D. (2004) Rules For Writers. Boston: Bedfold/St.Martin’s

25
9.0 Lesson Nine
9.1 Introduction

This lesson explains about reports.

9.2 Objectives

By the end of this lesson the learners should do the following:

Write reports.

9.3Reports
When writing a report one should ask the following questions:
1. For who are you writing and why?
2. Do you need jargon or will plain language do?
3. Try to avoid chattiness and trendiness.
4. Be especially diligent about accuracy and a pleasing layout.
5. You do not need to be wooden or anonymous.
6. You should be clear, logical, professional and dignified in your report.
7. Summarize.

9.4 Activity

Write about three different reports.

26
Axelord, R.B And C.R Copper(2002) Reading Critically, Writing Well. Boston
Barnet S. And Cain W.E (2000) A Short Guide To Writing About Literature N.Y

Carbett, E.P.J 1965 Classical Rhetoric For Modern Student N.Y OUP

Carbett, E.P.J 1965 Classical Rhetoric For Modern Student N.Y OUP

Hacker, D. (2004) Rules For Writers. Boston: Bedfold/St.Martin’s

27
10.0 Lesson ten
10.1 Introduction
This lesson is about scholarly papers.

10.2 Objectives
By the end of this lesson the learners should do the following:
a) Explain what a scholarly topic is.
b) Write a scholarly topic.

10.3 Scholarly topics

One should ask and answer the following questions:
What is scholarship? Scholarship is the knowledge, work or method of scholars; exact
and serious work.
Who is a scholar? A scholar is a person with great knowledge of, and skill in studying a
subject.
What is scholarly work?
Scholarly work is concerned with serious and detailed study.

10.4 Basic of scholarship

10.4.1 Good scholarly habits
a) Develop a self discipline in reading e.g. how many novels, poems, plays
do you read in a week? How fast? e.g. in a sitting? In a day?
b) When talking in class, the language is different from when talking
elsewhere.
c) How do you argue or express yourself in a term paper in a scholarly way?
d) If your ideas are not articulated well, you are semi-illiterate.

28
10.4.2 Basic of literary study
This is the uniqueness of a text (e.g.) why does a text stick while others don’t (e.g.)
Chinua Achebe’s novels.
What makes a text so vivid? A text becomes memorable due to what it relates to. In oral
literature for example you feel you want to hear a story more than once without getting
bored.
Why do we identify with some writers?
Why do we identify with some artists?

10.5Activity
Differentiate scholarly work from other writings.

Carbett, E.P.J 1965 Classical Rhetoric For Modern Student N.Y OUP

Hacker, D. (2004) Rules For Writers. Boston: Bedfold/St.Martin’s

29
11.0 Lesson eleven
11.1 Introduction

This lesson introduces the learner to the presentation of a scholarly paper.

11.2 Objectives

By the end of this lesson the learners should do the following:

i)Express presentation techniques
ii)Write references.

11.3 Presentation techniques

The scholarly /term paper should be observed on the following:

 How eloquent, articulate are you in expressing yourself?
 How do you build your argument after a thesis statement?
 How do you handle literary topics?
 How do you carry out literary research? e.g. how do you identify a feminist
writer?
 How do you document?

11.3.1References
 End notes- found at the end of a chapter or article.
 Foot notes - - found at the bottom of a page.
e.g. Ngugi (1975, 14) in between

30
11.3.2 Bibliography – Alphabetical listing showing all the works used or else the
writer can be accused of plagiarism which means using someone’s idea without
acknowledging and this is an academic crime.
Taking notes should be done using the outline format
Taking notes- expressing using own words.
Summary – Using numbering 1-9, dashes, bullets etc shorten ideas.
After writing and editing has been done, then it is time for the presenting the term paper.
The Cover page – This should include the following:
Name of University, Subject, Code, Lecturer’s name, your name etc.

11.3.3Points to Note

Remember to be precise, succinct (clear), avoid digression and never copy another
person’s work.
Scholarship is the deliberate engagement aimed at creating or increasing awareness of
knowledge
Smith et al (1986) defines study as the combination of all habits and methods or
practices that a person employs as he/she attends to learning.
Some of them are
 Attending lecturers regularly
 Carrying out research
 Performing experiments
 Engaging in discussions
 Study reading
Scholarship involves use of systematic reading which needs hard working and have a
goal in mind.

31
11.3.4 Language – Communication and scholarship
 Language is verbal and non-verbal
 Uses senses and reasoning to interpret literacy language which is aimed at
communication through perception of the whole being. It is aimed at arousing the
reader’s five sense- smell, taste, sight, hearing and touch.
 In general scholarship we look at nuisance e.g. he kicked the bucket” . Even the
manner in which words are arranged is significant.
 In general scholarship we also look at polysemy the ability of the literary text to
generate multiple meanings e.g. “I love you” could be true or untrue depending on
variation of tone.

11.3.5The nature of literary language

A message or a feeling can be communicated in the natural way (verbal) visual language,
or cultural codes e.g. beckoning

Message /feeling cultural code

Natural language visual

Literature
Message/meanings/signification
The writers borrow traits from virtual reality (not real)

32
Literacy writing is for effecting communication through the interaction of addresser and
addressee (reader) who is supposed to be affected by the addresser (author)

Addresser Addressee
Message
Stimuli
The addressee responds in form of literary criticism.

11.4 Anatomy of a scholarly paper

The following should be observed:

 Read through the question
 Research from relevant references in the library and field work.
 Select what is relevant to your question.
 A paper should have a title that is not overt (too obvious) but should be covert ( a bit
hidden)
 No writer opens his mind from the beginning, it should be alluding
 Focus on the title
 A little that disturbs the readers is mind and exits him/her to give him/her interest to
read.
 Prepare well and plan before hand.
 List down the points you want to write (e.g.) major, minor, important, less important.
 Discuss them and see the order they need to be arranged in

33
 Start with minor and move t o the major.
 An essay is like a growing plant, it keeps on opening and expanding.
 The more you argue, the more it grows.
 Argue in consistency (keeping to the same principles and having a regular pattern)
 Redundancies (words not needed) e/g (alone by herself’) alone is redundancy) should
be got rid of.
 Give your paper time
 Make about three drafts to avoid mistakes in spelling, confusion, a wrong idea, wrong
argument.
 Introduce each paper by crystallizing (become clear and fixed) your argument in four
or five sentences.
 Paragraph your work
 Punctuation is very important. Don’t be clumsy
 Don’t retell but analyze
 Always use a dictionary for proper use of vocabulary
 The main ideas are found in the body.
 The conclusion is for freezing your argument in a summary
 Defend your ideas in the conclusion.
Conclude by suggesting further investigations
A scholarly paper should be of reasonable size
Concretize your ideas and don’t dilute them.
Acknowledge others using “……………” for quotations
i) When quoting less than three lines use “…………..” within the sentence
ii) When quoting more use indent citations.
At the end, you should have a bibliography in alphabetical order starting with the
surname, year, title, place of publication, publisher.
e.g. Imbuga, F. Betrayal in the City. Nairobi Heinemann
Ochieng, W. ‘article’ in the Daily Nation 2/12/09 Nairobi
Njoki, M. (2006) ‘M.A Thesis’. Nairobi: K. U

34
Appendix comes before Bibliography
Theoretical Framework – what theory area you using? Reader – response, Marxist etc
Literature review – This is where you value other people’s work by quoting them.

11.5 Activity

Write a bibliography using APA and MLA styles.

1.Axelord, R.B And C.R Copper(2002) Reading Critically, Writing Well. Boston
2.Barnet S. And Cain W.E (2000) A Short Guide To Writing About Literature N.Y

35
12.0 Lesson Twelve
12.1 Introduction
This lesson is about Scholarship

12.2 Objectives

By the end of this lesson the learners should do the following

Basically scholarly consists of
i) Ethics
ii) Aesthetics

12.3.1Ethics – is being honest by giving unpolluted response to other people’s work.

Acknowledge other people’s work to avoid plagiarism.
 If you have to quote more than 100 words you must obtain permission from the
owner
 Don’t rubbish other people’s ideas due to bias.
 Naivity of scholarship – Not reading other people’s ideas so you argue out of
ignorance.
 Don’t bring personal difference in the work.

12.3.2 Aesthetics – This is the beauty in artistic works..

 ‘Style ‘ is derived from the words still in Greek which means ‘pen’.
 Style is the way a writer manipulate language i.e. Instead of saying no smoke in my
house – I like the way you don’t smoke in my house.
 The language brought to catch attention

36
 A journalist informs in straight language but a literary writer informs indirect leaving
a mark in the reader.
 Capturing the world view and moving to critical appreciation.
 Social relationship to get rid of hopelessness and deprivation
 Systematically
 Format of presentation of a scholarly paper
 Organization of ones ideas in a scholarly way, in a logical manner and in an accepting
format.

12.3.3 Reading and note taking

Literature deals with works of art

The title of a book tells a lot about what is in the text. It is symbolic and it is so in a very
ironic way.
There is a hidden meaning –hidden life/personal problems of e.g. women, poor, or
children in a society.
 The ironic sense is the most important in a piece of art (e.g. ) Ngugi deals with
poverty, oppression etc in I will marry when I want. The characters are used as a
window where you see through and explore a society and their way of life.
 The author what do you know about him/her? When, where was he born? Does
he/she have other publication?
 Have a glimpse of other books he/she has written especially before and after the
publication.
 Year of publication – Every literature captures a given historical event (e.g) post
independence.
 Context of the story – Human nature has weaknesses and fears.
 What motivates a writer? The main issue in the time of the novel e.g. colonization.
Examiners look for those small details.
 A brief commentary about the story meant to motivate and inspire one to read.

37
 Major readings of the text – Don’t read once and imagine you understand e.g.
Ngugi’s Marxist ideas.
 Read to get the characters especially the major ones.
(i) First reading – read to get the story line
(ii) 2nd reading – read to get the characters traits of major characters
(iii)Read the third time to answer the following
a) Who are the main characters?
b) When are they introduced
c) Why at this time?
d) What is her or she doing?
e) Who else?
f) What does he do?
(iv) Read the fourth time to find the themes of the text.
e.g. Disillusionment of Kigunda, Gathoni in Ngugis I will marry when I want.
Ironical event like when Kioi and his wife are working with Nditika who is not a
Christian.
 Look for major themes, style etc
 Reconcile our past and present to give hope
 Support your answer
 Minor characters – why? What message is there?
 Don’t ignore minor details
 Song as a style – why?
 Senses – which ones?
 Author’s vision comes out through minor details
 Five readings are the best of get allusions, symbolism etc
 Why flashbacks – past affects today and tomorrow.
 A research paper relies on what other people have written. This is called library
research.

38
 When you go to the field top do filed work, you should acknowledge the persons
you have extracted information from.
 Quotations are extracts from a research text and one’s words are put. It is unco-
operated verbatim or word for word.
 We take notes as we read and lift chunks of the original texts because you find
you cant paraphrase because the writers words are the best.
 Quotations should not be used too much but rather sparingly otherwise your paper
looses authenticity and originality.
 You can either dispute or add what has been said by others.
 Try to push your ideas to new horizons and bring in new insight.
 Direct quotations are signated by quotation marks or indents. They should be used
only when the original words of the author are the best so that you don’t distort.
 Also for quotation of a major argument where a footnote may not be appropriate.
 They should be limited in length and only the relevant part should be quoted when
you wish to comment upon, refute or analyse ideas by other writers.
 Direct quotations may be used when paraphrasing might cause misunderstanding
or misinterpretation of the original meaning (e.g. ) in law, the omission of certain
words could change the whole meaning.
 Direct quotations should be used when citing mathematical, scientific or other
formulas.
 For published materials, it is necessary to obtain permission from a writer or a
publisher particularly if the paper you are writing is going to be published.
 For unpublished materials like ‘Thesis you do not require personal permission
 When quoting we should consider the exact words, spelling, capitalization,
punctuation for the purposes of accuracy
e.g. American British
harbor harbor
labor labour
organization organization

39
Your paper should be edited to avoid spelling mistakes
Interpretation
When you quote and find there is a mistake in the original text, you put a word, a
pronoun or a name e.g. He [Moi].
If for inevitable reasons a word has to be changed, or added because the quotation tense
does not fit or a non-specific word which need to be clarified then interpretation is
applied.
All interpolations must be enclosed in square brackets and not parenthesis ( )
One common form of interpolation is [ ] which means given as the original text.

12.3.4 Ellipsis
 Omission of some words because you want to minimize quotations.
 We use three dots
 They can occur in the middle, initial or end of a quotation.

12.3.5 How to quote

Short quotations up to four lines should be inco-operated into the appropriate sentence or
paragraph without destructing the flow of the essay.
They should be enclosed in double quotation marks at the beginning and end of
quotation.
If you are typing use the same spacing between the lines as for the rest of the text.
Acknowledge the source of the quotation by presenting in parenthesis the name of the
author, the year of publication, the page or pages from where the extract is taken e.g.
(Ngugi 1965: 40-42).
This should come immediately after closing marks but before the full stop.
e.g. “…………………….” (Smith et al 1986, P 1) or (Smith et al 1986:1)
For many pages we use pp 1-2
The source of the quotation can also be given e.g. 1 – Smith, B et al 1986

40
12.3.6 Long quotations
 These are anything that goes over four lines. When citing a very long quotation do
not use quotation marks at the end and beginning
 Indent the quotation three spaces from the margin.
 Introduce your paragraph appropriated using a transition word or phrase (e.g.
Achebe (1972) argues that
 Use single line space when typing the quotation so that it differs from the rest
since they are double spaced
 At the end of the quotation put parenthesis, the name of the author, year of
publication and page.
 To avoid long irrelevant quotations or extraction form a long test use ellipse
 When using ellipsis, be careful not to omit words that would change the meaning
or the interpretation of the original material in any way.
 Sometimes a researcher may find it necessary to insert an explanation comment or
interpretation or correction doing this, use brackets [ ].
 The interpretation in this case is the research own endeavour to specify something
and the information is not found in the original test.

What is within a quote?

If a quotation occurs within a text y9ou are interested in, then enclose the whole indouble
quotation marks and the other internal quotation use single quotation marks “ ………”.
E.g------------------------“-----------------…’-------------“
(Kombo 199, P2 4) or Okombo quoting --------------

12.3.6Footnotes

Footnotes occur at the bottom of the page at the end of an article. When they occur at the
end of an article they are called endnotes but before the bibliography.
A footnote gives additional information about an idea in a research paper.

41
It also acknowledge the source of material.
They are normally acknowledge by a super script character e.g. a raised numeral or
asterisk.
These super script characters came at the end of the quotation immediately after the full
stop.

12.3.7 Reference to articles or quoting articles

When quoting articles or essays from an anthology, give the last name of the writer,. The
title enclosed in quotation marks, then the name of the editor, then the year of
publication, then the title of the anthology, then the place of publication, then the name of
publisher and the pages in which the article occurs.

12.3.8 Elements of style

 Elementary principles of composition
 Choose a suitable design and hold to it
 Make the paragraph the unit of composition
 Use the active voice
 Put statements in positive form
 Use definite, specific concrete lang
 Omit needless words
 Express coordinate ideas in similar form
 Keep related words together
 In summary keep to one tense
 Place the emphatic words of a sentence at the end

42
12.3.9 An approach to style

Place yourself in the background and write in a way that comes naturally and do the
following:
 Work from as suitable design
 Write with nouns and verbs
 Revise and rewrite
 Do not overstate
 Don’t overwrite
 Avoid use of qualifiers
 Do not affect a breezy manner
 Use orthodox spelling
 Do not explain too much
 Do not construct awkward adverbs
 Make sure the reader knows who’s speaking
 Avoid fancy words
 Do not use dialect
 Be clear
 Do not inject opinion
 Use figures of speech sparingly
 Do not take shortcuts as the cost of clarity
 Avoid foreign language
 Prefer the standard to the offbeat
Even in his first essay, a student must choose a subject, narrow it down to manageable
size, select pertinent material, organize it logically, develop his ideas in detail, and
express them in orderly paragraphs and clear sentences with due regard for the
conventions of usage.

43
Good writing is not accidental; it is deliberate attempt by one person to communicate to
others those ideas, facts, or impressions that will create the result which the writer has
intended to achieve.
He must begin with a clear sense of purpose, decide what he is going to write about, and
arrive at a thesis, a controlling purpose or point of view. Paragraph effective sentences,
balanced sentences, appropriate words, use of a dictionary, synopsis (summary of a plot),
using the library.

12.4 Research paper

It can also be called a documented paper, a library paper, term paper, a reading report.
Reading, taking notes, organization and development of task.
Avoid plagiarism – presenting of another person writing as own.
Legally, socially, academically it is regarded as theft and in college it is punishable by
automatic failure or expulsion.
Choosing a subject depends on the purpose of assignment or on your reference. The
following are found in a term paper.

Bibliography – A list of books, articles and other publications.

Foot notes - Notes at the bottom of a page to explain something.
Argument- logical persuasion.
Critical review - Communicates the critics’ evaluation of a work in such a way that the
reader can make his own estimate of it. Three requirements are needed:
i) Must report what the book does
ii) Must judge how well it does it
iii) Provide enough evidence from the book itself to support and illustrate his
judgment.
iv) Must not allow himself to follow own preferences to blind him to the merit or
demerits of the work he is reviewing.

44
12.5 Activity
Write a term paper.
References

Axelord, R.B And C.R Copper(2002) Reading Critically, Writing Well. Boston
Carbett, E.P.J 1965 Classical Rhetoric For Modern Student N.Y OUP

Hacker, D. (2004) Rules For Writers. Boston: Bedfold/St.Martin’s

45
References
Axelord, R.B And C.R Copper(2002) Reading Critically, Writing Well. Boston
Barnet S. And Cain W.E (2000) A Short Guide To Writing About Literature N.Y

Carbett, E.P.J 1965 Classical Rhetoric For Modern Student N.Y OUP

Hacker, D. (2004) Rules For Writers. Boston: Bedfold/St.Martin’s

Struck, W. And E.B White (1979). The Elements Of Style N.Y: Macmillan

Mbaya, F (2008) A Journey Within E.A.E.P Publishing

Ruto, B.(2003) Death Trap E.A.P Publishing House, 2001-Nairobi-Kenyaline

THE END

46