Contents

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION...................................................................................................5
1.1 Introduction:......................................................................................................................5
1.2 Background of Research Statement...................................................................................6
1.3 Focus and uniqueness of the Study....................................................................................8
1.4 Objectives of the Study......................................................................................................8
1.5 Significance of the study....................................................................................................8
1.6 Structure of the study.........................................................................................................9
Summary of the chapter.................................................................................................................9
CHAPTER II: Literature review and Theoretical Framework.....................................................10
Introduction.................................................................................................................................10
2.1 Literature review..............................................................................................................10
2.2 Roles of students..............................................................................................................11
2.2.1. Students as Facilitators.................................................................................................12
2.2.2. Students as Planners.....................................................................................................12
2.2.2.1. Effects on Education................................................................................................13
3.1.2.1. Places for Students as Education Planners...............................................................14
3.1.2.2. Stories of Students as Planners.................................................................................14
2.2.3. Students as Organizers.................................................................................................15
2.2.4. Students as Advocates..................................................................................................16
3.1.4.1. Places for Students as Advocates.............................................................................18
2.2.5. Students as Evaluators..................................................................................................18
3.1.5.1. The Difference of Meaningful Student Involvement................................................18
2.2.6. Students as Evaluators..................................................................................................19
2.2.7. Students as Experts......................................................................................................19
2.2.8. Students as Advisors....................................................................................................19
2.2.9. Students as Designers...................................................................................................20
2.2.10. Students as Teachers....................................................................................................20
2.2.11. Students as Grant-Makers............................................................................................20
2.2.12. Students as Lobbyists...................................................................................................20
2.2.13. Students as Trainers.....................................................................................................20
2.2.14. Students as Politicians..................................................................................................20
2.2.15. Students as Recruiters..................................................................................................21
2.2.16. Students as Social Entrepreneurs.................................................................................21
2.2.17. Students as Paid Staff...................................................................................................21
2.2.18. Students as Mentors.....................................................................................................21
2.2.19. Students as Decision-Makers.......................................................................................21
2.2.20. Students as Activity Leaders........................................................................................21

1
2.2.21. Students as Policy-Makers...........................................................................................21
2.2.22. Students as Activists....................................................................................................22
2.3 Summary of the chapter...................................................................................................22
Chapter III: Methodological Choices of the Study Introduction..................................................23
3.1. A Single-Item Rating Scale:.............................................................................................24
3.2. A Multi-attribute Rating Scale.........................................................................................25
3.3. Summary of the chapter...................................................................................................29
Chapter IV: Presentation of the Selected Cases...........................................................................30
Introduction:................................................................................................................................30
4.1 Introduction to Pakistan...................................................................................................30
FIGURE 4.1: THE GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION OF PAKISTAN........................................31
TABLE 4.1: GROWTH RATE OF PAKISTAN OVER HISTORY............................................32
TABLE 4.3: PROVINCE WISE SEAT DISTRIBUTION OF NATIONAL ASSEMBLY..........39
4.2 EDUCATION SYSTEM OF PAKISTAN.......................................................................47
4.2.1. Shifts in the Growth of Education................................................................................47
4.2.2. National Education System..........................................................................................48
4.2.3. Pre-School Education...................................................................................................48
4.2.4. Basic Schooling/First Tier Education...........................................................................49
4.2.4.1. Primary Level...........................................................................................................49
4.2.4.2. Mid Level/Second Tier............................................................................................49
4.2.4.3. Third Tier Education................................................................................................50
4.2.4.4. Tertiary Education....................................................................................................51
4.2.4.5. Informal Education..................................................................................................51
4.2.4.6. Basic Schooling........................................................................................................52
4.2.4.7. Third Tier Education................................................................................................52
4.2.4.8. Teachers’ Education.................................................................................................53
4.2.4.9. Refining Quality.......................................................................................................53
4.2.5. Education Policy Of Pakistan From 1998 To 2010......................................................54
4.2.6. Educational Assessment System In Pakistan................................................................54
4.2.7. Quality Assurance........................................................................................................55
4.2.8. Information &Communication Technology Usage In Education.................................55
4.2.9. Educational Sector Reform 2001 To 2006...................................................................55
4.2.10. Main Features Of The Education Sector Reform.........................................................56
4.2.11. Education- For- All......................................................................................................56
4.2.12. Training Of Teachers...................................................................................................56
4.2.13. Standard Based Teacher Education And Quality Assurance........................................57
4.2.14. 3: Environmental Scan.................................................................................................59
4.2.15. Teacher Workforce In Pakistan....................................................................................60
4.2.16. Key Issues Of Teacher Education................................................................................61

2
 4.2.17. Professional Principles For Initial Preparation Of Teachers In Pakistan......................62
PRINCIPLE 1: SUBJECT MATTER KNOWLEDGE................................................................63
PRINCIPLE 2: HUMAN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT...................................................64
PRINCIPLE 3: KNOWLEDGE OF ISLAMIC SOCIAL PRINCIPLES......................................66
PRINCIPLE 4: INSTRUCTIONAL PLANNING AND STRATAGEMS...................................67
PRINCIPLE 5: ASSESSMENTS.................................................................................................69
PRINCIPLE 6: LEARNING ENVIRONMENT..........................................................................70
PRINCIPLE 7: EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION AND PROFICIENT USE OF
INFORMATION COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES.......................................................72
PRINCIPLE 8: COLLABORATION AND PARTNERSHIPS...................................................73
PRINCIPLE 9: CONTINUOUS PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND CODE OF
CONDUCT..................................................................................................................................75
PRINCIPLE 10: TEACHING OF ENGLISH AS SECOND LANGUAGE.................................76
CHAPTER V: FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS........................................................79
5. Introduction.........................................................................................................................79
5.2. Findings of the study........................................................................................................79
5.3. Recommendations (Practical & theoretical).....................................................................79
5.4. Limitations & Future Research Call.................................................................................81
5.5. Recommendations of the study........................................................................................81
Bibliography....................................................................................................................................83
Appendix-Questionnaire..................................................................................................................94
For teachers.................................................................................................................................94

3
Dedicated to our beloved parents and teachers
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction:

Due to an increasingly competitive and dynamic educational environment, as well as

numerous challenges, such as declining enrollments and a general public demanding

accountability of tax dollars, universities are becoming more aware of the importance of

student satisfaction. An additional reason for this increased importance being placed on

student satisfaction is that studies have shown student satisfaction to have a positive

impact on student motivation, student retention, recruiting efforts and fundraising. As a

result, universities have exhibited their commitment to student satisfaction through

mission statements, goals/objectives, marketing strategies, and promotional themes.

Universities can best attract and retain quality students through identifying and meeting

students’ needs and expectations. To this end, it is imperative for universities to identify

and deliver what is important to students. Higher education is increasingly recognizing

that it is a service industry and is placing greater emphasis on meeting the expectations

and needs of students (Cheng & Tam, 1997). Focusing on student satisfaction not only

enables universities to re-engineer their organizations to adapt to student needs, but also

allows them to develop a system for continuously monitoring how effectively they meet

or exceed student needs.

Student satisfaction is a subtle yet complex phenomenon. However, despite the apparent

complexity of student satisfaction, most student satisfaction measurements are designed

to simply assess the global or net satisfaction of a student. Student affairs, alumni

offices, and university assessment offices have often used a single-item student

satisfaction rating scale of four to seven points between the extremes of ‘very

dissatisfied’ and ‘very satisfied’. These surveys are typically administered as exit
interviews to seniors or as retention tools to freshmen and sophomores. One apparent

weakness of this approach is that it fails to recognize the quality attributes of an

educational experience, as well as the student’s varying degree of satisfaction with

each educational attribute. The purpose of this article is to present an alternative

approach to measuring students’ overall satisfaction. A multiple-item weighted gap score

analysis is presented as an alternative method for assessing student satisfaction that

should have increased diagnostic value to both academicians and practitioners. Vavra

(1997) reports that many practitioners prefer a composite measure of satisfaction because

it is more statistically reliable

Than any single measure.

1.2 Background of Research Statement

Student satisfaction refers to the favorability of a student’s subjective evaluation of the

various outcomes and experiences associated with education (Oliver & DeSarbo, 1989).

Student satisfaction is being shaped continually by repeated experiences in campus life.

Moreover, the campus environment is seemingly a web of interconnected experiences

that overlap and influence students’ overall satisfaction. What happens to students in the

classroom is not independent of all other experiences relating to campus life. For

example, Browne et al. (1998) found that global satisfaction with a university was driven

by a student’s assessment of the quality of the course and other curriculum-related

factors associated with that university. This same study also concluded that the

likelihood of a student recommending the university to friends/relatives was heavily

influenced by the extent of interaction between the student and university personnel.

Borden (1995) found that student satisfaction is related to the match between student

priorities and the campus environment.

Classroom educational research has also found that student satisfaction may be related to

how well the classroom environment matches student preferences (Fraser, 1994). A high

correlation between actual classroom environment and student preferred classroom

environment should enhance affective student outcomes, such as satisfaction. For

example, students preferring a classroom with a high level of student-teacher interaction

and personalization should have higher levels of satisfaction in a classroom that provides

this personalization than one that does not.

Sevier (1996) argues that a university’s product is more than its academic program.

Rather, the product is the sum of the student’s academic, social, physical, and even

spiritual experiences. Universities typically focus on the academic dimension of a

student’s educational experience, stressing such things as student-to-faculty ratios,

quality programs, and faculty credentials. It is important to realize, however, that

students may value educational dimensions differently. A university may emphasize

academic and spiritual experiences, while students may expand their evaluation to

include social experiences available on campus. Kotler and Fox (1995) suggest that the

majority of students are satisfied with their academic programs, but are less satisfied

with support services such as academic advising and career counseling.

Successful universities have come to realize that it is better to invest now (retain

students) than to invest later (attract new students). Patterson et al. (1997) demonstrate

empirically a very strong link between customer satisfactions and repurchase intentions.

Babin and Griffin (1998) also found customer satisfaction to be highly correlated with

consumers’ future patronage intentions. Therefore, it seems logical to assume that

students who are dissatisfied with their educational experience are the ones who do not

return to college. For many universities, student satisfaction is an avenue through which

a competitive advantage can be gained.

1.3 Focus and uniqueness of the Study

This study is aimed to spot the factors helping or hindering the high enrollment and

dropout of women and boys at primary level. Pakistan is facing low literacy rate of 57%.

Low enrollment and high dropout at primary level are main reasons behind such low

literacy rate.

This study is exclusive in its own because it compares two cases (discuss in forthcoming

chapters in detail). One case represents the normal society (District Head Rajkan) of

Pakistan while the second case is chosen from the developed society (District Head

Rajkan) of the country. This helps to match these extreme cases which helped to supply

details analysis of the factors helping or hindering the enrollment or drop out at primary

level. Moreover, the study provides comparative analysis of both sexes within the

selected cases.

1.4 Objectives of the Study

Broadly, this study is aimed to explore the importance of students with respect to

different aspects such as educational field, their feedback, their mutual relationships etc.

 To provide understanding of different roles of students during their careers

 To identify factors affected students education

 To identify the importance of students related to their education, their relationships,

their participation, their motivation etc.

1.5 Significance of the study

As discussed earlier, the results suggests that students may not thoroughly reflect upon

their previous responses within a questionnaire regarding satisfaction of individual

educational attributes when asked to assess their overall satisfaction on a single-item

satisfaction scale at the end of the questionnaire. This may be due in part to the numerous

individual questions they have just answered, thus making it difficult to remember all of

their responses. Another explanation might be that students just reflect upon their most

recent answers (i.e. the previous three or four questions) when responding to a final

overall satisfaction question. Students also may provide their overall ratings based only

on some memorable bad or good experience they have had in certain areas, whether that

experiences is equally important to the majority of other students or not, or that

experience affects their education significantly or not.

1.6 Structure of the study

The study has been divided into six chapters. The chapter one is about the introduction of

the study including background of the study and research questions, focus and

uniqueness of the study, objectives of the study and significance of the study. Chapter

two provides an overview of the literature review and theoretical framework of the study.

Chapter three comprised the methodological and philosophical discussion of the study.

Chapter four introduces different steps that will help to improve the problems that are

affecting importance of students in one way or other.

Summary of the chapter

In this chapter we learned about the introduction of the study the introduction of the

study including background of the study and research questions, focus and uniqueness of

the study, objectives of the study and significance of the stu

CHAPTER II: Literature review and Theoretical Framework

Introduction

This chapter presents literature review and theoretical framework of the study. The

chapter is comprised of five sections. Section 2.1 provides an overview of the literature

review. Section

2.2 contains few selected definitions of dropout. Section 2.3 gives an overview of the

causes of drop out of children from schools. Section 2.4 is about the assessment of the

literature whereas at the end, section 2.5, summary of the chapter is given.

2.1 Literature review

High drop out of students at primary level education has attracted the attention of

researcher and academics in developing countries. The findings of studies vary

depending on societies situations. These researchers also differentiated between rural and

urban polity, gender biases, and even school distance. This section shed light on

literature published by researcher.

Chaurd and Mingat (1996) studied dropout of students in two provinces (Punjab and

NWFP). They argued that the drop out of students is low in private school then public

schools. Their study also indicate that students drop out is lower in schools offering

classes in evening (double shifts). Those schools offering double shift provide flexibility

to parents to send their children to school because children are helping their poor parent

in earning also. Thus students are able to attain schools as well as help parents earning

their earnings. Moreover, the drop out is higher in single gender female schools than

single gender male schools. Kemal and Maqsood (2000) studied the drop out of students

in rural and urban areas. They argued that the harsh treatment of the students helped in
increasing the retention of students in rural areas whereas such harsh treatment was not

accepted in the urban areas.

Holmes (2003) investigated the factors helping students in completing their primary level

school. She found that female receive less education than males. Holmes (2003) argued

that the girls are unable to complete their primary education because of their economic

and socio- cultural constraints. The girls are getting married in their earlier stages of their

lives in rural areas because it is perceived that sending girls to schools bring fewer

benefits to their parents (World Bank, 1989).

It is argued that socio-cultural factors hinder girls to attend mixed school and schools at

distance also obstructs girls to attend school (Alderman et al,. (1996). They are of the

view that the literacy gap between male and female can be reduced by 40 % in rural

areas through eliminating the gender gaps. However, Holme (2003) said that the distance

of schools for primary education was not significant factor for the drop out of children.

Moreover, she argued that the distance of school is important factor influencing the

continuation of studies at middle level for girls than boys. Sathar and Llyod (1994) also

are of the opinion that the school distance more than 1 Kilometer had a positive and

significant impact on the continuation of girls in rural areas. The girls’ attendance at

primary level can be increased by 16 percent in rural areas if the schools are easily

accessible for the girls (Swada dn Lokshin, 2001).

2.2 Roles of students

It can be hard to facilitate student voice. We define student voice as any expression of

any student, anywhere, at any time about anything related to learning, schools and

education. Trying to facilitate definition on purpose can challenge the most experienced

teacher, wizened community facilitator, or determined student leader.

2.2.1. Students as Facilitators

ALL student voice can be supremely useful. That includes students who dress in ties and

business clothes and present at school board meetings, as well as those who text answers

to tests under desks and fight in the hallway. But when things go bad, and they can,

facilitating student voice can be counterproductive and actually work against the very

things it was intended to do.

Over the last 15 years, I have facilitated student voice in a many settings with a variety

of students for literally dozens of reasons. I have also trained and taught thousands of

people how to do the same. Following are some tips, concerns, and considerations I have

compiled for people who want to become EXCELLENT student voice facilitators.

I share this out of love and respect for everyone who has ever sat through a poorly led

student voice event and wanted to do it differently. If you are really committed to being

an excellent facilitator of student voice, read on. If you’re not, well, good luck, and don’t

give up.

2.2.2. Students as Planners

Education planning happens in many different avenues, with several different

considerations. Students can be partners in planning throughout education, whether

selecting textbooks, determining classroom behavior guidelines, or participating in the

physical design process for a new building. There are two forms of Meaningful Student

Involvement in school planning.

Engaging students as partners in education planning illustrates how a variety of everyday

school activities, including building design, curriculum development, personnel

management, personal learning plans, can embody Meaningful Student Involvement. I

am not talking about oft-told stories of students planning dances or fundraisers either.

Instead, this chapter concentrates on students writing curricula, designing new school

buildings, and developing programs affecting entire state education systems. That is how

Meaningful Student Involvement improves education for all learners.

2.2.2.1. Effects on Education

Through my research and experience, I have learned that education planning can have

global effects on students. Rather than just affecting them students who are directly

involved, engaging students as partners in education planning can affect all students in

the particular environment the planning affects. (Rigolon, 2011) Through education

planning, every student in every school can have opportunities to positively participate

in, gain from, and affect schools. Many educators and research studies have shown me

that Meaningful Student Involvement in planning requires training and reflection in order

to meaningfully validate and authorize students to create change. It also inherently

requires the participation and investment of those most affected; this means that taking

time to educate students about their involvement ensures successful planning.

One of the very realistic challenges to engaging students in school improvement is

identifying their motivation for participating. Some students might be participating in

education planning activities simply to earn credit or for other external factors. Whatever

their reason for participating is, when activities meet the characteristics of Meaningful

Student Involvement, any student can experience the benefits of meaningful

involvement.
Meaningful Student Involvement engages students as education planners by ensuring

that they know what, how, why, where, when, and how effectively they are learning.

This includes students designing curriculum, planning the school day, co-creating new

school designs, or other activities that build upon their experience, education, ideas and

opinions.

3.1.2.1. Places for Students as Education Planners

Places in schools that can engage students as educational planners include:

 Classrooms: Students co-design curriculum with teachers; create project-based

learning opportunities for themselves and their peers; and set personal learning

goals.

 Administration: Students develop policy development or adjustment

recommendations; students participate as full members in the formal school

improvement process.

 Culture: Teachers and students co-create classroom behavior standards; teachers

participate in professional development settings to learn student/teacher

partnership activities.

3.1.2.2. Stories of Students as Planners

Following are stories of students as planners throughout schools. They feature classroom

settings, building-wide approaches, whole district activities and more.

 Writing Curriculum

 Engaging Students on Purpose

 Students Involved in School Design

 Planning High School Learning

 Action through PICI

  Learning Units for Teachers

 Students Launch a School

 Elementary Students Revise Curriculum

 Considerations for Students as Planners

As many schools grapple with the need for effective school transformation practices, few

are actually asking their primary constituency: the students. Later in this book you can

read about the closely related topic of Meaningful Student Involvement in education

decision-making, including students on school boards and school site councils. However,

the future of Meaningful Student Involvement in education planning includes student

participation on school improvement teams and in state, district, and local school

program planning processes. These opportunities will ensure the sustainable and

effective influence of students in schools into the future by creating important avenues

for students to impact the school classes, programs, and other activities that affect them

the most.

Asked recently about Student/Adult Partnerships focused on improving the elementary

school she leads, principal Donnan Stoicovy of State Park, Pennsylvania said this about

students as planners:

“It should not be what we think they should know. It should be what the kids want to

know. Besides that, teachers do not have all of the answers or knowledge. Together, as

teachers and students, we accomplish so much more together. Having that openness to

learning from each other and engaging in deliberation to solve problems is so important

for the survival of a democracy. It is the gift we can give to our students and our future.”

(Dzur, 2013)
2.2.3. Students as Organizers 

Across the United States and around the world, students are organizing themselves into

energized, focused and powerful organizations in order to promote student voice in

education reform in substantive and meaningful ways.

Working with adults as allies, students across the United States are stepping outside

schools to organize youth and communities to improve schools. Leading sophisticated

campaigns, they are compiling signature petitions, picketing school boards, holding

teach-ins, and doing more to insist schools pay attention to social justice, promote equity

among students, deconstruct the school-to-prison pipeline, and more.

2.2.4. Students as Advocates

Student advocacy has a long history going back to at least the 1930s, when a youth-led

group called the American Youth Congress presented a list of grievances to the US

Congress including public education. Through the Civil Rights movement of the 1950s

to the free expression movement of the 1960s to the resurgence in student voice in the

2000s, student education advocacy is alive in the US today.

There are many faces to this effort that aren’t as predictable as many adults assume.

Rather than fighting against a specific expulsion of one of their friends, students today

are working to change the discipline policy that expelled him in the first place. Instead of

badgering a teacher or mentally checking-out of class, students today are redesigning

curricula and classroom topics. Students have powerful ideas, knowledge and’ opinions

about topics like the achievement gap, charter schools, privatization, rural education,

violence and safety, and year-around schools. They’re rallying outside state capitals,

speaking in school board meetings, and demanding change specifically from students’

perspectives. There are dozens of cases of students advocating for policy change,

procedural modifications, and cultural transformation within education.

Meaningfulness?

I have found that advocacy activities already exist throughout education that engage

students in school improvement. However, these are not inherently meaningful, and

students are frequently discouraged from sharing their authentic perspectives about

learning, teaching, or leadership in schools. Instead, they are manipulated and used as

decorations throughout this advocacy. Research has shown that all students have the

capability to learn about building, maintaining, and sustaining school improvement

activities. I have also found that Meaningful Student Involvement presents a logical

avenue to engage students as educational advocates.

Moving students from being passive recipients of teaching to active drivers of learning is

the goal of more educators today than ever before. What happens when students cross the

bridge from self-motivated activities that are inherently “okay” to leading efforts that

aren’t okay with teachers or administrators? Meaningful Student Involvement may push

those boundaries by exploring new roles for students by infusing them as advocates for

their own learning as well as the future of education, affecting their friends, their

siblings, and generations of young people beyond them. It is important for adults to

check their assumptions about your own ability to allow students to experience

Meaningful Student Involvement through education advocacy.

Meaningful Student Involvement engages students as education advocates to work

within the education system and throughout the community to change schools. Many

students participate in committees, on special panels, and in functions that help raise

awareness or interest in education issues.

Across the country there is a growing movement being led by students who are working

with adults from their communities and schools to contribute to school improvement by

calling for social, economic, racial, and environmental justice in schools. These student-
 led activist organizations use sophisticated analysis, appropriate action, and creative

partnerships to challenge the education systems to become responsive to student voice.

3.1.4.1. Places for Students as Advocates

Places in schools that can engage students as education advocates include:

 Classrooms: Student interests and identities are engaged throughout the process

of curriculum decisions.

 Administration: Non-traditionally engaged students are encouraged to

participate throughout the school environment with deliberate steps towards

meaningful involvement.

 Culture: Creating “safe spaces” and promoting adults’ reception of self- and

group-advocacy are fostered throughout the learning environment by school

leadership on all levels.

2.2.5. Students as Evaluators

On one level, teachers are always listening to students’ opinions, checking for

comprehension, and whether they have accomplished a task. Another level is reflected in

the barrage of student surveys conducted, and the myriad education books that tokenize

students’ opinions with quotes from students on their covers.

3.1.5.1. The Difference of Meaningful Student Involvement

Meaningful Student Involvement calls for something more, something that is deliberate,

empowering, far-reaching and sustainable. Engaging students as evaluators’ calls for

educators to develop practical, applicable feedback opportunities where students are

encouraged to be honest, open and solution-oriented. Students find particular investment

in evaluation when they can see tangible outcomes, and have some measure of

accountability from the systems, educators, or situations they are evaluating.

Over the course of a school year, teachers might want a variety of evaluations from

students. These may include:

  An occasional large-scale forum where the opinions of students in one or all

grade levels are canvassed;

 Creating a regular pattern of evaluative feedback in lessons; or,

 Facilitating a series of one-to-one or small group discussions, how members of a

particular sub-group of students (the disengaged, high-achievers, young women,

young men, or students not from the majority culture in the surrounding

community, for example) are feeling about their learning experiences; or shaping

a new initiative in the classroom or school.

By involving students as evaluators, schools can develop purposeful, impacting, and

authentic assessments of classes, schools, teachers, and enact accountability and

ownership for all participants in the learning process. Effective evaluations may include

student evaluations of classes and schools; student evaluations of teachers; student

evaluations of self, and; student-led parent-teacher conferences, where students present

their learning as partners with teachers and parents, instead of as passive recipients of

teaching done “to” them.

2.2.6. Students as Evaluators

There are many places where Meaningful Student Involvement has not been the goal in

the past. Instead, educators and administrators were focused on listening to student voice.

Engaging students as education advisors throughout schools has been a popular way to

do this.

2.2.7. Students as Experts

Envisioning roles for students to teach students is relatively easy; seeing new roles for

students to teach adults is more challenging. Student’s specialists bring expert

knowledge about particular subjects to programs and organizations, enriching everyone’s

ability to be more effective.

2.2.8. Students as Advisors

When students advise adults they provide genuine knowledge, wisdom, and ideas to each

other, adults, schools, and education agencies, and other locations and activities that

affect them and their world at large.

2.2.9. Students as Designers

Students participate in creating intentional, strategic plans for an array of activities,

including curriculum, building construction, students and community programs, and

more.

2.2.10. Students as Teachers 

Facilitating learning for themselves, other students and educators, other adults in schools,

or adults throughout our schools can be teachers of small and large groups in all kinds of

topics.

2.2.11. Students as Grant-Makers

Students can identify funding, distribute grants, evaluate effectiveness, and conduct other

parts of the process involved in grant-making.

2.2.12. Students as Lobbyists

Influencing policy-makers, legislators, politicians, and the people who work for them are

among the activities for students as lobbyists.

2.2.13. Students as Trainers

When they train adults, students, children, and others, youth can share their wisdom,

ideas, knowledge, attitudes, actions, and processes in order to guide programs, nurture

organization and community cultures, and change the world.

2.2.14. Students as Politicians

Running for political office at the community, city, county, or state levels, students can

be politicians in a variety of positions. In some places, they can run for school boards or
as education trustees too.

2.2.15. Students as Recruiters

Students building excitement, sharing motivation, or otherwise helping their peers and

other people to get involved, create change, or make all sorts of things happen

throughout schools and the entire education system.

2.2.16. Students as Social Entrepreneurs

When students recognize a social problem, they can use entrepreneurial principles to

organize, create, and manage a venture to make schools and their communities change.

2.2.17. Students as Paid Staff

When schools hire students, they can be staff members in schools and throughout the

education system. They can fulfill many roles on this list in paid positions.

2.2.18. Students as Mentors

Mentoring is a non-hierarchical relationship between students and adults, adults and

students, or among students themselves, that helps facilitate learning and guidance for

each participant.

2.2.19. Students as Decision-Makers

Making rules in classrooms is not the only way to engage students in decision-making.

Participating in formal and informal decision-making, students can be school board

members, education committee members, and in many different roles throughout

schools.

2.2.20. Students as Activity Leaders

 
As activity leaders in schools and education agencies, students can facilitate, teach,

guide, direct, and otherwise lead youth, adults, and children in a variety of ways.

2.2.21. Students as Policy-Makers

When they research, plan, write, and evaluate education rules, regulations, laws, and
other policies, students as policy-makers can enrich, substantiate, enliven, and impact the

outcomes of policies and schools in many ways.

2.2.22. Students as Activists

Struggling for education transformation, school improvement and educational justice,

student activists may lead immediate, solo, large group and whole school efforts to make

a difference in K-12 schools.

2.3 Summary of the chapter

This chapter we talked about the literature review and theoretical framework of the

study. The chapter provided an overview of the literature review. It also introduced us

with few selected definitions of dropout. Theoretically, in this chapter, we learned about

the causes of drop out of children from schools and we also assessed the literature about

the enrolment and drop out of children from schools.

Chapter III: Methodological Choices of the

Study

Introduction

Students must realize the importance of the relationship between an individual and the

society. Man is belongs to a society, and students are an important part of it. Students

cannot live in complete isolation from the community-life. Even a school-going student

is bound to have links with other people who together form a society.

Students can play an important role in improving and strengthening the society. The

simple fact is that united we stand, and divided we fall. The society is the manifestation

of that united existence, and the students are part of the society. Therefore, men and

women of all ages and professions should do their best to serve the society.

Studying is the main occupation of students. But, being youthful and energetic, they can

engage themselves in various forms of social work in their spare time, and in moments of

crisis.

Students should take an active role in literacy campaigns. They can teach the illiterate to

read and write. They should be enthusiastic about opening blood donation camps,

founding gymnasiums, blind schools, health centers, libraries, etc. Such enterprises

benefit a large number of people, and help in maintaining the society in a good condition.

Funds can be raised through subscriptions, lottery, and through government help.

Students, urged by the spirit of social welfare, can also arrange for charity shows to raise

the necessary funds.

It is the students who should undertake the responsibility of fighting anti-social activities

of a few corrupt people.

They must solemnly vow to eradicate drugs and drinks from their localities. Whenever

there is a general crisis like the outbreak of malaria, or floods or earthquakes, students

are expected to come to the aid of the distressed. The students of today lays the

foundation stone of future society. The society should give students the love and

encouragement due to them, and see that their studies are not unduly hampered.

Satisfaction evaluation is typically based on a cognitive process in which individuals

compare their prior expectations of product/service outcomes (i.e. performance and

other important attributes) with perceived product/service performance (Zeithmal et al.,

1993). Satisfaction results when perceived performance meets or exceeds the student’s

expectations. Likewise, if expectations exceed perceived performance, dissatisfaction

will result. Johnson (1998) found that perceived performance and expectations are

positively related, in that expectations directly influenced perceived performance.

3.1. A Single-Item Rating Scale:

The preponderance of theoretical and empirical research has focused on measuring

student satisfaction via surveys. Traditionally, students’ overall satisfaction has been

measured with either a simple yes or no question, or with one question assessing the

degree of overall satisfaction (e.g. from completely dissatisfied to completely satisfied,

or poor to excellent, etc.). For example, students are often asked to answer the following

question: ‘How would you rate your level of overall satisfaction with your educational

experience?’

Even though this type of question is simple to answer and analyze, information generated

may not accurately reflect what educational attributes students consider critically
important to their overall satisfaction or how they perceive the performance of each

attribute. Moreover, students may not be able to recall numerous items they have just

evaluated on a student satisfaction form and then fully reflect on their overall

satisfaction. They may simply rely upon a few attributes they can recall and then assess

their overall satisfaction.

3.2. A Multi-attribute Rating Scale

Recognizing the drawbacks associated with the traditional approach of measuring

students’ overall satisfaction, which simply relies on a single-item measurement of

overall satisfaction, we present an alternative approach. The proposed approach utilizes

educational attributes, each student’s varying degree of satisfaction with each attribute,

and the relative importance of each attribute. This proposed approach is simply one way

of measuring satisfaction at public state universities with similar dimensions of concern

to students.

Each student’s overall satisfaction is determined by a weighted average of the gap

between a student’s expectation of performance (ideal rating) and actual experience

(performance rating) for each educational attribute, and the relative importance of each

attribute as perceived by the total student group. Each student can then be classified as

‘very satisfied’ to ‘very dissatisfied’ on the basis of a computed satisfaction score rather

than a self-reported score. Presented below is a description of the proposed approach.

The following notation is presented for the purpose of illustrating the measurement of

overall student satisfaction.

Iij 5: Ideal rating of the i-th attribute by the j-th student (expectations score).

Aij 5: Actual quality rating of the i-th attribute by the j-th student (performance percep-

tion score).

Gij 5 Aij 2 Iij, the rating gap of the i-th attribute by the j-th student.
Wi 5 Weight (relative importance) of the i-th attribute determined on the basis of the

student survey. Wi reflects an overall viewpoint of all students surveyed on the i-th

attribute.

OSj 5 oiWiGij, overall satisfaction score of the j-th student.

Iij reflects each individual student’s personal expectations and preferences with regard to

educational attributes. Ideal ratings should vary among students, since each brings with

them differences in past experiences and perceptions of what an educational experience

should be.

Aij represents the actual performance of the service on each educational attribute, and

is based on the actual quality received and experienced by students. Aij can be measured

in many different situations (e.g. immediately after admission, after a certain period (end

of freshman, sophomore or junior year), immediately before graduation, etc.), and the

findings will likely be different depending on the particular situation. This study did not

focus on any specific situation but tried to be inclusive of all possible situations. This

variable could very easily be tracked over time in a longitudinal study.

Gij indicates a gap between the ideal rating and actual performance rating assessed by

student j for an attribute i. If the amount of actual performance received (Aij) meets or

exceeds the expected performance (Iij), then student satisfaction results with respect to

attribute i. If the amount of actual service provided is less than the expected service, the

result is student dissatisfaction with regard to attribute i. Hence, a positive Gij indicates

student j’s dissatisfaction on the attribute i while a negative Gij suggests that the attribute

i exceeded the student’s expectation.

Wi is computed by recognizing diversified student perceptions and expectations (i.e.

values of Iij’s). Its main purpose is to determine the relative importance of quality

attributes that influence student satisfaction. Wi is obtained by calculating the sum of

each rating for service attribute i and then dividing the sum by the total points of all

attributes. Each Wi is the relative importance of an attribute expressed as a percentage,

and thus the sum of Wi is 1. Each Wi represents students’ overall perceived importance

(weight) on the attribute i compared with the other attributes, and it reflects an overall

viewpoint of all students surveyed.

OSj indicates student j’s overall satisfaction score determined subjectively on the basis

of the student’s perceptions. As discussed before, OSj does not rely on the response to a

single-item question, which typically measures student’s overall satisfaction. Each OSj is

computed by summing up the product of the gap (Gij) and relative importance of each

attribute (Wi). In the survey of student satisfaction of an upper Midwest university that

will be discussed in the following section, OSj is computed using a composite measure

of weighted gap scores for the 20 expectations scores (importance ratings) and the 20

performance perception scores across each respondent. A positive OSj would indicate

favorable overall satisfaction with the education, while a negative OSj would suggest

that student j is dissatisfied with their education overall. Based on this analysis, one

could classify students into various groups according to their overall satisfaction score

(OSj). If, for example, four categories (levels) of students’ satisfaction are preferred,

students may be classified as follows: Group 1 (excellent) 5 students whose OSj is

greater than or equal to 1; Group 2 (good) 5 students whose OSj is between 0 and 1;

Group 3 (fair) 5 students whose OSj is between 0 and–1; and Group 4 (poor) 5 students

whose OSj is less than or equal to–1. Typically, creating smaller intervals of OSj would

generate more detailed information about student satisfaction. Table 1 illustrates a simple

example of the computation used to compute OSj for Student A and Student B as well as

the computation of Wi.

Student A’s level of overall satisfaction is determined by computing a composite score

of weighted importance scores and gap scores (actual minus ideal scores). As shown in

Table 1, the weighted importance score for attribute 1 (valuable course content) was

0.041. This value is then multiplied by the gap score (actual score of 4 minus ideal score

of 6 5 –2). This process is then repeated for the other 19 attributes, with an overall

satisfaction score being computed for Student A by summing the 20 individual attribute

scores.

Student A’s overall satisfaction score of–2.078 indicates that his/her perceived perform-

ance scores (actual scores) do not meet or exceed expectations (ideal scores) regarding

university service. If we follow the classification discussed above, Student A’s overall

satisfaction level will be considered ‘poor’. Therefore, he or she belongs to Group 4.

Student B’s overall satisfaction score of 1.338 indicates that perceived performance

exceeded expectations. Student B’s overall satisfaction level would be considered ‘excel-

lent’, and he or she belongs to Group 1.

This method of computing students’ overall satisfaction via a multiple-attribute

composite score is very advantageous in that it may reflect students’ changing

perceptions and expectations. Moreover, it can provide student-driven standards and

focus. For example, the relative importance weights (Wi) of the attributes obtained in a

survey conducted in a certain period may not be the same as the ones obtained in the

previous or future periods because of a rapidly changing educational environment.

Changing expectations and perceptions of students may cause shifts in Wi. Therefore, if

a longitudinal study is desired, those changing views can be reflected in the assessment

of student satisfaction constantly and continuously. In addition, when colleges and

univer- sities improve the quality of service and education, students may recognize these

improvements and change their perceptions, which will ultimately impact their overall

satisfaction with the educational product or service.

Universities can continuously update information about changing perceptions and

expectations of students. Weighted importance ratings should also enable them to

identify key drivers of student satisfaction and help them set the priorities for

improvement efforts. These priorities seemingly would help universities determine

where to allocate limited resources effectively and how to make concerted efforts with

respect to the educational attributes considered important by students.

3.3. Summary of the chapter

This was about the methodological choices of the study. The chapter introduced us to the

philosophical issues of the study. It contained the discussion of the positivist and social

constructionism and argues how interpretivist paradigm is appropriate for this study. The

chapter also provided social constructionism critique of positivist criteria. It introduced

about the achieving credibility, transferability and dependability of study through using

social constructionism paradigm. The chapter also contained discussion about the

research design and data analysis.

Chapter IV: Presentation of the Selected Cases

Introduction:

This chapter comprised of the description context of the study and the selected cases

studies. The chapter is comprised of four sections. Section4.1 introduces the larger

context of the study e.g. the Islamic Republic of Pakistan. Section 2.4 contains

discussion about the primary education in Pakistan. Section 4.3 introduces the selected

case studies e.g. city Head Rajkan. The summary of the chapter is given at the end of the

chapter, in section 4.4

4.1 Introduction to Pakistan

Pakistan is located in South Asia and was a colony under The British Empire during the

period 1757-1947. The British left the Indian sub-continent in 1947 and Pakistan became

an independent state on August 14th 1947. After independence, Pakistan passed the

Government of India Act 1935 and The Independence Act 1947 thus providing an

interim constitution for the country. Until 1971, Pakistan consisted of two parts, namely

West Pakistan and East Pakistan. These parts were separated by 1000 miles of Indian

territory. In December 1971, East Pakistan became an independent country called

Bangladesh. Pakistan stretches over, after separation of Bangladesh, an area of 796,095

sq kms. It has four provinces namely Baluchistan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa3 (one case of the

study is selected from this province), Punjab (second case of the study is selected from

this province), and Sindh. There is one territory namely Federally Administered Tribal

Areas (FATA), and one capital territory i.e. Islamabad (Government of Pakistan, 1973).

Pakistan shares geographical borders with four neighbouring countries: China in the

north, The Islamic Republic of Iran in the west, India in

the east, and Afghanistan in the northwest. The Arabian Sea connecting Pakistan to the

Gulf countries is located in the south (see FIGURE 4.1). Studies indicate (Nobes, 1998)

that geographical location have relationship with social development including literacy

rate. The relationship with neighbor countries may affect education sector especially after

hostile relations with India. India and Pakistan have fought four wars over the disputed area

of Kashmir. This dispute has been awaiting a political solution since 1947.

Source: Google maps

FIGURE 4.1: THE GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION OF PAKISTAN

Pakistan is a multi-culture and multi-religion society. For example, each province has

one major spoken language (namely Balochi, Pashto, Punjabi, Sindhi). These provincial

languages are completely different from each other as well as from the national language

(Urdu) of the country. The government document (Government of Pakistan, 1998)

indicated that Muslims constitute the majority of the population (96.28 per cent) and

minorities include Christian (1.59 per cent), Hindus (1.60 per cent), Qadiani (also called
Ahmadi 0.22 per cent), Scheduled castes (0.25 per cent) and others (0.07 per cent). The

population of Pakistan (about 132 million in 1998) has grown alarmingly at an average

of 2.8% annually since independence. However, a population census has not been

conducted since 1998; hence, it is estimated that the population of Pakistan is 183

million in July 20134. The majority of the population live in rural areas, and agriculture

is the main source of income. However, due to increasing industrialization and low

development of agriculture, people are migrating from rural to urban areas to seek better

jobs and avail themselves of modern education opportunities. The rural population was

71.7% in 1981 declining to 67.5% in 1998. This population shift from rural to urban

areas has exerted tremendous pressure on the urban infrastructure and the cities have

been growing at an alarming rate. The gross domestic product (GDP) of Pakistan has

grown at an average of 4-8% during the period 2004-2012 but the GDP growth has

remained significantly less than the growth rate of the population in the time periods

1970–71, 1992– 93, and 1996–1997, 2000-2001 and 2008-2009 (See TABLE 4.1). The

growth rate was 4.36 per cent during the fiscal year 2011-12 (Government of Pakistan,

2011).

TABLE 4.1: GROWTH RATE OF PAKISTAN OVER HISTORY

Year Growth Year Growth Year Growth Year Growth

rate rate rate rate
1951-52 -1.80 1966-67 3.08 1981-82 7.56 1996-97 1.70
1952-53 1.72 1967-68 6.79 1982-83 6.79 1997-98 3.49
1953-54 10.22 1968-69 6.49 1983-84 3.97 1998-99 4.18
1954-55 2.03 1969-70 9.79 1984-85 8.71 1999-00 3.91
1955-56 3.53 1970-71 1.23 1985-86 6.36 2000-01 1.96
1956-57 2.98 1971-72 2.32 1986-87 5.81 2001-02 3.11
1957-58 2.54 1972-73 6.80 1987-88 6.44 2002-03 4.73
1958-59 5.47 1973-74 7.45 1988-89 4.81 2003-04 7.48
1959-60 0.88 1974-75 3.88 1989-90 4.59 2004-05 8.96
1960-61 4.89 1975-76 3.25 1990-91 5.42 2005-06 5.82
1961-62 6.01 1976-77 2.84 1991-92 7.57 2006-07 5.54
1962-63 7.19 1977-78 7.73 1992-93 2.10 2007-08 4.99
1963-64 6.48 1978-79 5.53 1993-94 4.37 2008-09 0.36
1964-65 9.38 1979-80 7.33 1994-95 5.06 2009-10 2.58
1965-66 7.56 1980-81 6.40 1995-96 6.60 2010-11 3.66
2011-12 4.36

Source: Federal Bureau of Statistics of The Government of Pakistan

Agriculture is the main source of income for the majority of population living in rural

areas. According to Ashraf and Ghani (2005), agriculture provides employment for 44%

of the work force and has a 25 per cent share of the country’s GDP. The manufacturing

industry is the second largest sector, contributing about 17% to GDP. Leather, rubber

and plastics, paper, chemicals, and textiles are the most important industrial products.

Cotton and the cotton based textile industry provide the backbone of the industrial

economy, employing 38% of the industrial work force. Major exports include cotton-

yarn, cotton-fabrics, bedwear, knitwear, sports goods, readymade garments, synthetic

textiles, surgical instruments, leather products, and carpets. The major imports include

machinery and transport equipment, petroleum products, agriculture and other chemicals,

and food items5. However, Pakistan has suffered from a trade deficit since 1951 (Ashraf

and Ghani, 2005).

4.1.1 The Political structure of Pakistan

This section aims to present briefly the political structure of Pakistan in that education is

an integrated part of the public sector. Therefore, understanding the education system, in

Pakistan, characterizes the need to understand development of ‘government’ and

education system. Government, as a political institution, defines education policy for a

country. They do this by building consensus amongst the various stakeholders

constituting the political process. As mentioned previously, at the time of independence,

Pakistan consisted of two parts, namely East Pakistan and West Pakistan. There existed

linguistic as well as ethnic differences between the people in these two parts of Pakistan

(Khan, 2002a). After independence, Karachi (which is the biggest city in West Pakistan)

was declared the capital of the country, until Islamabad was constructed in 1960. The

British tradition of parliamentary structure (namely the Westminster system) was chosen

for Pakistan. As pointed out by Ahmad (2013a) in a leading English newspaper,

“There are deep-rooted historical, socio-cultural and geopolitical factors that have been

conditions for the post-independence democratic tradition in Pakistan. Surely, on their

emergence as independent states through a political process, both India and Pakistan

inherited a parliamentary tradition and began statehood with a democratic path clearly

charted out for them.”

As was the tradition of British parliamentary system in India, The Governor General

remained the head of state of Pakistan and The Prime Minister was head of government.

The Governor General had certain discretionary powers in emergency situations. As

indicated in The Government of India Act (1935, p.46) in the following way:

“no Bill or amendment for the purposes aforesaid shall be introduced or moved without

the previous sanction of the Governor General in his discretion, and the Governor

General shall not give his sanction unless it appears to him that the provision proposed

to be made is a proper provision in view of the nature of the emergency.”

This indicated that emergency situations had been declared by The Governor General in

the country and then the federal parliamentary system had ceased functioning. In such
situations. The Prime Minister, his cabinet and legislatures had been stopped from

working and the administration had been put under the direct control of The Governor

General. The Governor- General was then given discretionary powers to appoint

governors as heads of provinces.

According to Baloch (2003), a Constituent Assembly, headed by The Prime Minister,

was given a task to frame a constitution for the country. The Assembly was given the

authority to act as a central legislature. It exercised legislative powers and amended The

Government of India Act 1935 and The Indian Independence Act 1947, and adopted as

an interim constitution continuing with the centralized parliamentary structure of

government. However, they were facing many challenges hampering development.

According to Blood and Jaffrelot (1995, 2002), Pakistan received over 6 million Muslim

refugees between 1947 and 1951, migrating from India. The settlement of these refugees

was a big challenge for the newly created country, and required major adjustments in the

economy and society. On the other hand, Sikhs and Hindus migrated to India, thus

worsening economic and industrial situation. These situations are highlighted in the

International Monetary Fund’s report;

“The emigration of Hindus and Sikhs to India greatly disrupted Pakistan’s commercial

and industrial activities until Muslim entrepreneurs replace the emigrants in the early

1950s”(Khan, 2002a, p.6)

In the first four years, Pakistan was hampered developing by several major events. These

included a war with India over the issue of Kashmir, 6 million Muslim refugees arriving

from India, a lack of sufficiently trained people, a dearth of financial resources, and the

early deaths of top leaders the first Governor General and The Prime Minister (Khan,
2002a, Braibanti, 1965). The failure of the constituent assembly to develop a new

constitution produced political instability eventually leading to the military takeover in

1958. These added to the increased political power of the bureaucratic elites and military

elites which undermined the development of political institutions (Easterly, 2001,

Noman, 1990, Quddus, 1991b).

The constitution formation was delayed several times, and in October 1954 the

constitutional assembly was duly dissolved. The second constitutional assembly

succeeded in enacting the first constitutions which entered into force in March 1956.

According to The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development report;

Under the new Constitution, “The Republic of Pakistan became a federation of the two

provinces of East Pakistan and West Pakistan. At federal level, the Constitution provided

for a President, a Cabinet of Ministers with a Prime Minister at its head and a

unicameral National Assembly (Waterston, 1963, p.11).”

At National Assembly level, the power struggle continued in which parties were less

important than the wishes of individual politicians (Rais, 2009). Rais argue that “these

parties have not been able to meet the public’s expectations. Students and analysts of

Pakistan’s politics generally refer to feudal culture, and family- and caste-based politics

to explain political instability, confrontation and the failure of democracy in the country.

The main weakness, this, is the absence of democratic culture within the political

parties” (p.1). As a result of increasing differences between the personalities involved,

coalition governments changed frequently which exacerbated the country’s economic

problems. The increasing political dissension and worsening economic conditions led to

a crisis ending in October 1958, as the military (led by General Ayub Khan) dismissed

the National Assemblies and abrogated the 1956 Constitution. These brought political
and economic stability, as noted in the report of The International Bank for

Reconstruction and Development;

“popular confidence in the regime increased as it gave increasing evidence of political,

economic and financial rectitude, political stability and a desire to support measures for

developing the economy” (Waterston, 1963, p.11).

A second constitution was decided on by the military government and then adopted in

March 1962. A presidential type of government system was introduced in the country.

The president remained head of the state as well as head of government. The constitution

of 1962 was also abrogated when second martial law was imposed in March 1969 (Taha,

2012). In 1970, the military government held its first general elections. The

transformation of political power from the military regime to the first elected

representatives was unsuccessful and led to the separation of East Pakistan in December

1971 (International Crisis Group, 2010).

Zulfikar Ali Bhutto introduced a parliamentary type of government in the country

through promulgating the third constitution of 1973. Pakistan is a federal republic called

‘The Islamic Republic of Pakistan’ (Constitution of Pakistan, 1973). It is defined as a

federal parliamentary type of government, in which the president is head of state and the

Prime Minister is head of government. The legislative structure consists of two houses.

The upper house is called ‘The Senate’ and the lower house is called ‘The National

Assembly’. The members of The Senate are elected through indirect election from four

provincial assemblies. The system is based on equal representation from each province 6.

The members of The National Assembly are elected directly by the people, aged 18, for a

period of five years.

Each province has an equal number of representatives in The Senate. The total strength
of senators in The Senate is 104 (Table 4.2). The constitutional term of a senator is six

years. The chairman of The Senate works as ‘acting president’ when the office of the

president is vacant (Constitution, 1973). The structure of The Senate is given in the

TABLE 4.2: PROVINCE WISE SEATS DISTRIBUTION OF SENATE

Province General Women Technocrat Non- Total

seats including Ulema Muslim
Baluchistan 14 4 4 1 23
Federally Administered Tribal 8 - - - 8
Areas
Federal Capital 2 1 1 4
Khyber Pakhtunkhuwa 14 4 4 1 23
Punjab 14 4 4 1 23
Sindh 14 4 4 1 23
Total 66 17 17 104

Source: constitution of 1973

The National Assembly has 342 seats. The distribution of seats in The National

Assembly (see Table 4.3) is defined in the constitution stating: “The seats in the

National Assembly shall be allocated to each Province, the Federally Administered

Tribal Areas and the Federal Capital on the basis of population in accordance with the

last preceding census officially published” (Constitution 1973, article 51 (4)). The term

of The National Assembly is five years from the day of its first meeting. The structure of

the National Assembly is presented in the following Table 4.3;

 TABLE 4.3: PROVINCE WISE SEAT DISTRIBUTION OF NATIONAL ASSEMBLY

Province General Women Non- Total

seats Muslim
Baluchistan 14 3 17
Federal Administered Tribal 12 - - 12
Areas
Federal Capital 2 - - 2
Khyber Pakhtunkhuwa 35 8 43
Punjab 148 35 183
Sindh 61 14 75
Total 272 60 10 342

Source: constitution of 1973

In the above tables ‘general seats’ indicate that the people of Pakistan have an equal

opportunity to contest election and be elected for these seats, and according to the

constitution “the constituencies for the general seats shall be single member territorial

constituencies and the members to fill such seats shall be elected by direct and free vote

in accordance with law” (Constitution 1973, article 51: 6.a). The seats reserved for

‘women’ represent the whole province as a constituent. This shows that women can also

contest and be elected for the general seats as well as for the reserved seats. Therefore,

the number of women in The Senate and The National Assembly can amount to more

than the quota specified for women. The number of seats reserved for non-Muslims uses

the whole country as a constituency. Women and non-Muslims in reserved seats are

elected through proportional representation of the political party’s seats win on general

seats from the respective provinces. The ‘technocrat including Ulema’ in Table 4.2

shows the quota specified for specialized people in different fields for example, foreign

policy, finance, budget and religious scholars (The Constitution, 1973).

Pakistan has a multi-party system. Each political party “has unique political identity as
well as recognizable ideological orientation, regardless of the degree to which it has

faded. The country can be rightly proud of the multiparty structure of its politics, which

is also a reflection of the multicultural character of Pakistani society” (Rais, 2009, p.1).

Therefore, various political parties form coalitions to gain a simple majority and form

government in the National Assembly.

4.1.2 The Administrative Structure Of Pakistan

Administratively Pakistan is divided into four provinces: Baluchistan, Khyber

Pakhtunkhwa, Punjab and Sindh. There is one territory i.e. Federally Administered

Tribal Areas (FATA), and one capital territory i.e. Islamabad (The Government of

Pakistan, 1973). The Pakistani- administered portion of the disputed Jammu and Kashmir

region consists of two administrative entities: Azad Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan 7. The

four provinces are further divided and sub-divided into divisions, districts and Tehsils

(sub-district).

The Federally Administered Tribal Areas consists of seven agencies and six frontier

regions. These areas are governed by the federal government directly through a special

law called Frontier Crimes Regulations (FCR). The governor of the province, a

representative of federal government in provinces appointed by the president, regulated

these areas through civil servants (bureaucrats) called political agents. The political

agents have financial as well as judicial powers, as High Courts and The Supreme Court

cannot function in these areas. The political agents receive budget from the federal

government, hence, they work as principle accounts officers. However, financial

irregularities are reported as this system is still based on principles of colonial time

period, indicating serious financial irregularaities. According to a New York Times

report
“The political agents are widely considered corrupt.” (Perlez, 2007)

The people of FATA choose their representatives in general elections. However, political

parties are not allowed to conduct their political activities in these regions. People

contest election in their individual capacity and are called independent candidates as they

do not have official party affiliation. According to an Express Tribune report;

“voters in FATA do not enjoy the same legislative representation or accountability as

other citizens because Article 247 of the Constitution prevents Fata MNAs (and all

members of the National Assembly) from legislating for their area.”(Zia, 2013)

The federation and federating units get their powers and authority from the constitution

of Pakistan 1973 where the functions of the federal and provincial governments are

constitutionally divided into i.e. a Federal legislative list, and a concurrent legislative list

as stated in the constitution 19739 (Constitution, 1973, P.58);

(a) The Parliament known as ‘Majlis-e-Shoora’ shall have exclusive power to make laws
with

respect to any matter on the Federal Legislative List;

(b) Parliament, as well as the Provincial Assembly shall have the power to make laws

with respect to any matter on the Concurrent Legislative List;

(c) A provincial Assembly shall, and Parliament shall not, have the power to make laws

with respect to any matter not enumerated on either the Federal Legislative List or the

Concurrent Legislative List; and

(d) Parliament shall have the exclusive power to make laws for such fields not

enumerated on the List of Federation and not included in the Provincial List.
Hence, the functions of the federal and provincial governments are clearly specified in

the constitution. The federal government has the exclusive responsibility for some

functions while others can be performed either by the federal or provincial governments.

The education remained the federal subject centrally controlled by the federal

government through the Ministry of Education. The administrative structure of the

federal government is given in the following figure 4.2 (Government of Pakistan, 2010b,

p. 6);
 FIGURE 4.2: THE ADMINISTRATIVE STRUCTURE OF THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT

The President

The Prime Minister

Ministers

Ministries / Divisions

Cabinet Secretariat Ports and shipping

Division Planning and Development Division Postal
services division Communication Division Pakistan Railways
Division
Establishment division Religious affairs division
Commerce division Science and technology division
Culture division Social welfare and special
education division
Defense division Special initiatives division
Defense services Sports division
Defense production division States and frontier regions
division Economic affairs division Textile industry division
Statistics division Tourism division
Education division Water and power division
Higher education division Women development division
Human rights division Youth affair division
Environment division Zakat and usher division
Finance division Staff, household & allowances
of the president
Revenue division Audit
Food and agriculture division Supreme court and
high court Foreign affairs division Election commission
Health division Wafaqi Mohtasib
Housing and works division Federal tax ombudsman
Information and broadcasting division Industries and production
division
Local govt. and rural Inter provincial coordination
development division
Information technology and division Investment division
telecom division

Minorities affairs division Interior division

Overseas Pakistanis division Narcotics control division
Population welfare division Labor and manpower division
Privatization divisions The senate
Live stock and dairy National Assembly
development division
Law and justice division Parliamentary affairs division
Petroleum and natural Kashmir affairs and northern areas
resources division division

Attached Subordinated offices Authorities/ Corporation

departments
4.1.3 Economic Planning In Pakistan

According to the document of The International Bank for Reconstruction and

Development (Waterston, 1963), the Government of British India established a

Department of Planning and Development shortly before the end of World War II to

prepare development projects. The provincial governments of undivided India prepared

projects with the financial help of Central Government. However, The British left and

partition took place in August 1947 before implementation of these projects. Therefore,

Pakistan had development projects prepared before independence. In early 1948, the

government of Pakistan established a Development Board to coordinate development

plans, and present the project evaluation reports to The Cabinet. The government also

instituted a Planning Advisory Board consisted of officials and people from the private

sector. The purpose of The Planning Advisory Board was to advise Government on

matters relating to planning and development. Administratively both The Development

Board and The Planning Advisory Board were under the authority of The Cabinet

Secretariat. They then came under the authority of The Ministry of Economic Affairs

established to coordinate the economic activities of different ministries. The highest civil

servant, The Secretary General of Cabinet, was Vice-chairman and secretaries from the

other ministries were members. However, there were control issues and according to a

World Bank report (Waterston, 1963, p.14-15);

“It had no effective means of controlling the execution of the projects which it had

approved. Although The Prime Minister indicated that the best way of assuring the

country’s development “would be to prepare a plan for the next five or ten years with

clear-cut objectives and targets which must be achieved according to a pre-determined

rate,” the Board made no attempt to prepare a plan or even to relate projects to one

another”.

According to Wynbrandt (2009), planning in Pakistan accelerated when the member

counties of The Colombo Plan for Cooperative Economic Development in South and

Southeast Asia agreed to make six-year development plans in 1951. Pakistan prepared a

six- year Development Plan (from July 1951 to June 1957) in three months and provided

2.6 billion rupees for development. This effort was, however, unsystematic and

according to a International Bank report;

“The Programme had been hastily formulated without basic statistics and other

essential information; it omitted many important projects, some of which were already

under construction” (Waterston, 1963, p.16)

The plan was frequently modified, and according to Waterston, the plan “had never been

conceived as a rigid set of development projects and that it easily lent itself for

adaptation and expansion with the availability of financial and material resources”.

In 1953, the government abolished The Development Board and a new autonomous

body, The Planning Board was established. The Planning Advisory Board was then

replaced by The Planning Board and formulated a First Five-Year Plan (1955-1960). The

plan was not, however, successfully implemented because of political instability and

neglect of economic policy. Moreover, the plan faced a serious shortage of human

recourses as indicated by The International Bank in its report;

“Increased development outlays financed mainly by foreign aid and loans and by

internal borrowing from the banking system, as well as high defense expenditures,

produced inflationary pressures which severely strained available external and domestic
resources. Actual outlays for development, however, usually fell considerably behind

budgeted amounts, not so much because of a lack of funds, but because of an acute

shortage of administrators, mangers, technicians, foremen and other skilled and

experienced manpower in Government and industry” (Waterston, 1963, p.18)

In order to enhance the economic development, military government established a

Planning Commission in 1958. They introduced a Second Five Year Plan (1960-1965)

which encouraged the entrepreneurs in different fields where they could make profit. The

government acted in those sectors of economy where private entrepreneurs were

reluctant to operate (Eddison).

It seems that the governments had faced financial resources to meet development

expenditures. According to (Noman, 1990), the success of economic development

depended greatly on foreign aid, particularly from The United States. The Third Five-

Year Plan (1965-

70) Produced modest growth because of high defence expenditure after the war of 1965

with India and the decline of foreign assistance. The Fourth Five-Year Plan (1970-75)

was abandoned because of the separation of Bangladesh (East Pakistan) leading to high

political uncertainty. However, short term annual economic development plans were

developed during Bhutto’s government (1972-1977). In July 1977 a military took over

government ensuring stability due to authoritarian power. It instituted a Fifth Five-Year

Plan (1978-83) in an attempt to stabilize economy providing legitimacy to dictator’s

policies (Husain, 2009). The plan achieved some of its goals instead of increasing

defense expenditure due to the Afghan- soviet war, refugees from Afghanistan, and

increased oil prices in 1979-80 (Husain, 2003).

Haider (2011) that the Sixth Five- Year Plan (1983-88) was a major shift towards private

sector involvement in economic development. It addressed some of the major underlying

economic problems in Pakistan i.e. low domestic savings, low investment, great

dependence on imports in the energy sector, low agricultural productivity, education, and

health. The Seventh Five-Year Plan (1988-93) put greater emphasis on private sector

involvement in economic development. The investments from private sector increased

from 42:58 in 1988 to 48:58 in 1993. The Eighth Five-Year Plan (1993-98) “recognized

the role of government as a catalyst and manager rather than the main vehicle of

economic growth” (2011, p.2).

However, successive governments changed frequently; and the Eighth Five-Year Plan
(1993-

98) was not followed; instead the annual plan preferred to focus on short term economic

development. In October 1999, the military government resumed the responsibilities of

running the government and a new name is given to the Five Year Plan – Medium Term

Development Framework (MTDF). According to Haider (2011), the MTDF (2005-2010)

“Relied on upgrading physical infrastructure for accelerating output growth. Specific

spheres were identified where support to private sector could be extended and finally

social sector policies were envisaged for timely achievement of millennium development

goals.”

4.2 EDUCATION SYSTEM OF PAKISTAN

4.2.1. Shifts in the Growth of Education

Growth in the sum of schools, students and teachers in Pakistan has led to a higher

demand for education therefore making it necessary to create a framework for education

that encompasses the full structure of education. The Pakistani government has therefore

reviewed the past education policies and created new policies for education while
bearing in mind the challenges and the upcoming trends.

Currently, Pakistan boasts of a well-rounded history of education. Thanks to their

education system and culture, Indus valley and Gandthara civilizations have earned

global recognition. Muslim conquerors later on brought Islam and a new education

system to Pakistan. Mughal rulers introduced different educational systems that were

mainly attached to mosques for Muslims and temples for Hindus this ensured that the

Muslim rule was firmly established. The syllabi mainly consisted of calligraphy,

arithmetic, philosophy, art, medicine and science. The Muslim rule fell due to the

occupation of Pakistan by the British who brought with them the western system of

education and supported it by promoting enacting laws and policies and rejecting the

Muslim education system. The curriculum now consisted of English and other western

subjects. In order to reduce the huge impact on their traditions and education systems by

the British, Muslim educationists started a movement to reform and promote education

among the Muslims. The movement for reform brought about an impact in the social,

economic and political landscape of the country. In summary, Pakistan inherited an

education system that was based on colonial system of education.

4.2.2. National Education System

All public educational institutions in Pakistan are required by law to follow similar

curricula. The education system has the following setting (8+4+4) and (8+4+6)

4.2.3. Pre-School Education

During childhood, that is, the child’s development stage which is between the conclusion

of babyhood to five years, the child needs pre-school education because it greatly

contributes to the development of the child. Children usually start pre-school as early as

three years old. Both public and private sectors have pre-primaries but the private

sector’s pre –primaries are more organized and operational. There are also Katchi classes
in pre-primary education .The materials required to cover the curriculum for early

childhood education (ECE) have been formally produced and developed.

The following are challenges facing ECE:

 Most people are not aware of the significance of preschool education to children.

 Lack of an outlined policy for the preschool education and acknowledgment of

pre- school levels and insufficient number of tutors and classrooms.

 Inadequate planning, implementation and monitoring of pre-school educational

programs within district and provincial school levels.

 Absence of well-trained teachers.

4.2.4. Basic Schooling/First Tier Education

First tier education includes:

4.2.4.1. Primary Level

This stages start from grade one to grade five that is, a period of five years. Urdu, the

national language, is the main language used for teaching in the schools. There are also

schools where English is used as a medium of instruction. The set curriculum is almost

similar countrywide. The main focus in this stage is given to skills in mathematics and

literature, traditions and values appreciation and socialization. The results obtained in an

examination are the main determinants for proceeding to the next class. There are 0.157

million primary schools with

16.8 million pupils and 0.44 million teachers, (Nemis, 2005-06).

4.2.4.2. Mid Level/Second Tier

This level starts from grade six to grade eight which is a period of three years, it is taught

in primary school levels or secondary school levels. Both males and females in urban and
rural settings have a similar curriculum. The main aim of this level is to improve on the

indigenous and foreign languages, science, mathematics, and create comprehension of

family, society, environment, physical health and nourishment.. Provincial Sectors of

Education as well as learning institutions usually conduct terminal examinations at this

stage. The middle level has about 5 million students and 0.31 million teachers.

4.2.4.3. Third Tier Education

This tier comprises of two stages:

The first stage is the secondary stage, which starts from grade nine to ten, that is, a

period of two years. The children in this level range from the ages of 13 to 15 years. On

completion of grade 10, the Board of Middle and Secondary Education is given the

mandate to set the Secondary School Certificate (SSC) examination for the students

throughout the country. At this stage children are grouped into different streams

according to the subjects they wish to take including Science, Human sciences and

Technical arts. 0.36 Million tutors teach 0.88 million Secondary schools with over two

million students.

The second stage is the higher secondary education which starts from grade eleven to

grade twelve and it is offered in intermediate colleges and higher secondary level that

have the best performance in the Higher Secondary School Certificate (HSSC), also a

mandatory requirement for entrance into universities and other advanced institutions of

education. The Board of Intermediate and Secondary Education (BISE) offer the Higher

Secondary School Certificate examinations.

Students are grouped at various stages of school education. After completing the middle

stage, students may either pursue academic courses in Secondary schools or trade

courses at vocational institutions. On completion of the secondary stage, students may

choose to join Intermediate colleges or Higher Secondary Schools for pre-university

courses or join polytechnics where there can pursue diploma courses in either technology

or trade that may take up to a period of three years. Students who complete the HSSC

can choose to either join professional schools such as medical, commerce, agricultural

and many others or join general universities.

4.2.4.4. Tertiary Education

The Government of Pakistan hence the formation of the Higher Education commission

that is mandated to devise policies and tackle any challenges relating to Higher

Education recognizes Higher Education. The government has therefore aimed to

strengthen the institutions both financially and academically. Planning and

implementation of new disciplines and sub –disciplines has been done and funding made

towards professional growth and research.

There are 120 universities in Pakistan whereby 56 are in the private sector. There are

over 500,000 learners and fifty thousand tutors at the University level.

4.2.4.5. Informal Education

Given that participation in the primary level by children in Pakistan is about 66% while

those who have dropped out are 31% and over six million children left out of the system,

the Government of Pakistan wishes to increase the chances of all its citizens gaining

access to education. The government has therefore provided facilities for education in

order for people to obtain some level of literacy. With regard to National Plan Of Action

for EFA, Girls will also gain better admission into primary schools especially in rural
areas where either the availability of girls schools is minimal or rates of participation are

low through linking Non- Formal Basic Educational Schools (NFBES)

4.2.4.6. Basic Schooling

The government of Pakistan has laid down various plans in order to achieve its target of

attaining the global primary tuition for males by 2010 and females by 2015.This plans

comprise of the following: alleviate the current problem of overcrowded classes by

providing buildings for all primary schools. It also plans on converting the Muslim

schools into normal schools and the current primary schools to rudimentary wherever the

need arises. In areas where it is not possible to have regular schools, new Muslim schools

will be created. The number of dropouts has been reduced due to the involvement of the

community at district and sub-district level and improved efficacy in the system in terms

of supervision and administration. The qualification of primary school teachers has been

upgraded to HSSC with a training period of 18 months while that of the middle school

teacher is a bachelor’s degree with a teacher-training period of one year.

4.2.4.7. Third Tier Education

At this stage students are offered various courses and fair admission to different career

options. With an increase in students who have completed elementary school it is

necessary increase educational facilities at the secondary level especially for girls hence

the creation of the perspective plan 2001-11.To achieve the set targets then there was

need for improving the elementary schools, increasing the number of classrooms and

creation of technical courses in secondary institutes. Incentives are also offered to the

private sector in order to encourage them to share in constructing a minimum of one

school at district level every five years, teachers are also offered rigorous in-service

training.
Diversification of courses is usually the main focus of technical and vocational

education. The citizens have options when ii comes to choosing such institutions even in

the remote areas; this proximity to the institutions has ensured accessibility for both

males and females in rural and urban areas. It has been observed that the training is

aimed at achieving specific qualifications for the jobs in the market.

4.2.4.8. Teachers’ Education

For quality education to be achieved, teachers need to be highly motivated and reliable at

all the levels of education. This therefore calls for an increase in the required

qualification for teachers at different levels. Training should also be improved to ensure

that teachers are well equipped to teach at all levels. In-service training should also be

offered to ensure working efficiency among teachers. All educational administrators

from secondary school to higher learning institutions should undergo compulsory

management training. Intake qualification for teachers in higher education levels will be

raised. In universities they will be required to have a Ph.D. while those in postgraduate

colleges will have M. Phil degree. Funds will be provided in order to improve

infrastructure facility and to develop the staff hence strengthening research capabilities.

The accreditation council for teachers’ education, which was introduced in 2006, will

also do an assessment of teachers’ educational programs

4.2.4.9. Refining Quality

For a country to gain a competitive advantage over other countries in terms of economic

development, the education system has to be of good quality. This therefore calls for

intervention and improvement in schools for example through building extra classes,

funding poor students, introduction of a regulatory body that deals with quality assurance

and a national testing service. To increase the number of teachers, there should be
incentives such as a one-year course after completion of the bachelor’s degree program,

a college for tutors, work-centered appraisals, more funding for developing universities,

local Ph.D. scholarship program and introduction of a fund to aid education and research

in provincial institutes for teachers.

4.2.5. Education Policy Of Pakistan From 1998 To 2010

To ensure quality education, the government of Pakistan introduced several initiatives

that would aim at improving the value of education provided in different levels of the

education system. Reactivation of the Inter-Provincial Education Ministry was done so

as to institute reforms and to improve links among provinces, AJ&K, FATA, FANA and

the Federal Education Ministry. It was initially a forum to ensure that there was

unanimity in resolution

and that reforms were institutionalized. The forum has deliberated and brought about a

number of reforms since 2000 under the leadership of the Federal Educational minister.

4.2.6. Educational Assessment System In Pakistan

The main program that the ministry has used to enhance education value at primary level

is the National Education Assessment System (NEAS)

To achieve the set targets, the ministry of education in conjunction with provinces,

federal administration sectors and other partner institutions introduced NEAS. A total of

nine hubs of NEAS of which 8 are at the provincial levels became operational. The

education system at the primary level is undergoing analysis with regards to overall

results. The concept of an international level academic assessment has been

acknowledged in Pakistan therefore an assessment will be given the in 2012 after all

required preparations have been carried out.

4.2.7. Quality Assurance

The aforementioned reforms were aimed at enhancing the value of education. The

reforms included the revision of class I-XII curricula, unification of the teachers training

programs, creation of multiple textbook plan, Development of planners, teachers and

managers professionally at all levels. A professional docket was created to carry out the

reforms by proper strategizing and administration of education, empowering tutor

training colleges, examination amendments and establishment of examination bodies in

the private sector, introduction of national examination system, auditing the academic

system, improved financial support among others. Due to the reforms, the curricula have

been reviewed and new textbooks produced. Comprehensive training for teachers has

been arranged countrywide and 175,000 senior tutor trainers and teachers benefited from

the training. PTC/CT courses were replaced by diplomas in education, which were

introduced to improve teachers’ qualifications to 12+1 ½ years.

4.2.8. Information &Communication Technology Usage In Education

The use of technology currently has changed the world to an international village and the

importance of ICT cannot be ignored therefore it is important to incorporate it in the

schools’ curricula. The government of Pakistan therefore found it necessary to introduce

computer science as one of the compulsory subjects from grade six to eight. The use of

information and communication technology ensures success in the international

community hence the need to include it in all educational reforms.

4.2.9. Educational Sector Reform 2001 To 2006

Creation of the Educational Sector Reforms (ESR) program was developed with regards

to the National Education policy 1998-2010. The ESR is the extensive segment-by-
segment program that involves all the key areas in education.

4.2.10. Main Features Of The Education Sector Reform

The National Education Policy (1998-2010) lay foundation for creation of Education

sector reforms (ESR) 2001.It was developed with specific attention on EFA but also

aims at improving human resources in Pakistan because it is considered a requirement

for development. Its three key goals are: quality education to ensure maximum potential

is achieved by individuals, Production of an educated and skilled population, to ensure

incorporation of Pakistan into the worldwide human-oriented economic advancement.

4.2.11. Education- For- All

One of the most valued targets for humanity is education for everyone. In the late 1940’s

the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) campaigned for education for all

and this has been echoed in other international conventions with emphasis on the need

for primary education. Various seminars and forums were held in the 1990s regarding

the same issues in order to evaluate the achievements, goals, targets and policies

pertaining to Education for all.

4.2.12. Training Of Teachers

In order for Pakistan to compete in the global knowledge economy that nurtures and

transforms people’s talents into productive assets then it has to invest in the best possible

education from preprimary level to the higher learning level. This can only be achieved

by ensuring that there is an adequate number of highly trained and motivated teachers

right from the foundation levels of Katchi-10 grades, who inspire learning among

students and enable them to achieve set targets. It is also important for teachers to be

constantly interested in the principles of professional development in areas such as;

 a) Remaining updated on content knowledge of the subjects they teach.
b) Obtaining and application of extensive knowledge in teaching skills
and strategies and use of instructional tools.
c) Continuous and ethical assessment of performance of individual students.
d) Promotion of a culture that encourages the students to study and
achieve set targets ethically.
To ensure that Pakistan has the best in terms of teachers and other professional educators

in its education system, there should be set standard based approaches to their

professional development as outlined below:

 They should be well–versed in liberal arts, humanities and natural sciences.

 Have extensive knowledge on the various subjects they teach

 They should be acquainted to the curriculum’s design and materials that organize

and present content knowledge

 Should be familiar to both content-specific and general teaching methods and

assess results

 Have an understanding of theories of learning, human development stages and

motivational strategies for different ages.

 Should have skills to objectively and ethically conduct assessments on students

and themselves.

 Stick to the stipulated professional code of conduct

 Encourage creativity among teachers with positive criticism that aim at overall

improvement of education system and human resource development.

4.2.13. Standard Based Teacher Education And Quality Assurance

Quality assurance dictates that a careful examination of the factors that contribute to the
quality of education should be done and their presence in the system monitored and

evaluated in terms of the influence they have on the overall student’s performance.

Generally, standards are used as units of measurements for specific expectations. The

standard-based education movements were mainly about what was expected of the

current and prospective teachers in terms of capabilities, skills and professional

knowledge. They are keen on finding out the contribution of teachers to the system and

overall outcome. The standards that have been set need to be:

 Stated clearly and sufficiently in regards to what the teacher is expected to know.

 State clearly and sufficiently the duties of the teacher.

 Showing what we learn from researches on tutoring and learning.

 Showing clearly the information gathered by tutors through classroom

experiences

 Showing reasonable requirements within the educational context.

 Set achievable performance level that could act as benchmarks for individuals.

Despite the importance of the content of the standards, ways in which standards are

measured should be considered as this is what shows whether the standards are being

met or not. The three elements for measuring standards are content, norms and

benchmark. These elements enable the National Professional Standards to:

 State and explain competencies, skills and attributes that are considered necessary

for various categories of teachers such as beginners, accomplished master’s

teachers, teacher educators and others.

 Provide a detailed guidelines on pre and in-service development of teacher

education programs

 Accrediting teachers’ education programs and institutions that offer them by

 introducing required policies, procedures and systems.

 Improve the public’s perception of the quality of their teachers as well as the

output produced from educational institutions.

In order to improve the quality of the current system of tutor education in Pakistan there

was need to develop and implement National Professional Standards for first-time tutors,

experienced teachers, subject professionals, educational spearheads and tutor instructors.

The standards could still be further refined and revised from time to time by educators.

Standards that are specific to particular roles for example those for head teachers should

enable them to direct their in-service advancement courses at postgraduate ranks while

standards for tutor trainers are required to create schools to provide tutors for seminaries,

educational organizations, departments of education in universities and other institutions

that

RURAL URBAN

Level of Institutions TOTAL Numbers % Numbers %

offer training to teachers.

4.2.14. 3: Environmental Scan

A review of education policy statements shows that the formal education system in

Pakistan is diverse, complex and not universally accessible to school going age children.

As per the National Education Census 2005/06, 225,591 educational bodies offer service

to 33.4million students and employment to 1.356 million teachers.

The teacher student ratios vary with education level and geographical location

The formal system of education provides for public and private pre-primary, primary,

middle, secondary, higher secondary, universities, technical colleges, mosque schools,

Deeni Madras (religious schools) and British system patterned on A and O levels.73.51%

of all educational institutions are in rural areas. Included here-in are 92% of all mosque
schools and 85% of primary schools that are in rural areas educating 74% of the

population.48% of secondary schools are in rural areas. The enrolment pattern shows

that 57.4% of the total enrollment was in rural institutions mostly at primary and middle

school levels .Gender bias in enrollment was noted where 57% males and 43% females

enrolled from pre-primary to secondary levels.

4.2.15. Teacher Workforce In Pakistan

Achieving high quality education from pre- primary to tenth grade is no minor task. In

the next page, is a table provides data on teacher workforce at given levels of educational

institutions.

From the data provided, 3807 teachers work at pre- primary level and 399,517(29%) at

primary school level. These two areas along with middle school (313,797(23%) teachers)

require more teachers due to attention and pedagogical requirements and are clearly

above the internationally recommended teacher-student ratio of 1:25 with primary level

ratio at a high of 1:38. Primary school ratios in NWFP and Baluchistan are at high and

low extremes of 1:40 and 1:27 respectively. At mid-school level Punjab is highest with

1:25 and Baluchistan lowest at 1:13 respectively. Punjab and Sindh are at extreme ends

of 1:31 and 1:19 respectively at secondary levels.

In the private sector, 632,926(46.6%) teachers were in service in 2006 showing a major

growth in number since the previous National Education Census 2000/2001 with a larger

percentage assigned to middle school and secondary levels. NEC statistics have shown

that among teachers,26% of are untutored,37% with just the basic coaching at PTC and

CT, and 44% lack a two-year undergraduate degree certificate. Only 21% of teachers

have completed B.Ed. and M.Ed. degree programs.

Teacher education in Pakistan is a provincial responsibility. Provincially centralized

institutions such as Government Colleges of elementary Education(GCEEs),regulated by

provincial Departments of Curriculum in Baluchistan and Sindh provide primary, middle

school and secondary school teachers. 20 Regional institutes under the Directorate of

Curriculum and Teacher Education in NWFT are tasked with training teachers. In 2004,

the Directorate of Staff Development (DSD) in Punjab was tasked with the providing

pre-service and Continuous Professional Development (CPD) programs for primary level

tutors. DSD exercises administrative curricular and financial oversight on Government

colleges of Teacher Education (GCTEs). District Training and Support Centers have

been created and stuffed with full time tutors to provide class based programs of

continuous professional amateur primary level teachers.

Seminaries and Departments and universities of education and IERs provide Bachelor

and Post-graduate programs in teacher education. In 2005, only 257,818 and 67,143

tutors had B.Ed. and M.Ed. Degrees respectively. Among 270 Teacher Professional

Development institutions in Pakistan, 227 institutions are government-controlled and 43

institutions run by the private sector. However, TPD institutions and programs haven’t

been standardized for professional standards or accreditation criteria. They sustain a

weak relationship with district education policy-makers and schools.

4.2.16. Key Issues Of Teacher Education

The quality of the teaching practice in Pakistan has been low over the last 30 years. The

main challenges have been:

i. The outdated primary school teacher certification programs that fail to provide

general education necessary for effective communication, critical thinking,

creative instructional leadership, and mastering of language arts, arithmetic,

social and natural sciences;

 ii. Promotion of pedagogical skills that emphasize on raw learning, memorization

and passive preparation for examinations;

iii. Low standards of entry into PTC and CT programs;

iv. Poor remuneration and working conditions at primary level:

v. Low social and self-esteem hinder fluent pre-service and in-service training and

development.

PTC and CT programs are just not functional in the 21st century context.

To meet the proposed competency standards, these challenges must be tackled through:

Gradual elimination of PTC and CT programs and introduction of a four year

undergraduate package in tutor education in GCEEs, PITEs, and university subdivisions;

Stakeholders should agree on a national accreditation system for teacher education

programs to be established in all provinces. They should agree on and set appropriate

professional standards and apply them in regulating curricular content, pedagogical

learning outcomes, performance skills and the teacher’s dispositions.

Therefore a standardization program for testing and evaluating knowledge, skills and

performance will be needed before issue of the teaching license.

4.2.17. Professional Principles For Initial Preparation Of Teachers In Pakistan

 PRINCIPLE 1: Subject Matter Knowledge

 PRINCIPLE 2:Human Growth and Development

 PRINCIPLE 3:Knowledge of Islamic Social Principles

 PRINCIPLE 4:Instructional Planning and Strategies

 PRINCIPLE 5:Assessment

 PRINCIPLE 6:Learning Environment

 PRINCIPLE 7: Effective Communication and Proficient Use of Information

 Communication Technologies

 PRINCIPLE 8:Collaboration and Partnerships

 PRINCIPLE 9: Continuous Professional Development and Code of Conduct

 PRINCIPLE 10: Teaching of English as Foreign Language PARTS OF

PROFESSIONAL PRINCIPLES

Each standard is defined in terms of what the teacher knows, their behavior, attitudes

values and abilities.

PRINCIPLE 1: SUBJECT MATTER KNOWLEDGE

Tutors should comprehend core concepts, structures of the discipline, inquiry tools, and

link them to the National curriculum, to make customize and add meaning to the learning

experience of each student.

KNOWLEDGE AND UNDERSTANDING

Tutors recognize:-

a) How the national curriculum framework operates.

b) The basic concepts and their background, theories associated structure and how

to acquire knowledge for the subjects they teach.

c) The need for adaptability and the need to be updated with new ideas, concepts,

theories, research content and trends in their profession.

d) How to relate the subject matter to other content areas, disciplines and provide

meaningful and practical application in life.

e) How to use reading writing and arithmetic principles in teaching the subject

matter.

DISPOSITIONS

Tutors should be ready to:-

 a) Enable learners to construct and acquire extensive knowledge through various

means and to use that knowledge to solve real world challenges.

b) Encourage students to pursue diverse talents of the students and help them

develop self-confidence.

c) Treat all students as equal, competent and promising learners.

PERFOMANCE AND SKILLS

Tutors should: -

a) Comprehensively and effectively explain the content and relations between the

basic elements of the subject.

b) Utilize suitable inquiry tools in relation to their fields bearing in mind the

student’s prior knowledge.

c) Provide real life challenges and how to apply the knowledge learnt in to solve

them

PRINCIPLE 2: HUMAN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Teachers should be able to opportunities for learners to enhance their development

intellectually socially emotionally and physically since they understand how human

beings grow and develop various school, family and community contexts.

KNOWLEDGE AND UNDERSTANDING

Tutors recognize:

a) The construction and acquisition of knowledge, skills, the formation of mind

patterns and diversity among students.

b) How the student’s individual background, talents and prior learning affect

learning.
 c) How to point out strengths in students manifested in their learning, traditional and

socio-economic background, unique physical or emotional challenges and rare

talents.

d) How to create strategies that encourage students to embrace virtues of hard work,

persistence and success in their careers.

e) The means of developing understanding, skills and practices of reflective

thinking among students to tackle challenges within and outside the classroom.

DISPOSITIONS

Tutors should: -

a) Appreciate all the students and treat them equally.

b) Appreciate talents and strengths that children and adolescents bring to learning

process.

c) Acknowledge the multiple ways of thinking and rates of comprehension.

d) Grow diversity in the gifts of the learners and help them attain self-confidence

and accurate knowledge of the subject.

PERFORMANCE AND SKILLS

Tutors interact with students to:

a) Develop within students’ critical thinking, creativity, solution and decision

making abilities through formulating and testing of hypothesis in line with

methods of inspection and criterions of proof in the discipline.

b) Diversify the application of learning theories to account for differences in student

learning capabilities.

c) Test teaching resources and curriculum materials for their ease of comprehension,

precision and effectiveness in advocating given ideas and concepts.

d) Teach by demonstration cooperation and collaboration and skills for use of

 technological aids among students for collective problem-solving lessons.

PRINCIPLE 3: KNOWLEDGE OF ISLAMIC SOCIAL PRINCIPLES.

Tutors are well versed in Islamic ideals and morals in based on the Quran religious

framework and know their role in national cohesion and global peace and unity.

KNOWLEDGE AND UNDERSTANDING

Tutors recognize:
a) Code of conduct for Muslims in light of the Quran and its effect on fairness,

justice, unity, forbearance, peace and core Islamic principles in the textbooks.

b) The Social values that are shared globe and adverse effects of discrimination,

class stratification, prejudice, sex, ethnicity and language on the moral growth of

learners and their community.

c) The importance of national cohesion and global harmony, issues affecting peace

and watering down of moral standards.

d)

e) Inculcating Islamic and global appeals in the learner’s belief and behavior to

bring peace.

DISPOSITIONS

Tutors commit to:

a) Create of awareness on the Quran as the true source of Islamic values.

b) Recognize, appreciate and respect other cultural or religious group and the

differences within.

c) Appreciate diversity and show tolerance for this diversity.

d) Solution of conflict through diplomacy.

PERFORMANCE AND SKILLS

Tutors interact with students to:

a) Enable them to be respectful of individuals and their opinions amongst other

students.

b) Demonstrate through their own conduct and dialogue to encourage respect and

appreciation of ethical and Islamic values, and giving guidelines for use in

internal and external venues.

c) Prevent misconceptions on Islam and other faiths by practicing Islamic teachings

within school environments and to ensure the school is a safe and secure place

d) Apply knowledge of Islam in dealing with issues of human rights, societal class,

sex, ethnicity, age, language and individual needs.

PRINCIPLE 4: INSTRUCTIONAL PLANNING AND STRATAGEMS

Teachers should know how to create instructional plans, design long and short-term

stratagems founded on the understanding of subjects, learners, curricular goals,

community, and utilize a range of suitable strategies to enhance critical thinking,

performance and problem solving skills among learners.

KNOWLEDGE AND UNDERSTANDING

Tutors recognize:

a) The educational and curricular aims and targets for particular subjects and their

significance in instructional planning.

b) How to create strategies and use guidelines to harness reading, writing and

arithmetic skills at given levels of advancement with consideration for their

needs, growth rate and prior knowledge.

c) How to avail students with necessary resources and materials for instructional
 planning incorporating instructional technology to enhance attention and thinking

capacity among students.

d) Developing diversified instructional approaches, instructional procedure

materials and environments and application of varying tools to enhance thinking

and comprehension.

e) How extra-school activities impact on learning i.e. homework.

f) Class room management and have general and specific know-how of tutoring in

given subjects and fields.

DISPOSITIONS

Tutors know the importance of:

a) Achieving curricular targets and aims..

b) Advancing critical thinking, solution readiness and performance capabilities

among learners.

c) Enhancing collaboration among students along with the pedagogy of care.

d) Teamwork and cooperative learning.

e) Different methods for solving problems

PERFOMANCE AND SKILLS

Teachers interact with students to:

a) Outline and plan tuition suitable to the advancement stages, learning techniques,

gifts and needs of the student.

b) Apply knowledge of classroom, school, community and culture to plan

instruction.

c) Test teaching tools and curriculum assets for their ease of use, precision and

practicality in advancing given ideas and concepts.

 d) Create assignments and extra-curricular activities to speed up, improve and

merge learning among students.

e) Mark out schemes to create lessons that put the subject contents into perspective

for students, use various learning methods, motivate students to pursue their

interests, and to link their knowledge to personal goals.

f) Creating and advancing effective lessons by planning tutorial activities and

materials, incorporating diversity in the society and technological tools to

enhance attainment of learning targets.

g) Apply prescribed and customized methods of evaluation, learner knowledge,

tutorial know-how, and research as medium for deliberation, testing and revision.

h) Establish routine inter-field symposiums to let learners accumulate experience,

skills and styles of inquiry from several different disciplines.

PRINCIPLE 5: ASSESSMENTS
Tutors gauge learners’ comprehension through several examination methods and

translate results to check and encourage learners’ success and to customize tuition to

ensure continuous advancement among them.

KNOWLEDGE AND UNDERSTANDING

Tutors recognize that:

a) Evaluating how students learn, what they know and can do, and what sort of

experiences will enhance growth and development through testing tools such as

criterion-referenced and norm-referenced tools, traditional standardized and

performance based tests observation systems and assessment of student work.

b) Applying examination outcomes to gauge and advance quality tutoring and

understanding.

c) The measurement theory and measurement oriented disputes i.e. Rationality,

 consistency, bias and tallying problems.

DISPOSITIONS

Tutors should:

a) Apply learning outcomes and deficiencies as foundation for growth and

opportunities to learn.

b) Provide fair, objective examination and reporting to learners and families.

c) Analyze and provide constructive feedback on student performance. d)

PERFORMANCE AND SKILLS

Tutors interact with learners to:

a) Create and use tests tutor-written continuous internal assessment of learner

knowledge and abilities at the various levels of their education

b) Assess learner accomplishment from various data resources in order to customize

future strategies and tutorial styles that advance satisfying learner results.

c) Develop and apply objective assessment tools to measure student progress and to

avail constructive feedback to students on their learning and encourage them to

use data and self-evaluation strategies to monitor their progress in achieving their

personal goals.

d) To file and avail to parents and professional staff assessment data of the ongoing

achievements of the student.

e) Provide extra-curricular training and occasions for students to engage in objective

self-evaluation.

PRINCIPLE 6: LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

Tutors foster an up building and respectful learning environment that promotes positive

social interactions, personal motivation and an active participation in learning.

KNOWLEDGE AND UNDERSTANDING

Teachers understand:

a) The learning process within classrooms

b) The classroom environment, framework and principles of effective classroom

management that enhance positive relationships, cooperation and objective

learning activities in the classroom, and how they impact on the learning process

and behavior.

c) How engaging students in the classroom supports their commitment to learning.

DISPOSITIONS

Tutors are expected to:

a) Teach students to influence each other’s learning progress and the significance of

peer relationships in fostering an ethical learning environment.

b) Establish a warm participatory environment both in the classroom and the whole

school.

c) Teach and apply democratic values in the school.

PERFOMANCE AND SKILLS

Tutors should:
a) Create and share classroom management and discipline strategy.

b) Foster a positive socially, emotionally and physically safe classroom

environment.
 c) Develop and maintain proper standards of competition.

d) Efficient and effective use of instructional time.

e) Promote a calm and unified learning community with students let accountable for

themselves and each other, engage in decision making and work together and

independently and practicing effective communication skills

f) Prepare and monitor students for individual and group work that allows for full

and varied participation of every learner.

PRINCIPLE 7: EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION AND PROFICIENT USE OF

INFORMATION COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES

Teachers share collaboration and support with students and parents by using effective

verbal, non-verbal and written communication styles and instruments of information

dispensation to enhance their learning. Teachers can apply instructional and information

communication technologies to shape the curriculum teach and evaluate learning

outcomes.

KNOWLEDGE AND UNDERSTANDING

Tutors should recognize:

a) The significance of written, verbal and non- verbal communication in the process

of teaching and learning.

b) Utilization and integration of technologies such as operating systems and

research, word processing, filing, data storage and information exhibition

programs in classroom and laboratory settings.

c) Application of computers as instructional, research and evaluation instruments

and use various technical tools in the classroom such as art work, camera, phones
 etc.

DISPOSITIONS

Tutors are expected to:

a) Acknowledge the cultural diversity in communication, respond appropriately and

promote cultural-sensitive communication among students.

b) Listen keenly and respond to varying issues and opinions within the classroom

and to teach students to be appreciative of them.

c) Utilize all available education and information technologies to promote various

teaching and learning aspects.

PERFOMANCE AND SKILLS

Tutors interact with students to:

a) Encourage reflective reading in Urdu/English and clear and eloquent

Communication by applying suitable verbal and written expressions.

b) Applying typical, practical communication and inquiry tactics to share thoughts

and improve on decisive thinking

c) Display thoughtfulness to traditional, linguistic, sex and social disparities through

different communication techniques.

d) Encourage precise reporting and sharing of facts, opinions and beliefs.

e) Create and utilize student report cards.

f) Merge new information with lesson plans.

g) Supplementary use of various databases along with relevant textbooks.

h) Create online student folders, test tools, tasks and evaluation.

PRINCIPLE 8: COLLABORATION AND PARTNERSHIPS

Tutors create lasting links with parents, guardians, families and professional bodies

within the society.

KNOWLEDGE AND UNDERSTANDING

Tutors recognize:

a) The importance of working interactions at school or home and their contribution

to high quality learning and teaching.

b) The niche in the society and how to make partnerships to benefit student learning

progress and advancement.

c) The means to effective collaboration with parents, experts and the society in

general.

DISPOSITIONS

Tutors should:

a) Acknowledge roles of the guardians and family members in the student’s life and

cooperate with them to enhance the overall learning environment for the student.

b) Showing overall concern in the learners’ health and life along with guardians or

families to contribute to the learners’ achievement.

c) Enable physical, mental and social advancement of learners by cooperative

learning and association with societal bodies.

PERFOMANCE AND SKILLS

Tutors interact with students to:

a) Foster links between schools and businesses industries and community agencies

and cooperative, yielding relationships with diverse families, educators and the
 community in general to promote student learning and well-being and career

development.

b) Recognize and utilize family and communal assets to enable comprehension and

avail occasions for parents to convey skill and gifts that enhance learning.

c) Accumulation of knowledge from the society to improve the quality of lessons

and study projects.

PRINCIPLE 9: CONTINUOUS PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND CODE

OF CONDUCT

Tutors are dynamic, accountable members of the professional society, who engage in

reflective practices; reach out for prospects to advance in their profession and foster

mutual relations to improve the tutoring and learning process. They are partisan to a

professional code of conduct.

KNOWLEDGE AND UNDERSTANDING

Tutors recognize:
a) What a professional code of conduct requires of them.

b) Those educational studies along with various inquisition styles are beneficial for

continuous learning, self-evaluation and professional advancement.

c) What a professional code of conduct requires of them, and to demonstrate

an inventive and innovative spirit in tutoring.

d) Establishment and maintenance of a personal professional portfolio.

DISPOSITIONS

Tutors should:

e) Establish and promote practices that address needs of the student school and

community.

a) Engage in professional reflection, evaluation and learning as a continuous

 process.

b) Cooperate, collaborate and encourage each other by sharing successful

experiences. PERFOMANCE AND SKILLS

Teachers take part in activities with students to:

a) Utilize the Professional Development Standards and reflective practices to set

personal goals in their professional development plans.

b) Expand their knowledge through professional education organizations.

c) Foster productive learning environment through engaging in co-curricular

activities and promote ethical practices in their teaching and assessment.

d) Seek and value advice and opinions from other parties and research on improving

their service.

PRINCIPLE 10: TEACHING OF ENGLISH AS SECOND LANGUAGE

Tutors appreciate teaching of English as second language and effective communication

in English.

KNOWLEDGE AND UNDERSTANDING

Tutors recognize:
e) The role of English language in Pakistan.

a) The aims of tutoring English as a subject at national level and applying it as a

tutorial tool.

b) The challenges of tutoring English as the second language, specific learning

challenges i.e. Second Language Impairment (SLI) and strategies to enhance

English communication skills.

c) The framework of the English language, methods of teaching and stages in the

learning process.
DISPOSITIONS

Teachers are expected to:

a) Reduce bias and anxiety in learning ESL/EFL.

b) Tackle all and specific challenges in ESL/EFL

PERFOMANCE AND SKILLS

Teachers are expected to:

c) Teach simple English language with the supportive use of Urdu for effective

learning experiences.

d) Outline, analyze and tackle specific learning difficulties in English language by

creating sessions for choral reading, descriptive writing and spoken English.

e) Facilitate gradual communication in English via natural language acquisition i.e.

reading, writing, listening and speaking.

f) Create sessions for choral reading, descriptive writing and spoken English.

g) Use of ESL/EFL learning theories, rules and pedagogy.

4.3 Primary Education in Pakistan

As stated earlier, the Ministry of Education oversees the education system in Pakistan at

federal as well as in provinces. Each province has their provincial education ministries.

The federal education ministry helps provincial governments in curriculum development,

financing research and development in education and accreditation of education which

provinces are going to adopt. It is the responsibility of the state to provide free and

compulsory education to children of age 5-9 years old. According to the 1973

Constitution, Article 25-A:

“The State shall provide free and compulsory education to all children of the age of five to

sixteen years in such a manner as may be determined by law”

The education in Pakistan is mainly divided in to five levels namely (1) primary (grades

one- five); (2) middle (grades 6-8); (3) High (grades 9 and 10 leading to Secondary

School Certificate or SSC); (4) intermediate (grades 11 and 12 leading to obtain Higher

Secondary School Certificate or HSSC); and (5) university education (grades 14 and

above leading to get undergraduate and graduate degrees).

 CHAPTER V: FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5. Introduction

This chapter presents findings and recommendations. The chapter is consists of two

sections.

Section 6.1 presents findings of the study whereas section 6.2 presents recommendations

of the study.

5.2. Findings of the study

This study contributes to the literature on teachers’ training. It is first large scale study on

SAT based data in the Sindh province of Pakistan. As no earlier research was done on

SAT data therefore it was first of its kind and filled the gap.

The results did not support the hypothesis therefore hypothesis was rejected.

5.3. Recommendations (Practical & theoretical)

Teachers are trained but their training gains are not transferred to students to improve

their academic performance.

Based on research findings, it is recommended:

a) To focus on transfer of training / training’ result of teachers so that students could

be benefited from teachers’ training.

b) To develop the training program that starts from need assessment to post-training

follow-ups and assurance to training gains transfer to job.

c) Training programs for teachers should be designed keeping in view students as

ultimate beneficiary.
d) Customized training programs should be designed for different teachers keeping

in view their need assessment; one for all approach should be discontinued.

e) At the end of training program, the participants (teachers) should be asked in

writing how they will transfer training gains to their job/students and this write-

up should be used for follow up and ensuring the training gains are transferred to

the students.

f) The government should focus on general motivational and soft skills

(Communication Skills) building training with content focused trainings for

teachers.

g) The government should reward the teachers who transfer training gains to

students and punish to those who do not .

h) Teachers’ evaluation by students should be started in government schools to get

feedback of students on teachers’ performance in the class.

i) The training program should be based on Program Learning Outcomes (PLOs)

approach where PLOs should be set according to need assessment and

communicated in advance to the participants and should be ensured these are

achieved.

j) Government should allocate training budget into three parts (1) Conduct of

training program (2) Follow-Ups to ensure training gains transfers to students (3)
 Reward to those who transfer training gains to students.

5.4. Limitations & Future Research Call

The study used only one year /test data, the longitude study covering more than one

year/test data is advised to see the impact on long run.

not least, the terrorism is also one of the factors hindering the enrolment of students in

general and girls in specific in rural areas like Head Rajkan.

5.5. Recommendations of the study

Keeping this research in view, following are some recommendation,

1. The primary education needs political attentions. It needs proper financial

resources to overcome the financial crisis which the primary education is facing.

Therefore, the government needs to allocate proper budgetary support.

2. As there is insufficient number of teachers in primary schools, therefore, the

number of primary teachers needs to be increased. The government needs to

recruitment specialized areas teachers.

3. Moreover, the government needs to make arrangements for the training of the

existing teachers on continuous basis.

4. In order to increase the working capacity of the primary education system, the

government is required to implement a proper system of accountability.

5. There is need for proper implementation of policies, rules and procedures to

eradicate corruption from primary schools system.

6. In order to ensure the quality of education, the examination and evaluation

system need to be improved to meet the needs of changing curriculum.

7. In order to perform their teaching duties, the teacher must be free from political

control. The teacher need to be professionally independent and the political

 interference in the system need to be eliminated completely.

8. In order to improve positive image of the education system, the corruption needs

to be eliminated.

9. The medium of instruction needs to be improved. For this purpose the teachers

must be provided training in English and Urdu languages.

10. In order to motivate teachers, there must be introduced financial and social
benefits.

The salaries of teachers need to be increased, so that they effectively perform

their duties without doing extra jobs.

11. The conditions of schools need to be improved.

12. In order to protect the schools from the terrorist attacks, schools need to be

provided securities so that parents may send their children to schools without any

fear.
Bibliography

Abbasi, W. (2013) Over 1,200 ghost schools found all over the country; International

The News (news paper).

Adams, T. (1998). Prospective elementary teachers’ mathematics subject matter

knowledge:

The real number system. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 20, 35-48.

Ahmed, A. (2013) ‘Ghost Schools’ cause leakage of billions: report; Dawn newspaper
report.

Alderman H., Behrman, J., Khan S, Ross D., and Sabot R, (1996) “Decomposing the

Gender Gap in Cognitive Skills in Rural Pakistan,” Journal of Asian Economics 15.4 :

36-57.

American Federation of Teachers (2000). Building a profession: Strengtheningteacher

preparation and induction (Report of the K-12 Teacher Education Task Force).

Washington,

D. C.: Author.

Ashraf, M. (1983). An evaluation of existing supervision practices in Pakistan. (pp. 120-

126).

Ball, D. L. (1990). Prospective elementary and secondary teachers’ understanding of

division.

Journal of Research in Mathematics Education, 21, 132-144.

Ballou, D. & Podgursky, M. (2000). Reforming teacher preparation and licensing: What is

the Evidence? Teachers College Record, 102, 28-56.

Bilquess, F. and Saqib, N. (2004) Drop-out and inter-school movements: evidence from

panel data: Pakistan Institute of Development Economics, Islamabad

Borman, G. D. & Kimball, S.M. (2005). Teacher quality and educational quality: do

teachers with higher standards based evaluation rating close students achievements gap?

The elementary school journal, 106(1), 23-37.

Bregman, J. & Muhammad, N. (1998). Primary and secondary education structural

issues.(pp. 23-31) Islamabad: Jan Publications.

British Council (The) (1988). Survey on Teacher Training in Pakistan. Islamabad: The

British Council Educational Contracts Department Overseas development Authority.

BROWNING, L. & BOUDES, T. 2005. The Use of Narrative to Understand and

Respond to complexity: A Comparative Analysis of the Cynefin and Weikian

Models. E:CO Issue, 7, 35-42.

BRYMAN, A. 1989. Research methods and organization studies, London, Unwin Hyman.

CAMPBELL, T. 1997. Technology, multimedia, and Qualitative Research in Education.

Journal of Research on Computing in Education 30, 122-132.

CAVANA, R. Y., DELAHAYE, B. L. & SEKARAN, U. 2001. Applied Business

Research: Qualitative and Quantitative Methods, Milton, Queensland, John

Wiley & Sons Australia.

Chaurd, D adn Mingat, A. (1996) An analysis of dropout and student laeving in primary

education in Pakistan. Asian Development Bank, Manila

Christle, C. A., Jolivette, K., & Nelson, C. M, (2007) “School Characteristics Related to
High School Dropout Rates: Remedial and Special Education,” Educational Review 28.3

(2007): 325-339.

CLONTS, J. G. 1992. The Concept of Reliability as it Pertains to Data from Qualitative

Studies. Paper prsented at the annual meeting of the Southwest Educational

Research Assosiation, Houston, TX, January 30, 1992.

Coburn, J. & Nelson, S, (1989) “Teachers do make a difference: What Indian graduates say

about their school experience,” Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory 14 : 135-143.

CRESWELL, J. W. 2003. Research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods

approaches, Thousand Oaks, Calif., Sage Publications.

CROKER, L. & ALGINA, J. 1986. Introduction to Classical and Modern Test Theory,

Toronto: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, Inc.

Debbie Blue and Jennifer E. Cook, (2004) “High School Dropouts: Can We Reverse the

Stagnation in School Graduation?” (PhD Thesis, University of Texas, Dept. of Education).

Deyhle, D, (1989) “Pushouts and pullouts: Navajo and Ute school leavers,” Journal of

Navajo Education 6.2 (1989): 36-51.

EASTERBY-SMITH, M., THORPE, R. & LOWE, A. 2002. Management research,

London, Sage.

EISNER, E. W. 1998. The Enlightened eye: Qualitative Inquiry and the Enhancement of

Educaitonal Pratice, PrenticeHall

Farooq, R .A. (1993). Education system of Pakistan: Issues and Problems. Asia society for

promotion of Innovation and Reforms in Education. Islamabad: Pakistan (pp.10-20).

Farooq, R. A. (1990). A Survey Study of Teacher Training in Pakistan. Islamabad:

Academy of Educational Planning and Management, Ministry of Education.

Farooq, Shahid, (2006) “The Persistence of High School Dropout Rates in the Rural
Southern

Punjab, 2000-2006” (PhD Thesis, Punjab

GLESNE, C. 1999. Becoming Qualitative Researchers: An Introduction, Don Mills,

Ontario, Canada: Longman.

GOLAFSHANI, N. 2003. Understanding Reliability and Validity in Qualitative

Research.

The Qualitative Report, 8, 597-607 available at

http://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/QR8-

4/golafshani.pdf retrived date: 03-10-2010.

Government of Pakistan (1998). National Education Policy 1998-2010. Islamabad:

Ministry of Education.

Government of Pakistan (2001). Technical group Meeting on devolution and

decentralization, implementation for the education sector. Ministry of Education,

Islamabad, Pakistan.

Government of Pakistan, (1973) The 1973 Constitution, Article 37 (b) & (c). Hidaya

Foundation Pakistan, (2005). Available athttp://www.hidaya.org/education.

Government of Pakistan, (2010) “Economic Survey of Pakistan,” Education, (2010): 145-

159.

Government of Punjab (2002). Examination and continuous assessment. Lahore:

Directorate of Staff Development.

Government of Punjab. (2004). Standard Manual, Elementary, Seondary and Higher

Secondary Schools. Education Department, Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan, pp. 10.

Hayes, L. D. (1987). The crises of education in Pakistan. Lahore: Vanguard Books.

Holmes,J, (2003) ”Measuring the Determinants of School Completion in Pakistan:

Analysis of Censoring and Selection Bias,” Economics of Education Review 24: 7-19

Hoodbhoy, P. (1998) Education and the State: Fifty Years of Pakistan. Karachi: Oxford

University Press.

HOPPER, T. & POWELL, A. 1985. Making Sense of Research into the Organzational

and Social Aspects of Management Accounting: A Reveiw of its Underlying

Assumptions. Journal of Management Studies, 22, 429-465.

Hussain, S. A. (2001). Education in Pakistan. Allama Iqbal Open University. Islamabad,

Pakistan pp.1-12.

Illahi, M. A. (1986). The role of the heads of secondary schools. (pp. 12-22).

(Unpublished thesis) Allama Iqbal Open University, Islamabad. Pakistan,.

Jamil Asif, Atta Amer Malik, Baloch Jalil-ur-Rehman, Danish Ehsanullah, Younis

Muhammad and Siddiq Saiqa, (2010) “Parents’ and Teachers’ Comprehension on

Determinants of Early School Dropouts,” World Applied Science Journal 11.12: 1488-

1493.

Jan, F. A., Nazakat, A. I. and Abdul. Q, (2002) “Marketing Aspect of Higher Education,”

Journal of Education & Research 5.1: 1-4.

Joubish F. Muhammad and Khurram A. Muhammad, (2011) “Determining the Factors

Influencing Dropout in Government Primary Schools of Karachi,” Middle-East Journal

of Scientific Research 7.3: 417-420.

Kemal A.R. and Ather Maqsood Ahmed (2002), An Analysis of Dropout of Primary

School Students in Pakistan. Pakistan Institute of Development Economics (PIDE) May

2000.

Khalid, T. (1998). Education: An introduction to educational philosophy and history. (pp.

22- 35). Islamabad: National Book Foundation.

Khan, M. A. (1998). An appraisal of supervisory practices in the schools of district Attock.

(Unpublished thesis), University of Arid Agriculture, Head Rajkan, Pakistan. pp.33-45.

Khan, M. S. (1980). Educational Administration. (pp.23-34). New Delhi: Ashish

Publishing House.

Khan, N. I. (1992). Evaluation of the administrative structure of high (secondary) schools

in Punjab. (Unpublished thesis). (pp.11-22). The University of Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan.

KING, G., KEOHANE, R. O. & VERBA, S. 1994. Designing social inquiry: scientific

inference in qualitative research, Princeton, N.J., Princeton University Press.

KITAO, S. K. & KITAO, K. 2002. Approaches to social Science research:

Communication and language Teaching/ Learning, Eichosha, Kusaka Bldg., 2-28

Kanda Jimbocho, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 101-0051.

KUHN, T. S. 1996. The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, Chicago and London, The

University of Chicago.
Kukreti, B.R. and M. Saxena, (2004) “Dropout Problems Among Students at School
Level,”

Kurukshetra 52.11: 26-30. Lahore: Pakistan.

LINCOLN, Y. S. & DENZIN, N. K. 2008. The Landscape of qualitative research,

Thousand Oaks, Calif., Sage.

LINCOLN, Y. S. & GUBA, E. G. 1985. Naturalistic inquiry, Beverly Hills, Calif., Sage.

Malik M. Zahid, (2000) “Causes of Dropout in Primary School,” Pakistan Journal of

Applied

Sciences 2.6: 646-648.

Malik, S. R. (1991). The system of education in Pakistan. (pp. 13-20). Islamabad:

National Book Foundation.

MARSHALL, C. & ROSSMAN, G. B. 1999. Designing qualitative research,

Thousand Oaks, Calif., Sage Publications.

MATHISON, S. 1988. Why Triangulation. Educational Research?, 17, 13-17.

Mohanty, B. (1990). School administration and supervision. (pp. 20-33). New Delhi:

Deep and Deep Publication.

Muhammad, M. (2002). Decentralization of education system in Sind A critical review.

(pp. 10-18). Islamabad: Ministry of Education, Pakistan.

Nidhi Kotwal, Neelima and sheetal Rani, (2007) “Causes of School Dropouts among Rural

girls in Kathua District” J. Hum. Ecol. 22.1: 57-59.

Patton, M. Q. (1987). How to use qualitative methods in evaluaiton, sage publications

Kouritzin, Sandra, G. Nathalie, A. Piquenmal, and Norman, R. (209). Qualitative

research: challenging the orthodoxies in standard academic discouse (s). New York and

London: Routledge

PATTON, M. Q. 2002. Qualitative research & evaluation methods, Thousand Oaks,

Calif., Sage Publications.

PILdAT, (2010) “Financing Quality Basic Education For All in Pakistan,” Briefing
Paper

No.38. Available at:

http://www.pildat.org/Publications/publication/EFA/Financing

QualityBasicEducationforAllinPakistan-BriefingPaper.pdf

Pillai.N.S.R.and Bagavathi, (2005) “Statistics: Chi Square Test”. S. Chand Publisher

India,2005. 802-820.

Platero, P. R., Brandt, E. A., (1986) Witherspoon, G. & Wong, P., “Causes and

Consequences of High School Dropout,” Educational Review, 10.3: 111-126.

Qureshi, S. (2002). Decentralization to district level. (pp. 31-40). Islamabad: Ministry of

Education, Pakistan.

Rasheed, M. (2004). Educational administration and supervision. (pp. 145-166).

Islamabad: Allama Iqbal Open University.

Rehman, J. U. (2002). Devolution and decentralization: Identification of progress in

implementation in education. (pp. 233-240). Islamabad: Ministry of Education, Pakistan.

REMENYI, D., WILLIAMS, B., MONEY, A. & SWARTZ, E. 1998. Doing Research in

Business and Management: An Introduction to Process and Method, London, Sage.

Sathar, Z.A. and C.B. Lloyd (1994), “Who Gets Primary Schooling in Pakistan:

Inequalities Among and Within Families.” Pakistan Development Review , Vol.33 No.2.

pp.103-134.

Swada (1997), “Human Capital Investments in Pakistan: Implications of Micro

Evidence from Rural Households”, Pakistan Development Review 36(4).

Swada Yasayuki and Michael Lokshin (2001), “Household Schooling Decisions in Rural

Pakistan”. Policy Research Working paper series no.2541. The World Bank, Washington

D.C.

Saleem, M. (2002). Facts and figures. (pp. 07-10). Islamabad: Agha Khan Gee Printers.

Shah, D. (2003). Decentralization in the education system of Pakistan: Policies

andstrategies. (pp. 18-23). Islamabad: Academy of educational Planning Management,

Pakistan.

Shahzadi, R. & Perveen, K. (2002). An Evaluation of new educational structure.

(Unpublished thesis). (pp. 65-68). The University of Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan.

Sheikh, M. & Rasool, M. G. (1998). Allied Material for Teacher Education in Pakistan.

(pp. 40-48). Islamabad: AIOU.

Sherman, R. Z. & Sherman, J. D. (1990) “Dropout prevention strategies for the 1990s

(Draft Copy),” Washington, DC: Pelavin Associates, Inc.

Siddique, S. A. (1990). Teacher Education in Pakistan. National Training Workshop on

Educational Planning and Management for Principals of Teachers Training Institutions,

AEPAM, Islamabad, Pakistan, Ministry of Education. (pp. 17-19).

Stearns, E., & Glennie, E. J, (2006) “When and Why Dropouts Leave High School,” Youth
&

Society 38.29: 29-57.

Stephen McCutcheon, “Education in Pakistan,” (2007), available at

http://www.r4e.org/education.
Umoh, S.H, (1986) “Comparative Study of Perception of School Dropout by Principal and
in

Selected School in Kwara State,” The Nig. J. Guidance Counseling 2: 15-25.

UNESCO-CDRB, (2002) “A Study of Girls Dropouts and Non-Completion of Program in

the

Primary and Secondary,” Education in Bangladesh.

UNICEF, “The EFA Assessment Country Report Pakistan” (2000). USAID, Innovating

Pakistan’s Education Sector, Availableat,

http://thinkchangepakistan.wordpress.com/2011/03/05/innovating-pakistans-education-

sector/ on 25/05/2011.Weighted, average, available at:

WAINER, H. & BRAUN, H. I. 1988. Test Validity, new Jersey, Lawrence Erlbaum

Associates, Inc., Publishers 365 Broadway.

WIEVIORKA, M. 1992. Case Studies: History or Sociology. In: RAGIN, C. & BECKER,
H.

S. (eds.) What is case?: Exploring the Foundations of social Inquiry Cambridge:

University Press, 159-172.

WINTER, G. 2000. A Comparative Discussion of the Notion of Validity in Qualitative

and Quantitative Research. The Qualitative Report, 3.

World Bank (1989), Women in Pakistan: An Economic and Social Strategy, World Bank,
Washington D.C.

YIN, R. K. 2009. Case study research: design and methods, Los Angeles, Sage.

Zafar, M. (2003). Fiscal devolution in education. Case study reflecting initial responses.

(pp. 34-41). Islamabad: Ministry of education, Pakistan.

Appendix-Questionnaire
1. Name------- Education-----

2. Number of children monthly income

3. Are all you children going to school?

4. How you feel that your children go/not go to school?

5. What are barriers for sending children to schools?

6. Do you children go to school in school bus?

7. Who is dropping and picking children from school?

8. Why are your children not going to school?

9. Do you children help in making earning?

10. Do you feel any barrier (social or culutral) for sending children to school?

11. What you think about providing secular eduction to your children?

12. What is your opinion about current education system?

13. Are you satisfied with teaching quality?

14. Do you feel any constraints from religion while sending your children to schools?

15. How is your communication with teachers?

16. Do you feel any threat while sending your children to shcools?

For teachers

1. Why are parents not enrolling their children in schools?

2. Do you have training opportunities?

3. Are you satisfied with your job?

4. Do you have enough facilities in your schools?

5. Do you feel any threat from terrorists?

6. How is your relations with your supervisors?

7. Do you fully understand the educational policy and its objectives?

8. Are you provided training when educational policy change?